Introduction

 We will discuss about the nucleus which is the core of the atom.
 Nucleus is located in the centre of the atom and it is positively charged whereas electrons
negatively charged and revolve around the nucleus in the orbits.
 We will also look at the composition of the structure of a nucleus and itsdifferent properties.
 How the present day energy crisis can be solved by using the nuclear energy.
 The interaction between different nuclei.

Structure of an atom

Composition of Nucleus
 Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.

 Protons are positively charged particles which are present inside the nucleus and neutrons are
neutral as they don’t have any charge.
 Atomic number: -
 Atomic number constitutes the total number of protons which are present in the nucleus
of that atom.
 It is denoted by ‘Z’.

 Atomic mass:-
 Atomic mass is the total number of neutrons and protons which are present inside the
nucleus.
 Mass of electrons is not considered while calculating the mass of the atom and only the
mass of neutrons and protons are considered;

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  Since the electrons are the lightest particles their mass is not considered.
 It is also known as Mass Number.
 It is denoted by ‘A’.

 Nucleons --> Protons + Neutrons

 General representation of the element: -(AZX) where A = atomicmass and Z = atomic number.
 For example:- Hydrogen 11H where atomic number=1 and mass number =1
 Oxygen168O where atomic number=8 and mass number =16(8 protons and 8 neutrons).
Measurement of Atomic mass unit
 Mass of atom is very small as compared to the measurable masses which we see around us.

 Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u) is used to measure mass of an atom

 It is denoted by u.
 Atomic mass unit is defined as (1/12th) of the mass of the carbon.
 1 a.m.u =(1/12) x 1.992647 x10-26 kg
 Where 1.992647 x10-26 = mass of 1 carbon atom.
 1 a.m.u =1.67 x10-27
 To get the exact measurement of the atomic mass, an instrument known as Mass
spectrometer is used.
Nuclei types
 Isotopes: - Two nuclei with the same atomic number and different mass number are isotopes
of each other. For example: - There are 3 isotopes of carbon(C) having same atomic number
6 but their mass numbersare differenti.e. 12,13 and 14.(126C), (136C), (146C).
 Isobars: -The nuclei which have different atomic number but same mass number are known
as isobars. For example: - Nitrogen (147N) and Carbon (146C)areboth isobars as their mass
numbers aresame which is 14 but their atomic numbers are 7 and 6 respectively.
 Isotones: -Isotones are those nuclei which have different atomic number but same number of
neutrons. For example: -Boron (125B) and Carbon (136C).
 Boron: - Atomic number = 5 and mass number =12.
 Carbon: - Atomic number = 6and mass number =13.
 But the number of neutrons in Boron = (12-5 =7) and number of neutrons in
carbon = (13-6 = 7) are same.
 Nuclide: - Nuclides are collection of nuclei with same atomic number having same number of
neutrons.

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Size of Nucleus
 Rutherfordperformed an experiment which proved that the size of the nucleus is extremely
small.
 In Rutherford scattering experiment a beam of alpha particles were made to pass through a
small thin gold foil.

 Very few alpha particles were deflected.

 The alpha particles got deflected because of repulsion with the nucleus as alpha particles are
positively charged.They get repelled because they are both positively charged.

 Very small number of alpha particles got deflected provingthat nucleus is very small in size.
 It was found that the radius of a nucleus(R) of mass number A is given as :-
 R=R0A1/3 where A = mass number and R0=constant.
 Volume of a nucleus is ∝to the mass number.

 V =(4/3)πR3 , Also R ∝(A)1/3

 => (R)3∝A
 Therefore V ∝ (R) 3∝
 Density of nucleus is independent of mass number.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy equivalence

 According to Einstein mass is also a form of energy.
 Mass – energy can also be converted into other forms of energy.
 Einstein gave mass-energy equivalence relation as: - E=mc2.
 Any object which has got mass ‘m’ has mass energy associated with it and it is given as mc2.
 This relation helps in understanding nuclear masses and interaction of nuclei with each other.

Nuclear binding energy

 Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to hold an atom’s protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus.
 Energy required holding neutrons and protons together therefore keeps the nucleus intact.
 It can also be defined as the energyneeded to separate the nucleons from each other.

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 Importance of nuclear binding energy describes how strongly nucleons are bound to each
other. By determining its value we will come to know whether the neutrons and protons are
tightly or loosely bound to each other.
 If nuclear binding energy is high -> high amount of energy is needed to separate the
nucleons this means nucleus is very stable.

 If nuclear binding energy is low -> low amount of energy is needed to separate the nucleons
this means nucleus is not very stable.

Mass defect:-
 Mass defect is the difference in the mass of nucleus and its constituents(neutrons and
protons).
 It is denoted by ΔM.
 Mathematically :- ΔM = [Z mp+ (A-Z) mn]- M
 Where mp=mass of 1 proton, Z=number of protons,(A-Z)= mass of neutrons, mN =
mass of 1 neutronand M =nuclearmass of the atom.
For example: -(168O)àOxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 neutrons.

 Mass of 8 protons à (8x1.00866) u and Mass of 8 neutrons à(8x1.00727) u.

 Therefore Oxygen nucleus à(8p+8n) à8(1.00866 + 1.00727) = 16.12744u.
 From spectroscopy ->Atomic mass of (168O) =15.9949u.

 Mass of 8 electrons =(8x0.00055) u.

 Therefore Nuclear mass of (168O) = (15.9949 – (8x0.00055)) =15.99053u.
 Nuclear mass is less than sum of the masses of its constituents.
 This difference in mass is known as mass defect.
 It is also known as excess mass.
 Relation between Mass defect and Nuclear binding energy:-

 Nuclear binding energy is denoted by Eb.

 Eb= ΔMc2
 Where Eb = nuclear binding energy, ΔM=mass defect.
 As there is difference in the mass so there is energy associated with it. This energy
is known as nuclear binding energy.
 Nuclear binding energy is a measure of how well a nucleus is held together.

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 Nuclear binding energy per nucleon
 Nuclear binding energy per nucleon is defined as the average energy per nucleon needed to
separate a nucleus into its individual constituents.
 It is denoted by Ebn.
 Experimentally there was a graph plotted between binding energy per nucleon and the mass
number(A).

 Following are the observations from the graph:-

 Initially the graph was increasing.This implies that E bn is very less for lesser mass
number.
 In the middle range the Ebn becomes constant.This means Ebn is independent of mass
number.
 In the end Ebnstarts decreasing.This shows Ebn is less when mass number is more.
Deriving Nuclear force from Ebn
 Lighter nuclei: -
 In the initial part of the graph A(mass number) is less therefore E bn is also less.As a result
lesser energy is required to separate the nucleons.
 This showsnuclei areunstable.
 The nuclei are unstable and in order to become stable lighter nuclei combine with each other
to form heavier nuclei.
 Let the energy of heavier nuclei formed is E’bn and of lighter nuclei be Ebn. This implies E’bn>
Ebn.
 Energy is released when 2 lighter nuclei combine together to form a heavier nuclei.
 This process is known as Nuclear Fusion.
.

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 For heavier nuclei:-
 Mass number is very high and Ebn is very less.
 In order to become stable the heavier nuclei will split into 2 lighter nuclei.
 Energy associated with heavier nuclei =Ebn and energy associated with 2 lighter nuclei =E’bn.
 This implies E’bn> Ebn. Energy is released in this process by the heavier nuclei in order to
attain stability.
 This process is known as Nuclear Fission.
 Constancy of Ebnin the mid-range of A:-
 In this portion the mass number is increasing due to whichnumber of nucleons also increase.
 The force which is present between the nucleons is of short range.The strength of the force
decreases as the distance increases.
 The nucleons are getting affected by their nearest neighbouring nucleons and not by the
nucleons which are far away.
 As a result Ebn remains constant.
 But when there are too many nucleons Ebn suddenly starts decreasing.

Nuclear force
 The force with which the nucleons are bound together is known as nuclear force.

 It is the strong attractive force that binds the nucleons together.

 When the nuclear force is compared to other forces of nature like gravitational or coulomb’s
force etc.it is the strongest of all the forces.

 As protons are positively charged they repel each other.This force of repulsion is given by
Coulomb’s force of repulsion.
 This nuclear force is stronger than the coulomb’s force so it overcomes the force of
repulsion.
 This is the reason neutrons and protons are held together inside the nucleus.
 It is independent of electric charge.Magnitude of nuclear force is same between proton-
proton,proton-neutron or neutron-neutron.
 Nuclear force cannot be given mathematically.

Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes decay to
form stable nuclei.
 Radioactivity was discovered accidentally by a scientist Henry Becquerel (1896).

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Nuclear Energy
 Nuclear energy is the energy that holds together the nuclei of atoms.
 Nuclear energy is obtained from nucleusby either:-
 Breaking of heavy nucleus into 2 relatively lighter nuclei known as nuclear fission or by
 Combining 2 lighter nuclei to form a heavy nucleus known as nuclear fusion.
 Nuclear energy is becominga possible solutionfor the energy crisis in the world.
 Electric energy can be harnessed from nuclear energy.

Nuclear Fission

 Scientist named Fermi was the one who performed first nuclear fission reaction.

 He considered the sample of 92235U and bombarded it with a neutron 10n i.e.
 1
0 n + 92235U (Target nuclei) --> 92236U (unstable so broke down into) -->56144Ba + 8936kr +310n
 Where (56144Ba) = Barium,(8936kr)=Krypton and (10n) =neutron.
 This reaction is known as nuclear fission reaction as heavier nuclei is broken down into
lighter nuclei, there by releasing large amounts of energy.

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 Types of Nuclear Fission reactions:
 Uncontrolled chain reaction:-
 In uncontrolled chain reaction, the reaction is uncontrolled and rapid. The reaction keeps
increasing and becomes huge.
 Energy of the order of mega electron volts is produced.
 This reaction is known as chain reaction as the product formed in first reaction initiates the
second reaction and so on.
 One of the important applications of this reaction is in making atom bombs, hydrogen bombs
and nuclear bombs.
 (Number of neutrons hitting next target)/ (number of neutrons emitted)>=1.
 Reaction that takes place :-
 1
0 n + 92235U -->92236U(unstable so broke down into) -->56144Ba + 8936kr +3 10n

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 Controlled chain reaction:-
 In controlled chain reaction, the reaction is controlled and steady.
 Reaction that takes place :-
 1
0 n + 92235U --> 92236U(unstable so broke down into) -->56144Ba + 8936kr +3 10n
 Using some methods 2 neutrons are removed and only 1 neutron is allowed to hit the next
target.
 Energy released is less as compared to the energy released in the nuclear fission reaction.
 One of the most important applications is in Nuclear Reactor where electricity can be
produced.
 (Number of neutrons hitting next target)/ (number of neutrons emitted)<1.

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Nuclear Reactor
 Nuclear reactors are useful in producing electricity.
 A nuclear reactor is an arrangement to generate electricity which makes use of nuclear
fission.

Requirements for controlled nuclear fission in reactor:

 Neutrons to be slowed down.
 Neutrons are slowed down by using moderators which are lighter nuclei which slow down
fast moving neutrons by elastic collision.
 Commonly used moderators:-
 Water
 Heavy Water
 Graphite

 Consequence of use of moderators:-

 Multiplication factor of neutrons increases: - When a neutron hits a target nucleus

along with daughter nucleus, it produces 3 neutrons. These 3 neutrons are highly
energetic but they need to be slowed down, so they can hit the target nucleus.
 As a result high multiplication factor results in uncontrolled chain reaction.

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 Excess neutrons to be absorbed.
 As uncontrolled chain reaction is wanted therefore to absorb excess neutrons Control
Rods are used.
 These control rods are inserted in the core of the nuclear reactor.

 Control rods are capable of initiating(while taking out of the reactor) and
stopping(inserting in the nuclear reactor) the nuclear reaction.
 As they absorb all the excess neutrons there are no neutrons left to start the reaction.

 Control rods are made up of neutron absorbing materials.

 They decrease the multiplication factor of neutrons to a very small value.
 Commonly used material is Cadmium.
 Control Rods

Construction of Nuclear Reactor

 The core of the nuclear reactor consists of uranium (235U) in the form of cylindrical rods.
These rods are dipped inside a liquid which is the moderator.
 Whenever one neutron strikes this uranium rod nuclear fission reaction starts and 3 fast
moving neutrons are produced.
 Because of the moderator these 3 neutrons undergo elastic collision as a result they slow
down before they strike the second rod.

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 Geometry of the core is such that only one out of 3 neutrons which are emitted strike the
next rod making the reaction a controlled one.
 When the control rods are inserted inside they will absorb all the extra neutrons. Since there
are no neutrons nuclear fission reaction will stop.
 Large amount of energy is also released in the core.

 In order to extract the energy from the core water at very high pressure is passed through it.
 As hot water passes through it produces steam in the steam generators.
 This steam is used to run the turbines which in turn produce electricity.

 This process will keep on continuing till the uranium on the rods does not get over. Then the
rods have to be replaced in the nuclear reactor.

Advantages:-
 Energy released is extremely large.
 Needs fuel in extremely small quantity.
Disadvantages:-
 Spent fuel is highly radioactive and extremely hazardous to all life forms.
 Accumulation of radioactive waste.

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Nuclear Fusion
 In a nuclear fusion reaction two lighter nuclei combine to form a relatively heavier nucleus.
 In this process huge amount of energy is also released.

 Temperature at which protons would have enough energy to overcome the coulomb’s barrier
is very high.

Thermonuclear fusion
 Increasing the temperature of the material until the particles have enough energy due to their
thermal motions alone –to overcome the coulomb barrier.

 For thermonuclear fusion, extreme conditions of temperature and pressure are required.
 Example of Thermonuclear fusion is generation of energy in stars.
 For example: From the sun we get large amount of energy and this energy generated due to
the thermonuclear fusion reaction taking place in the sun.

Energy generation in sun

 In sun the energy generation is a multi- step process.There are total of 4 steps involved in the
energy generation inside sun.

 Step1:- 1
1 H(proton) + 11H(proton) -->21H(deuteron)+ e+(positron) +
ν(neutrino)+0.42MeV
 Step2:- e+(positron) + e-(electron) -->γ(Gamma rays) + 1.02MeV
 Step3:- 2
1 H(deuteron)+ 11H(proton) -->32He(helium) + γ(Gamma rays)+5.49MeV
 Step4:- 3
2 H + 32H -->42He + 11H+11H+12.86MeV
 Step 1,2,and 3 occur twice in the sun and the step 4 occurs only once.
 When all the above 4 reactions are combined together then four hydrogen atoms combine to
form a42He atom with a release of 26.7MeV of energy.
 Final reaction is:- 411H +2e- --> 42He +6 γ+2 ν+26.7MeV
 It is also known as proton-proton cycle because this process starts with protons.

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