4.

0 MODERN PHYSICS
4.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Objectives
By the end of the subtopic, learners should be able to:
1. Describe qualitatively the α - particle scattering experiment and the evidence it provides
for the existence and small size of the nucleus.
2. Use the usual notation of the presentation of nuclides.
3. Show an appreciation of the association between energy and mass as represented by
E=m c .
2

4. Illustrate graphically the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number.
5. Describe the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear
fission.
6. Verify that nucleon number, proton number, energy and mass are all conserved in
nuclear processes.
7. Represent simple nuclear reactions by nuclear equations of the form
14 4 17 1
7 N + 2He → 8O+ 1 H
Nuclear model of the atom
 Rutherford’s particle scattering experiment led to the model of the atom with a
central positively charged nucleus.
 The nucleus is virtually the mass of the atom. The small negative charge surrounds the
nucleus (electrons).
 In his experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with particles and studied
the deflection of the particles as they emerged or bounced off the foil.

Fig. 4.3.1: Rutherford alpha scattering apparatus.

 From the experiment it was found that:

o Most of the α-particles passed straight through without been deflected. This
indicated the small size of the nucleus.
o 1 in 10 000 of the α-particles were deflected an angle above 90o. These he used to
estimate the size of the nucleus.

Subatomic particles
 The nucleus contains the protons and neutrons, with the protons positively charged
while the neutrons have no charge.
 The nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
 A nuclide is the nucleus of an atom of an element with a specific nucleon number and
specific proton number.
 The nuclide is written in the following notation:
A
ZX

Where A is the nucleon number; Z is the proton number and X is the chemical symbol of
the element.
 For example the carbon-12 nuclide:

12
C 6

 From the carbon -12 nuclide above, the nucleon number is 12 meaning that there are 12
nucleons. There are 6 protons; hence the nuclide has 6 neutrons.
 If atoms of an element have different nucleon numbers, these are called isotopes.
 Example of isotopes:

12 14
6 C 6 C
Carbon – 12 carbon – 14
 The isotopes have the same number of protons but the number of neutrons is not the
same making the nucleon number different.

Einstein’s mass –energy equation

 Matter has energy locked up in it by virtue of its mass. Einstein showed that this energy
is directly proportional to its mass.
E∝m
 Einstein produced the mass – energy equation:
2
E=m c

Where c is the speed of light 3.0 ×10 8 m s−1.

 From the equation if we consider the change in mass of matter to bring about a change
in energy that is:
2
∆ E=∆ mc
This means:
o When energy is supplied to matter or a system, they increase in mass.
o As matter or a system releases energy, mass is also lost.
 If matter or a system is stationary (motionless). Its mass (called the rest mass) is less
than when it is moving.

Mass – energy of the atom

 The mass of an atom (atomic mass) is expressed as the unified atomic mass unit(mu ).

1 12 −27
1 m u= mass of 6C =1.66 × 10 kg
12

 Using Einstein equation

 −1 2
kg × ( 3.0 ×10 m s ) =1.49 ×10
−27 8 −10
1 mu=1.66 ×10 J

∴ 1 mu =932 MeV

 The relative atomic mass(mr ) of an atom is the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an
element to the mu.

mass of atom
mr =
mu
 The table below shows atomic mass of some atoms and elementary particles of the
atom.

Table 4.3.1: Atomic masses of atoms and elementary particles

Atomic number,
Symbol Mass number, A Atomic mass/mu
Z
Proton p 1 1 1.00728
Neutron n 0 1 1.00867
Electron e -1 0 0.00055
Hydrogen H 1 1 1.00783
Helium He 2 4 4.00260
Carbon C 6 12 12.00000

Mass defect

 The isotope of hydrogen, deuterium 21 H has an atomic mass of 2.01410mu.

 Calculating the mass of the elementary particles that make up hydrogen:

1 proton: 1 ×1.00728 mu
1 neutron: 1 × 1.00867mu
1 electron: 1 ×0.00055 mu
Total mass= 2.01650 mu

 The difference in mass is:

2.01650 mu−2.01410 mu=0.0024 mu

 The mass defect is :

 mass defect =mass of nucleons−mass nucleus

 The mass defect, ∆ m, is given by the equation:

∆ m=[∑ m p + ∑ mn + ∑ me −m A ]

Where: m p is mass of proton; mn is mass of neutron; me is mass of electron and m A is the

atomic mass.

 The mass defect represents the energy lose that puts the nucleons at a lower energy
level allowing them to bind using the nuclear forces (strong force).
 The difference in energy between the nucleons in the nucleus and the separate
nucleons is called the binding energy(∆ E) .

Binding energy
 This is the energy that is released when protons and neutrons combine to form the
nucleus of an atom.
 It is equally the same energy that would be required to completely separate the nucleus
into its individual nucleons.
 Note:
o Binding energy of the nucleus is not energy stored in the nucleus, but it is the
energy that must be used to separate a nucleus or energy that is released during
the formation of the nucleus.
o Binding energy of the atom is the energy needed to separate the atom to its
component neutrons, protons and electrons.
 From Einstein’s equation, any system that releases energy the equation ∆ E=∆ mc 2
applies.
 If ∆ m is the mass defect, and ∆ E is the binding energy,
∆ E=[ ∑ mp + ∑ mn + ∑ me −mA ] c
2

Example 4.3.1

If the mass defect of deuterium is 0.0024 mu . Calculate its binding energy.

∆ E=∆ mc 2=( 0.0024 mu × 1.66 ×10−27 ) kg(3.0 ×10 8 m s−1 )2=3.59 ×10−13 J

Note that the mass should be converted to kg from mu.

−13
−13 3.59 ×10 J
3.59 ×10 J = −19
=2.24 MeV
1.6 ×10
  From Example 4.3.1, the binding energy is for the two nucleons in 21 H . Therefore the
binding for each nucleon in 21 H is:
2.24 MeV
= =1.12MeV
2
 The binding energy for each nucleon is called the binding energy per nucleon. This is
used to measure the nucleus stability.
 If the binding energy for each element is determined and plotted against the mass
number a graph as shown in Fig. 4.3.2 is produced.

Fig. 4.3.2: The binding energy per nucleon.

 From the graph, it is important to note the following:

o Elements with greater binding energy per nucleon have nucleons tightly bound
together (more stable nucleus).
o The smaller nuclei generally have lower binding energies per nucleon.
o Iron isotope at the peak of the graph has the greatest value of the binding energy
per nucleon, meaning that it the most stable isotope in nature.

Binding energy and nuclear physics

 The binding energy graph can be used to identify the nuclear process that would likely
occur to unstable atoms (fission, fusion or radioactive decay).

Fission
 Occurs when the nucleus of an unstable atom splits into smaller lighter nuclei.
 Usually fission will result to the formation of nuclei of greater binding energy per
nucleon (stable atoms) and the release of energy.
 Fission can be induced by bombarding the unstable nucleus with neutron. For example
uranium – 235 can absorb a neutron to split into krypton – 89 and barium – 144.

Fig. 4.3.3: The fission of uranium – 235

 From the binding energy graph fission is most likely to occur to nuclei heavier than iron
– 56.
 The fission equation for the above reaction is write as:

235 1 89 144 1
92 U + 0n → 36 Kr + 56Ba +3 0n

 Note: the nucleon numbers on the left of the equation should balance with those on the
right hand side. Also the proton number balance.
 If the reactants and the products are conserved therefore the mass – energy of the
system is also conserved.

Fusion
 This is the formation of heavier nuclei from lighter nuclei.
 Fusion also results in the release of energy (fusion occurs in the sun when hydrogen fuse
to form helium to release energy).
 Fig. 4.3.4: Fusion of hydrogen isotopes to form helium as it occurs in the sun to release
energy.

 The fusion reaction equation for this reaction is:

2 3 4 1
1 H + 1 H → 2He + 0n

Example 4.3.2
The diagram below shows the binding energy graph (not to scale).

1. Mark on the graph with the letter T, the position where you would find a nucleus with
the greatest stability.
2. For the fission reaction below:

235 1 89 144 1
92 U + 0n → 36 Kr + 56Ba +3 0n
a. On the graph mark the possible position of:
i. Uranium – 235, label it U.
ii. Krypton – 89, label it Kr.
iii. Barium – 144, label it Ba.
b. The binding energy per nucleon for each nucleus is:
235 −12
92 U=1.2191 ×10 J
89 −12
36 Kr =1.3787 ×10 J
144 −12
56 Ba =1.3341× 10 J
Calculate:
i. the energy released in this reaction
ii. the mass equivalent to the energy released
c. Why are the neutrons not included in the calculation of the energy released?

1.

2.
a. Answer is on the graph.
b.
i.
[ ( 1.3787 × 10−12 J ×89 ) + ( 1.3341 ×10−12 J × 144 ) ]−( 1.2191 ×10−12 J × 235 )=2.8326 ×10−11 J
2
ii.
∆ E=∆ mc
−11
∆ E 2.8326 × 10 J −28
∆ m= 2 = 8 2
=3.147 ×10 kg
c (3.0 ×10 )
c. The neutrons are not bonded to the nucleus (they are single particles)
 For example when carbon reacts with oxygen (combustion) to produce carbon dioxide.
The mass of the reactants is not exactly equal to the product formed.
 The difference in mass shows that energy was released. This is the mass – energy
conservation.
 The rest mass of a proton is 1.67 ×10−27 kg (this is the same for a neutron).
 The rest mass of 126C is19.93 ×10−27 kg . The formation of the 126C nucleus means that:

12 nuclides combined = 12 × ( 1.67 ×10−27 kg ) =20.04 ×10−27 kg

Therefore the difference:
( 20.04 × 10−27 kg )−( 19.93 ×10−27 kg )=0.11×10−27 kg
This is the mass that was converted to energy and was released.