Chapter-13

Nuclei
Atomic mass/Unified mass(u)
The mass of atomic particles like protons, electrons, neutrons etc are measured in
unified mass(u).
1u = 1.66x10-27kg
Mass of proton = 1.672x10-27kg = 1.00782u
Mass of neutron = 1.674x10-27kg = 1.00866u
Mass of electron = 9.1x10-31kg = 0.00055u

Atomic Number and Mass Number

An atom can be represented as "!𝑋 Where Z is the atomic number and A is the mass number.

(i) Atomic Number(Z): The atomic number of an element is the number of protons
present inside the nucleus of an atom of the element.(For neutral atom it is equal to
the number of electrons)

(ii)Mass Number(A): The mass number of an element is the total number of protons
and neutrons(nucleons) present inside the nucleus of an atom of the element.

(A-Z): Number of neutrons

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with same atomic no but diff mass no. They
differ in the number of neutrons.
Example: Isotope of hydrogen ##𝐻, $#𝐻, %#𝐻,[ proton, deutron, triton]

Isobars: Atoms which have same mass number but different atomic number.
Example: "# "#
!!𝑁𝑎 and !"𝑀𝑔 are isobars

Isotones: Atoms whose nuclei have same number of neutrons but different atomic
number.
Example: %& %'
#&𝐶𝑙 and #'𝐾 are isotones.

Discovery of Neutrons
Chadwick discovered neutron as a neutral particle inside the nucleus with nearly
the same mass as that of the proton. mn = 1.67 x 10-27 kg. A free neutron is unstable
outside the nucleus and decays into a proton, electron and antineutrino.
Size of Nucleus and Nuclear Density:
(i)Size of nucleus: It has been found experimentally that the volume of a nucleus is
directly proportional to its mass number A. If R is the radius of the nucleus having
(
(mass number A, then , volume is % 𝜋𝑅% ).

(
%
𝜋𝑅% ∝ A

𝑅% ∝ A

R = R0A1/3

𝑅0 = 1.2x10-15m

𝑇he radius of the nucleus depends upon the mass number A. Therefore, atomic
nuclei of different elements have different sizes.(radius of the nucleus is in the order
of 1Fermi (fm))

1 fm = 10-15m

(ii)Nuclear Density: The ratio of the mass of the nucleus and its volume is called
nuclear density.

Let ‘m’ is the average mass of a nucleon , R is the nuclear radius and A is the mass
number of the element.

)*++ -. /01 234513+

Nuclear density = 6-53)1 -. /01 234513+

)" %)"
Nuclear density = ! = (78 "
78 "
"

%)" %)
= (7(8# " $/" )"
= (78#"

%;#.=;#>&'(
= (7 ; (#.$;#>&$) )"
= 2.3x1017kg/m3

Nuclear density is the same for all elements and is independent of mass number (A).
Mass - Energy

Einstein proved that mass is another form of energy and can be converted to other
forms of energy using the relation.

E = mc2 , where c is the speed of light in vacuum

It is expected that mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its individual
protons and neutrons. However nuclear mass is always less than this. The difference
in mass of nucleus and its constituents is called mass defect ∆m.

Mass defect, ∆m = [Zmp+(A-Z)mn]-M

M = actual mass of the nucleus

mp = mass of proton
mn = mass of neutron

2
To break the nucleus of an atom, an extra energy of Eb = ∆mc has to be supplied. If
a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to form a nucleus,
an energy of Eb is released. This energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
Binding energy per nucleon is denoted by Eb.

Relation between a.m.u and MeV

E= mc2
m = 1u = 1.66x10-27kg
E = 1.66x10-27(3x108)2 = 1.49x10-10J
#.(';#>&$#
E= #.=;#>&$*

= 931.5 MeV

Nuclear Binding Energy(Eb)

The total energy required to liberate all the nucleons from the nucleus (i.e,
separating the protons and neutrons of the nucleus infinite distance apart) is called
nuclear binding energy.

Binding Energy per nucleon of a nucleus:

Binding energy per nucleon is the average energy required to extract one nucleon
from the nucleus to infinite distance.

/-/*5 ?@2A@2B 121CBD

B.E/nucleon = )*++ 23)?1C
Binding Energy Curve

The curve between binding energy per nucleon and the mass number A for various
nuclei is called binding energy curve.

• Except for lighter nuclei (A<30), the average binding energy per nucleon is about
8MeV for all nuclei.
• The nuclei with A≅60 have large binding energy per nucleon and are also very
stable.
• The binding energy per nucleon is small for both light nuclei (A<30)and heavy
nuclei (A>170).
• The binding energy per nucleon is practically constant for nuclei of middle mass
number( A=between 30 and 170)

Importance of binding energy curve:

• The binding energy curve is an indicator of the stability of the nucleus. The greater
the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus, the more stable the nucleus is and
vice-versa.
• The binding energy per nucleon is smaller for heavier nuclei than the middle ones.
When a heavier nucleus splits into comparatively lighter nuclei, the binding energy
per nucleon will increase. The greater binding energy of the product nuclei results
in the liberation of energy. Thus, energy is released when a heavy nucleus breaks
into two middle mass number nuclei. This process is called nuclear fission.
• When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, the binding energy per
nucleon will increase. As a result, energy will be released. This process is called
nuclear fusion.
 Nuclear Force

• The force that binds the constituents of the nucleus is

called nuclear force.

• It is a strong attractive force. Nuclear force is much

stronger than the coulomb force acting between charges
and gravitational force.
• It is a short-range force. The nuclear force between two
nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more
than few fermtometres.
• Nuclear force is charge independent. The force between
n-n , p-p, n-p are the same. It is a non-central force.
• Potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of
their separation. For a separation greater than r0, the
force is attractive and for a separation less than r0, the force is repulsive.

Nuclear Energy:

It is the energy released during a nuclear reaction. Nuclear reactions can be

exploited to produce energy. They are of to types- Nuclear Fission and Nuclear
Fusion

Nuclear Fission :

The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei of smaller
atomic number with the release of larger amount of energy.

When a neutron strikes a uranium nucleus, it splits into barium, krypton and
3neutrons with the release of large amount of energy.

The fragment nuclei produced are highly neutron produced are highly neutron rich
and instable. They emit βparticles successively and reaches a stable end product.
Energy released by the fission of Uranium atom is 200MeV

Energy released during nuclear fission appears as kinetic energy of the fragments
and neutrons. Source of energy in a nuclear reactor is controlled nuclear fission.
 Examples for nuclear fission:

# $%E $%= #(( F'

>𝑛 + '$𝑈 ⟶ '$𝑈 ⟶ E=𝐵𝑎 + %= 𝐾𝑟 +3 #>𝑛

# $%E $%= #%% ''

>𝑛 + '$𝑈 ⟶ '$𝑈 ⟶ E#𝑆𝑏 + (# 𝑁𝑏 +4 #>𝑛
# $%E #(> '(
>𝑛 + '$𝑈 ⟶ E(𝑋𝑒 + %F 𝑆𝑟 +2 #>𝑛

Multiplication Factor(k): It is defined as the number of fission produced by a given

generation of neutrons to the number of fission of the preceeding generation.

C*/1 -. GC-A34/@-2 -. 213/C-2+

K= C*/1 -. 5-++ -. 213/C-2

k>1 - chain reaction grows-reactor is said to be supercritical.

k<1 - chain reaction gradually dies out-reactor is said to be subcritical.
k=1 - chain reaction remains steady-reactor is said to be critical.

Nuclear Fusion

The process by which two lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus with the
release of large amount of energy. When two nuclei approach each other to fuse, the
coulomb repulsion prevent them from getting close. The temperature at which protons
in a proton gas would have enough energy to overcome the coulomb barrier is about
3x109 kelvin. Hence nuclear fusion is also called thermonuclear fusion. Thus, for
thermonuclear fusion to take place, extreme conditions of temperature and pressure
are required which are available only in the interior of stars including sun.

The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the hydrogen is
burned into helium. Thus, the fuel in the sun is the hydrogen in its core. The proton-
proton (p, p) cycle by which this occurs is represented by the following set of
reactions.
#
#𝐻 + ##𝐻 ⟶ $#𝐻 + 𝑒 H + 𝜈 +0.42MeV

𝑒 H + 𝑒 I ⟶ 𝛾 + 𝛾 + 1.02MeV
$
#𝐻 + ##𝐻 ⟶ %$𝐻𝑒 + 𝛾+5.49MeV
%
$𝐻𝑒 + %$𝐻𝑒 ⟶ ($𝐻𝑒+ ##𝐻 + ##𝐻 +12.86MeV

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice, in which
case two light helium nuclei unite to form ordinary helium nucleus. If we consider
the combination 2(i) + 2(ii) + 2(iii) +(iv), the net effect is

4 ##𝐻 + 2𝑒 I + ⟶ ($𝐻𝑒+2𝜈 + 6𝛾 +26.7MeV

Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an ($𝐻𝑒 atom with a release of 26.7 MeV
of energy.

In the interior of the sun, four hydrogen atoms combine to form a helium atom. In 5
billion years, the sun's core will be largely helium. It will cool and the sun starts to
collapse under its own gravity. This will raise the core temperature and cause the
outer envelope to expand, turning the sun to a red giant.

Q-Value:

Q-Value for a reaction is the amount of energy absorbed /released during the nuclear
reaction.

It is the defined as the difference between the sum of the mass of the initial reactants
and the sum of the masses of the final products , in energy units (usually in MeV)

If Q is positive , energy is released – exothermic reaction(mass of reactant>mass of

product)

If Q is negative, energy is absorbed – endothermic reaction(mass of reactant< mass of

product).