PHY-1302 AAA

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Physics
Nuclear Physics is defined as the branch of physics deals with the structure of the atomic nucleus
and its interactions.
Difference Between Nuclear Physics and Atomic Physics
The main difference between nuclear physics and atomic physics is that nuclear physics deals with
the nucleus while atomic physics deals with an entire atom. More specifically, atomic physics deals
with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons. Nuclear physics deals with the
nucleus as a system consisting of nucleons (protons and neutrons).
Atomic physics concerns itself with the entire atom and how the electronic configuration of
electrons can change. When an atom loses an electron, it becomes positively charged (cations) and
when it gains an electron it becomes negatively charged (anions).
Nuclear Models
There are four nuclear models –
• Liquid drop model
• Shell model
• Collective model
• Optical model
Nucleons

Figure 1: The electrical force pushing protons apart and the strong force acting on both protons
and neutrons inside a nucleus.
Nucleon is the collective term for protons and neutrons. Nucleons are the particles found in
the nucleus of atoms. Most notably nucleons are a result of the strong force holding the atoms
together - which is stronger than the electric force pushing them apart (see figure 1). Through
a beta decay, the weak force can turn one nucleon into another nucleon - either protons to neutrons

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or neutrons to protons. Nucleons are incredibly small, about 10-15 m, 10,000 times smaller than an
atom!
Protons
A proton is one of three main particles that make up the atom. Protons are found in the nucleus of
the atom. This is a tiny, dense region at the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical
charge of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu), which is about 1.67×10−27 kg. Together
with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom.
Neutrons
Atoms of all elements - except for most atoms of hydrogen - have neutrons in their nucleus. Unlike
protons and electrons, which are electrically charged, neutrons have no charge - they are
electrically neutral. That's why the neutrons in the diagram above are labeled n0. The zero stands
for "zero charge". The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a proton, which is 1
atomic mass unit (amu). (An atomic mass unit equals about 1.67×10−27 kg.) A neutron also has
about the same diameter as a proton, or 1.7×10−15 meters.
Mass Defect
The actual mass of the atomic nucleus is always less than the mass of protons and neutrons present
in the nucleus. When a nucleus is formed, energy is released. This energy is removed in the form
of a reduction in total mass. This missing mass is known as the ‘mass defect’ and it accounts for
the energy released.
The mass defect (𝚫M) can be calculated by subtracting the original atomic mass (MA) from the
sum of the mass of protons (mp= 1.00728 amu) and neutrons (mn= 1.00867 amu) present in the
nucleus.
Mass defect formula:
𝚫M = (Zmp + Nmn) – MA
Where, 𝚫M = mass defect
MA = mass of the nucleus
mp = mass of a proton, i.e., 1.00728 amu
mn = mass of a neutron, i.e., 1.00867 amu
Z = number of protons
N = number of neutrons

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Nuclear Binding Energy

According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, The mass-energy is equivalent. That is the mass of a
system measures the total energy of the system. Given by the famous equation E = mc2. Hence, it
is implied that the total energy of the nucleus is less than the sum of the energies of individual
protons and neutrons(nucleons). This implies that when the nucleus disintegrates into constituent
nucleons releasing some energy in the form of heat energy. (Exothermic reaction). The energy
emitted here is mathematically expressed using
E = (ΔM) c2
Now imagine the situation of breaking the nucleus. To attain this, a certain amount of energy is put
into the system. The amount of energy required to achieve this is called nuclear binding energy.
Thus, we can define nuclear binding energy as,
“The minimum energy required to separate nucleons into its constituent protons and neutrons.” and
is given by-
B.E. = (ΔM) c2
Thus, the difference in the mass is converted into nuclear binding energy.

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Binding Energy Calculation

Problem-1: Calculate the Binding Energy of the Deuteron. Give data: a mass of the deuteron is
1875.61 MeV/c2 or 3.34359✕10-27 Kg.
Solution:
Given,

Mass of deuteron, MA = 1875.61MeV/c2 or 3.34359✕10-27 Kg.

Atomic Mass number of Deuteron, A=2
The atomic number of Deuteron; Z=1
Mass defect ΔM =?
Binding energy, B.E. = ?
Formula used:
Mass defect is given by
𝚫M = (Zmp + Nmn) – MA
Binding energy is given by
B.E. = (ΔM) c2
Calculation:
Here Z=1 and (A-Z) =1, mn =939.57MeV/c2 and mp =938.28 MeV/c2. Substituting the values we
get-
𝚫M = (Zmp + Nmn) – MA
= 938.28 MeV/c2 + 939.57MeV/c2 – 1875.61MeV/c2
=2.24 MeV/c2
Thus, the mass defect is 2.24 MeV/c2
The binding energy of the Deuteron is thus given by
B.E. = (ΔM) c2
= (2.24 MeV/c2)×(c2)
=2.24 MeV (Ans.)

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Binding Energy Curve and Nuclear Stability

Binding energies per nucleon of a number of isotopes are plotted in the image; 2, against the
corresponding mass numbers. It is seen that the maximum occurs at nearly about the mass number
of 56 (iron).
Thus, the nucleus of iron is thermodynamically seen to be most stable. It is also seen that the points
for helium (He) (mass number = 4), carbon (C) (mass number = 12) and oxygen (O) (mass number
= 16) lie quite high in the graph. This shows that the nuclei of these elements are exceptionally
stable than the other elements plotted in the graph and lie in the nuclear stability zone. The
maximum binding energy per nucleon is seen to be about 8.7 MeV. This is the energy that is
required to remove a proton or a neutron from a most stable nucleus.
The graph near the maximum is almost flat from A = 50 to about A = 100. This shows that the
addition of a single nucleon to any nucleus in this region increases the binding energy by roughly
the same amount.

Conclusion
The binding energy per nucleon increases sharply with mass number (A) upto 20. It increases
slowly after A=20. For A<20, there exists a recurrence of peaks corresponding to those nuclei,
whose mass numbers are multiples of four and they contain not only equal but also even number
of protons and neutrons. Example 2He4, 4Be8, 6C12, 8O16 and 10Ne20. The curve becomes almost
flat for mass numbers between 40 and 120. Beyond 120, it decreases slowly as A increases.
The binding energy per nucleon reaches a maximum of 8.8 MeV at A=56, corresponding to the
Iron nucleus (26Fe56). Hence, the iron nucleus is the most stable. The average binding energy per
nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass numbers ranging between 40 and 120. These
elements are comparatively more stable and non-radioactive.

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Nuclear Reaction
Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nuclides are produced from the collisions
between two atomic nuclei or one atomic nucleus and a subatomic particle. The nuclides produced
from nuclear reactions are different from the reacting nuclei (commonly referred to as the parent
nuclei).

Two notable types of nuclear reactions are nuclear fission reactions and nuclear fusion reactions.
The former involves the absorption of neutrons (or other relatively light particles) by a heavy
nucleus, which causes it to split into two (or more) lighter nuclei. Nuclear fusion reactions are the
processes in which two relatively light nuclei combine (via a collision) to afford a single, heavier
nucleus.
Why do Nuclear Reactions Release Tremendous Amounts of Energy?
The mass of an atomic nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual masses of each
subatomic particle that constitutes it (protons and neutrons). This difference in mass is attributed
to nuclear binding energy (often referred to as a mass defect). Nuclear binding energy can be
defined as the energy required to hold all the protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
During a nuclear reaction (such as a fission or fusion reaction), the mass accounted for by the
nuclear binding energy is released in accordance with the equation E = mc2 (energy = mass times
the square of the speed of light).
To simplify, the products formed in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion always have a lower mass
than the reactants. This ‘missing’ mass is converted into energy. A single gram of matter can release
approximately 90,00,00,00,000 kilojoules of energy.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission refers to the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two or lighter nuclei. This process
can occur through a nuclear reaction or through radioactive decay. Nuclear fission reactions often
release a large amount of energy, which is accompanied by the emission of neutrons and gamma
rays (photons holding huge amounts of energy, enough to knock electrons out of atoms).

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Nuclear fission was first discovered by the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in
the year 1938. The energy produced from fission reactions is converted into electricity in nuclear
power plants. This is done by using the heat produced from the nuclear reaction to convert water
into steam. The steam is used to rotate turbines in order to generate electricity.
Examples
An important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the uranium-235 nucleus when it is
bombarded with neutrons. Various products can be formed from this nuclear reaction, as described
in the equations below.
235
U92 + 1n0 → 141Ba + 92Kr + 3 1n0
235
U92 + 1n0 → 144Xe + 90Sr + 2 1n0
235
U92 + 1n0 → 146La + 87Br + 3 1n0
235
U92 + 1n0 → 137Te + 97Zr + 2 1n0
235
U92 + 1n0 → 137Cs + 96Rb + 3 1n0
Another important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the plutonium-239 nucleus.
Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion reactions, at least two atomic nuclei combine/fuse into a single nucleus.
Subatomic particles such as neutrons or protons are also formed as products in these nuclear
reactions.

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An illustration of the nuclear fusion reaction between deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H) that yields
helium (4He) and a neutron (1n) is provided above. Such fusion reactions occur at the core of the
sun and other stars. The fusion of deuterium and tritium nuclei is accompanied by a loss of
approximately 0.0188 amu of mass (which is completely converted into energy). Approximately
1.69×109 kilojoules of energy are generated for every mole of helium formed.
Other Important Types of Nuclear Reactions
Alpha Decay
Nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 tend to undergo alpha decay – a process in which a 4He
nucleus, commonly referred to as an alpha particle (4α2) is liberated from the parent nucleus.
The general equation for alpha decay is: AXZ → (A-4)X’(Z-2) + 4α2
Where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number. An example of alpha decay is provided
below.
226
Ra → 222Rn + 4α2
Here, the radium-226 nucleus decays into a radon-222 nucleus, liberating an alpha particle in the
process.
Beta Decay
Beta decay occurs when a neutron is converted into a proton, which is accompanied by the
emission of a beta particle (high-energy electron). An example of this type of nuclear reaction is
the beta decay of carbon-14 that affords nitrogen-14:
14
C6 → 14N7 + 0β-1
Gamma Emission
Gamma emission occurs when an excited nucleus (often produced from the radioactive decay of
another nucleus) returns to its ground state, which is accompanied by the emission of a high energy
photon.
An example of gamma emission is the de-excitation of the excited thallium-234 nucleus (which is
produced from the alpha decay of uranium-238). The equation for this nuclear reaction is:
234
Th* → 234Th + 𝜸

Difference Between Chemical Reactions and Nuclear Reactions

Chemical Reaction Nuclear Reaction

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Chemical reaction normally occurs outside the Nuclear reaction happens only inside the
nucleus. nucleus.

When chemical reactions occur elements hold During nuclear reactions, the nuclei of
their identity and the nuclei of atoms also atoms changes completely and new
remains unchanged. elements are formed.

Chemical reaction can be influenced by Nuclear reaction is independent of such

pressure or temperature. factors.

During such reactions there is low energy Energy changes accompanying nuclear
change. reactions are relatively higher and larger.

There is breaking of old bonds and formation No such activity is involved during nuclear
of new chemical bonds in a chemical reaction. reactions.

Chemical reactions can either be reversible or Nuclear reactions are mostly irreversible.
irreversible.

Radioactivity
Radioactivity was first discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. Later, Marie Curie studied the
radiation of different compounds, and discovered that uranium and thorium are radioactive
elements.
• Radioactivity is defined as the spontaneous emission of radiation from highly energized
particles or photons resulting in nuclear reactions.
• This process is also known as radioactive decay, or radioactive disintegration.
• There is a different form of radioactivity that is harmful and not harmful.
• One of the biggest examples is a light bulb: it emits radiation in the form of light and heat,
but there is no radioactivity taking place.
• A substance that consists of unstable nuclei of the atom is considered to be radioactive.
Since Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, the SI unit of radioactivity is becquerel (Bq).

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Types of Radioactive Decay

There are mainly three types of radioactive decay that were discovered first. All these types were
named after the ability to penetrate matter. Later additional types of decay were discovered. The
types of radioactive decays are as follows:
Alpha Decay
• Alpha decay (A = 4, Z = 2) is those particles that can penetrate the matter at the shortest
distance.
• It is emitted from the nucleus; hence, it has a daughter nucleus (A - 4, Z - 2).
Beta Decay
• Beta-decay occurs with a nucleus having too many neutrons and too many protons; the
protons or neutrons transform into another.
• Beta decay is again differentiated into two types - Beta minus and Beta plus.
Gamma Decay
• Gamma decay is considered those particles which can penetrate the matter at the greatest
distance.
• It occurs after one of the decays, like the alpha or the beta decay, takes place.
• As the nucleus is left in an excited state, it tries to become stable, so it releases a gamma-
ray photon; this helps the atom to lower its energy and attain stability.
Laws of Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus.
• The nucleus’s decay rate is independent of temperature and pressure.
• Radioactivity is dependent on the law of conservation of charge.
• The physical and chemical properties of the daughter nucleus are different from the mother
nucleus.
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• The emission of energy from radioactivity is always accompanied by alpha, beta, and
gamma particles.
• The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent on the number of atoms that are
present at the time.

Units of Radioactivity
Curie and Rutherford are the units of radioactivity.
1C = 3.7 × 104 Rd is the relationship between Curie and Rutherford.
Uses of Radioactivity
Some radioactivity uses are provided in the points below.
• Americium-241 is an alpha emitter and is used for domestic smoke detectors in the United
States.
• The alpha particles given out by the Americium sample ionize the air in the chamber of the
smoke detector leading to a small current in the chamber.
• When smoke enters the chamber, it causes a drop in current causing the alarm to go off.
Although Alpha particles have a very short range, they are devastating when in close
contact.
• Alpha emitters, when swallowed, come in close contact with tissue and are deadly in such
circumstances and is therefore used in assassination attempts by radiation poisoning.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Radioactivity
Advantages of radioactivity are:
• Gamma rays are used to kill cancerous cells and hence used in radiotherapy.
• Cobalt-60 is used to destroy carcinogenic cells.
• Gamma rays are used in scanning the internal parts of the body.
• Gamma rays kill microbes present in food and prevent it from decay by increasing the shelf
life.
• Age of the rocks can be studied using radioactive radiations by measuring the argon content
present in the rock.

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Disadvantages of radioactivity are:

• High dosage of radioactive radiation on the body might lead to death.
• Radioactive isotopes are expensive.
Radioactive Decay Law and Its Derivation
According to this law, the number of nuclei of any radioactive matter that undergoes the decaying
process per unit time is directly proportional to the total number of nuclei in the sample material.
In other words, this law states that the rate of decaying of the nucleus of any radioactive material
is independent of time.
ΔN/ Δt ∝ N
N represents the total number of nuclei and ΔN represents the number of nuclei undergoing the
decaying process at a time Δt
Then,
ΔN/ Δt = λN … (1)
Here, λ is a decay/disintegration constant.
Change in the number of nuclei in the sample is,
dN = – ΔN at a time Δt.
Hence, change of decaying per unit time of N is,
dN/dt = – λN
Or, dN/N = – λ dt
After integrating both sides,
We get, N – ln N0 = – λ (t – t0), where N0 represents the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample
at a time t0
N represents the number of radioactive nuclei at a consequent time t.
And by putting, t0=0
Or, N(t) = N0e– λt
The law of radioactive decay is represented by an equation.
The Decay Rate
In radioactivity calculations, we are more interested in the decay rate R (= – dN/dt) than in N itself.
This rate gives us the number of nuclei decaying per unit time. Even if we don’t know the number
of nuclei in the sample, by simply measuring the number of emissions of α, β or γ particles in 10

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or 20 seconds, we can calculate the decay rate. Let’s say that we consider a time interval dt and
get a decay count ΔN (= –dN). The decay rate is now defined as,
R = – dN/dt
Differentiating equation (4) on both sides, we get,
R = λ N0 e−λt
Or, R = R0e−λt … (5)
Where, R0 is the radioactive decay rate at the time t = 0, and R is the rate at any subsequent time
t. Equation (5) is the alternative form of the Law of Radioactive Decay. Now we can rewrite
equation (1) as follows,
R = λN … (6)
where R and the number of radioactive nuclei that have not yet undergone decay must be evaluated
at the same instant.
Half-Life and Mean Life
The total decay rate of a sample is also known as the activity of the sample. The SI unit
for measurement of activity is ‘becquerel’ and is defined as,
1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
An older unit, the curie, is still in common use:
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq (decays per second)
There are two ways to measure the time for which a radionuclide can last.
• Half-life T1/2 – the time at which both R and N are reduced to half of their initial values
• Mean life τ – the time at which both R and N have been reduced to, e-1 of their initial
values.
Calculating Half-Life
Let’s find the relation between T1/2 and the disintegration constant λ. For this, let’s input the
following values in equation (5),
R = (1/2)R0 and t = T1/2
So, we get T1/2 = (ln2)/ λ
Or, T1/2 = 0.693/ λ … (7)
Calculating Mean life
Next, let’s find the relation between the mean life τ and the disintegration constant λ. For this, let’s
consider equation (5),

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The number of nuclei which decay in the time interval: ‘t’ to ‘t + Δt’ is: R(t)Δt = (λN0e–λt Δt).
Each of them has lived for time ‘t’.
Hence, the total life of all these nuclei is = tλN0e–λt Δt
Hence, to obtain the mean life, we integrate this expression over all the times from 0 to ∞ and
divide by the total number of nuclei at t = 0 (which is N0).
τ = (λN0 ∫ te–λtdt)/N0
= λ∫ te–λtdt
On solving this integral, we get
τ = 1/λ
Therefore, we can summarize the observations as follows:
T1/2 = (ln2)/λ = τ ln 2 … (8)
Problem: The half-life of 238U92 undergoing α-decay is 4.5 × 109 years. What is the activity of 1g
sample of 238U92?
Answer: T1/2 = 4.5 × 109 years = 4.5 × 109years × 3.6 × 107 seconds/year = 1.42 × 1017 seconds
We know that 1 k mol of any isotope contains Avogadro’s number of atoms. Hence, 1g of 238U92
contains, {1/(238 × 10-3)} × 6.025 × 1026 = 25.3 x 1020 atoms. Therefore, the decay rate R is,
R = λN
= (0.693/T1/2)N
= (0.693 × 25.3 × 1020) / (1.42 ×1017)
Therefore, R = 1.23 × 104 Bq

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