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A Level Physics CIE 

23. Nuclear Physics

CONTENTS
23.1 Mass Defect & Nuclear Binding Energy
23.1.1 Energy & Mass Equivalence
23.1.2 Nuclear Equations
23.1.3 Mass Defect & Binding Energy
23.1.4 Nuclear Fusion & Fission
23.1.5 Calculating Energy Released in Nuclear Reactions
23.2 Radioactive Decay
23.2.1 The Random Nature of Radioactive Decay
23.2.2 Activity & The Decay Constant
23.2.3 Half-Life

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23.1 Mass Defect & Nuclear Binding Energy YOUR NOTES


23.1.1 Energy & Mass Equivalence
Energy & Mass Equivalence
Einstein showed in his theory of relativity that matter can be considered a form of
energy and hence, he proposed:
Mass can be converted into energy
Energy can be converted into mass
This is known as mass-energy equivalence, and can be summarised by the
equation:
E = mc2

Where:
E = energy (J)
m = mass (kg)
c = the speed of light (m s-1)
Some examples of mass-energy equivalence are:
The fusion of hydrogen into helium in the centre of the sun
The fission of uranium in nuclear power plants
Nuclear weapons
High-energy particle collisions in particle accelerators

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23.1.2 Nuclear Equations YOUR NOTES


Representing Simple Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear reactions can be represented by balanced equations of nuclei in the AZX
form

AZX notation for atomic nuclei

The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number

Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus

 Worked Example

Step 1: Balance the nucleon numbers (the top number)

235 + 1 = 95 + 139 + x(1) + 7(0)

Step 2: Rearrange to find the value of x

x = 235 + 1 − 95 − 139 = 2

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23.1.3 Mass Defect & Binding Energy YOUR NOTES


Mass Defect & Binding Energy
Experiments into nuclear structure have found that the total mass of a nucleus is
less than the sum of the masses of its constituent nucleons
This difference in mass is known as the mass defect
Mass defect is defined as:
The difference between an atom's mass and the sum of the masses of its protons
and neutrons

The mass defect Δm of a nucleus can be calculated using:

Δm = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mtotal

Where:
Z = proton number
A = nucleon number
mp = mass of a proton (kg)
mn = mass of a neutron (kg)
mtotal = measured mass of the nucleus (kg)

A system of separated nucleons has a greater mass than a system of bound nucleons

Due to the equivalence of mass and energy, this decrease in mass implies that
energy is released in the process
Since nuclei are made up of neutrons and protons, there are forces of repulsion
between the positive protons
Therefore, it takes energy, ie. the binding energy, to hold nucleons together as
a nucleus
Binding energy is defined as:
The energy required to break a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons

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Energy and mass are proportional, so, the total energy of a nucleus is less than the YOUR NOTES
sum of the energies of its constituent nucleons 
The formation of a nucleus from a system of isolated protons and neutrons is
therefore an exothermic reaction - meaning that it releases energy
This can be calculated using the equation:
E = Δmc2

 Exam Tip
Avoid describing the binding energy as the energy stored in the nucleus –
this is not correct – it is energy that must be put into the nucleus to pull it
apart.

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Binding Energy per Nucleon YOUR NOTES

In order to compare nuclear stability, it is more useful to look at the binding 
energy per nucleon
The binding energy per nucleon is defined as:
The binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons in the
nucleus

A higher binding energy per nucleon indicates a higher stability

In other words, it requires more energy to pull the nucleus apart
Iron (A = 56) has the highest binding energy per nucleon, which makes it the most
stable of all the elements

By plotting a graph of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number, the
stability of elements can be inferred

Key Features of the Graph

At low values of A:
Nuclei tend to have a lower binding energy per nucleon, hence, they are
generally less stable
This means the lightest elements have weaker electrostatic forces and are the
most likely to undergo fusion
Helium (4He), carbon (12C) and oxygen (16O) do not fit the trend

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Helium-4 is a particularly stable nucleus hence it has a high binding energy YOUR NOTES
per nucleon 
Carbon-12 and oxygen-16 can be considered to be three and four helium
nuclei, respectively, bound together
At high values of A:
The general binding energy per nucleon is high and gradually decreases with
A
This means the heaviest elements are the most unstable and likely to undergo
fission

 Worked Example

Step 1: Calculate the mass defect

Number of protons, Z = 26

Number of neutrons, A – Z = 56 – 26 = 30

Mass defect, Δm = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mtotal

Δm = (26 × 1.673 × 10 -27) + (30 × 1.675 × 10 -27) – (9.288 × 10 -26)

Δm = 8.680 × 10 -28 kg

Step 2: Calculate the binding energy of the nucleus

Binding energy, E = Δmc2

E = (8.680 × 10 -28) × (3.00 × 10 8)2 = 7.812 × 10 -11 J

Step 3: Calculate the binding energy per nucleon

Step 4: Convert to MeV

J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10 -19

eV → MeV: divide by 10 6

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Checklist on what to include (and what not to include) in an exam question 
asking you to draw a graph of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon
number:
You will be expected to draw the best fit curve AND a cross to show the
anomaly that is helium
Do not begin your curve at A = 0, this is not a nucleus!
Make sure to correctly label both axes AND units for binding energy per
nucleon
You will be expected to include numbers on the axes, mainly at the peak
to show the position of iron (56Fe)

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23.1.4 Nuclear Fusion & Fission YOUR NOTES


Nuclear Fusion & Fission
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion is defined as:
The fusing together of two small nuclei to produce a larger nucleus

Low mass nuclei (such as hydrogen and helium) can undergo fusion and release
energy

The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy

For two nuclei to fuse, both nuclei must have high kinetic energy
This is because the protons inside the nuclei are positively charged, which
means that they repel one another
It takes a great deal of energy to overcome the electrostatic force, so this is why it
is can only be achieved in an extremely high-energy environment, such as star’s
core
When two protons fuse, the element deuterium is produced
In the centre of stars, the deuterium combines with a tritium nucleus to form a
helium nucleus, plus the release of energy, which provides fuel for the star to
continue burning
Nuclear Fission
Fission is defined as:

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The splitting of a large atomic nucleus into smaller nuclei YOUR NOTES
High mass nuclei (such as uranium) can undergo fission and release energy 

The fission of a target nucleus, such as uranium, to produce smaller daughter nuclei
with the release of energy

Fission must first be induced by firing neutrons at a nucleus

When the nucleus is struck by a neutron, it splits into two, or more, daughter
nuclei
During fission, neutrons are ejected from the nucleus, which in turn, can collide
with other nuclei which triggers a cascade effect
This leads to a chain reaction which lasts until all of the material has undergone
fission, or the reaction is halted by a moderator
Nuclear fission is the process which produces energy in nuclear power stations,
where it is well controlled
When nuclear fission is not controlled, the chain reaction can cascade to produce
the effects of a nuclear bomb

 Exam Tip
When an atom undergoes nuclear fission, take note that extra neutrons are
ejected by the nucleus and not from the fission products

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Significance of Binding Energy per Nucleon YOUR NOTES

At low values of A: 
Attractive nuclear forces between nucleons dominate over repulsive
electrostatic forces between protons
In the right conditions, nuclei undergo fusion
In fusion, the mass of the nucleus that is created is slightly less than the total
mass of the original nuclei
The mass defect is equal to the binding energy that is released, since the
nucleus that is formed is more stable
At high values of A:
Repulsive electrostatic forces between forces begin to dominate, and these
forces tend to break apart the nucleus rather than hold it together
In the right conditions, nuclei undergo fission
In fission, an unstable nucleus is converted into more stable nuclei with a smaller
total mass
This difference in mass, the mass defect, is equal to the binding energy that is
released

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23.1.5 Calculating Energy Released in Nuclear Reactions YOUR NOTES


Calculating Energy Released in Nuclear Reactions
The binding energy is equal to the amount of energy released in forming the
nucleus, and can be calculated using:
E = (Δm)c2

Where:
E = Binding energy released (J)
Δm = mass defect (kg)
c = speed of light (m s-1)
The daughter nuclei produced as a result of both fission and fusion have a higher
binding energy per nucleon than the parent nuclei
Therefore, energy is released as a result of the mass difference between the parent
nuclei and the daughter nuclei

 Worked Example

Part (a)
Step 1: Balance the number of protons on each side (bottom number)
92 = (2 × 46) + xnp (where np is the number of protons in c)

xnp = 92 – 92 = 0

Therefore, c must be a neutron

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Step 2: Balance the number of nucleons on each side YOUR NOTES

235 + 1 = (2 × 116) + x 

x = 235 + 1 – 232 = 4

Therefore, 4 neutrons are generated in the reaction

Part (b)
Step 1: Find the binding energy of each nucleus
Total binding energy of each nucleus = Binding energy per nucleon × Mass
number

Binding energy of 95Sr = 8.74 × 95 = 830.3 MeV

Binding energy of 139Xe = 8.39 × 139 = 1166.21 MeV

Binding energy of 235U = 7.60 × 235 = 1786 MeV

Step 2: Calculate the difference in energy between the products and

reactants
Energy released in reaction 1 = ESr + EXe – EU

Energy released in reaction 1 = 830.3 + 1166.21 – 1786

Energy released in reaction 1 = 210.5 MeV

Part (c)
Since reaction 1 releases more energy than reaction 2, its end products will
have a higher binding energy per nucleon
Hence they will be more stable
This is because the more energy is released, the further it moves up the graph
of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number (A)
Since at high values of A, binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases
with A
Nuclear reactions will tend to favour the more stable route, therefore, reaction
1 is more likely to happen

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23.2 Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES


23.2.1 The Random Nature of Radioactive Decay
The Random Nature of Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is defined as:
The spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus to form a more stable nucleus,
resulting in the emission of an alpha, beta or gamma particle

The random nature of radioactive decay can be demonstrated by observing the

count rate of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube
When a GM tube is placed near a radioactive source, the counts are found to
be irregular and cannot be predicted
Each count represents a decay of an unstable nucleus
These fluctuations in count rate on the GM tube provide evidence for the
randomness of radioactive decay

The variation of count rate over time of a sample radioactive gas. The fluctuations
show the randomness of radioactive decay

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Characteristics of Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES

Radioactive decay is both spontaneous and random 
A spontaneous process is defined as:
A process which cannot be influenced by environmental factors

This means radioactive decay cannot be affected by environmental factors such as:
Temperature
Pressure
Chemical conditions
A random process is defined as:
A process in which the exact time of decay of a nucleus cannot be predicted

Instead, the nucleus has a constant probability, ie. the same chance, of decaying in
a given time
Therefore, with large numbers of nuclei, it is possible to statistically predict the
behaviour of the entire group

 Exam Tip
Make sure you can define what constitutes a radioactive decay, a random
process and a spontaneous decay - these are all very common exam
questions!

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23.2.2 Activity & The Decay Constant YOUR NOTES


Activity & The Decay Constant
Since radioactive decay is spontaneous and random, it is useful to consider the
average number of nuclei which are expected to decay per unit time
This is known as the average decay rate
As a result, each radioactive element can be assigned a decay constant
The decay constant λ is defined as:
The probability that an individual nucleus will decay per unit of time

When a sample is highly radioactive, this means the number of decays per unit
time is very high
This suggests it has a high level of activity
Activity, or the number of decays per unit time can be calculated using:

Where:
A = activity of the sample (Bq)
ΔN = number of decayed nuclei
Δt = time interval (s)
λ = decay constant (s-1)
N = number of nuclei remaining in a sample
The activity of a sample is measured in Becquerels (Bq)
An activity of 1 Bq is equal to one decay per second, or 1 s-1
This equation shows:
The greater the decay constant, the greater the activity of the sample
The activity depends on the number of undecayed nuclei remaining in the
sample
The minus sign indicates that the number of nuclei remaining decreases with
time - however, for calculations it can be omitted

 Worked Example
Americium-241 is an artificially produced radioactive element that emits α-
particles. A sample of americium-241 of mass 5.1 μg is found to have an
activity of 5.9 × 105 Bq.
(a)
Determine the number of nuclei in the sample of americium-241.
(b)
Determine the decay constant of americium-241.

Part (a)

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Step 1: Write down the known quantities YOUR NOTES

Mass = 5.1 μg = 5.1 × 10-6 g 
Molecular mass of americium = 241
NA = Avogadro constant
Step 2: Write down the equation relating number of nuclei, mass and molecular
mass

mass × NA
Number of nuclei =
molecular mass
Step 3: Calculate the number of nuclei

Part (b)
Step 1: Write the equation for activity

Activity, A = λN

Step 2: Rearrange for decay constant λ and calculate the answer

A 5 . 9 × 105
λ= = = 4 . 65 × 10−11 s −1
N 1 . 27 × 1016

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The Exponential Nature of Radioactive Decay YOUR NOTES

In radioactive decay, the number of nuclei falls very rapidly, without ever reaching 
zero
Such a model is known as exponential decay
The graph of number of undecayed nuclei and time has a very distinctive shape

Radioactive decay follows an exponential pattern. The graph shows three different
isotopes each with a different rate of decay

Equations for Radioactive Decay

The number of undecayed nuclei N can be represented in exponential form by the
equation:
N = N 0e–λt

Where:
N0 = the initial number of undecayed nuclei (when t = 0)
λ = decay constant (s-1)
t = time interval (s)
The number of nuclei can be substituted for other quantities, for example, the
activity A is directly proportional to N, so it can be represented in exponential form
by the equation:
A = A0e–λt

The received count rate C is related to the activity of the sample, hence it can also
be represented in exponential form by the equation:
C = C 0e–λt

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The exponential function e YOUR NOTES

The symbol e represents the exponential constant 
It is approximately equal to e = 2.718
On a calculator it is shown by the button ex
The inverse function of ex is ln(y), known as the natural logarithmic function
This is because, if ex = y, then x = ln(y)

 Worked Example
Strontium-90 decays with the emission of a β-particle to form Yttrium-90.
The decay constant of Strontium-90 is 0.025 year-1.
Determine the activity A of the sample after 5.0 years, expressing the
answer as a fraction of the initial activity A0

Step 1: Write out the known quantities

Decay constant, λ = 0.025 year-1

Time interval, t = 5.0 years

Both quantities have the same unit, so there is no need for conversion
Step 2: Write the equation for activity in exponential form
A = A0e–λt

Step 3: Rearrange the equation for the ratio between A and A0

Step 4: Calculate the ratio A/A0

Therefore, the activity of Strontium-90 decreases by a factor of 0.88, or

12%, after 5 years

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23.2.3 Half-Life YOUR NOTES


Half-Life Definition
Half life is defined as:
The time taken for the initial number of nuclei to reduce by half

This means when a time equal to the half-life has passed, the activity of the
sample will also half
This is because activity is proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei, A ∝ N

When a time equal to the half-life passes, the activity falls by half, when two half-
lives pass, the activity falls by another half (which is a quarter of the initial value)

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Calculating Half-Life YOUR NOTES

To find an expression for half-life, start with the equation for exponential decay: 

N = N 0e–λt

Where:
N = number of nuclei remaining in a sample
N0 = the initial number of undecayed nuclei (when t = 0)
λ = decay constant (s-1)
t = time interval (s)
When time t is equal to the half-life t½, the activity N of the sample will be half of
its original value, so N = ½ N0

The formula can then be derived as follows:

Therefore, half-life t½ can be calculated using the equation:

This equation shows that half-life t½ and the radioactive decay rate constant λ are
inversely proportional
Therefore, the shorter the half-life, the larger the decay constant and the faster
the decay

 Worked Example
Strontium-90 is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 28.0 years. A
sample of Strontium-90 has an activity of 6.4 × 109 Bq.Calculate the decay
constant λ, in s–1, of Strontium-90.

Step 1: Convert the half-life into seconds

28 years = 28 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 8.83 × 10 8 s

Step 2: Write the equation for half-life

Step 3: Rearrange for λ and calculate

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YOUR NOTES


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