PHYSICS ......................................................................................................................................................................

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CHEMISTRY .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
BIOLOGY .................................................................................................................................................................. 55

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 motion under gravity), angular (e.g.,
PHYSICS particle going in a circle, projectile
motion, rotation of machine shaft),
and rotational (e.g., motion of a fan).
• Uniform motion occurs when an
Physical Quantities object travels equal distances in equal
intervals of time.
• Descriptions of the laws of physics that • Non-uniform motion occurs when an
are measurable are termed physical object travels unequal distances in
quantities. equal intervals of time.
• Fundamental quantities are those
physical quantities that are independent Speed
of other physical quantities.
• Derived quantities, e.g., speed, • Speed is defined as the distance
acceleration, and force, depend on covered by a moving body in a unit
fundamental quantities. time interval.
• The formula for speed is given by
Distance traveled divided by Time
Units taken.
• For a scenario where a body travels
• The unit of a physical quantity serves as equal distances with speeds 𝑣₁ and 𝑣₂,
the reference standard for measurement. the average speed is calculated using
the harmonic mean 2.v1.v2/ (v1 + v2)
Types of Units • If a body travels for equal times with
1. Fundamental Units speeds 𝑣₁ and 𝑣₂, the average speed is
a. Units defined for fundamental determined by the arithmetic mean 𝑣
quantities mass (M), length (L), = (𝑣₁ + 𝑣₂) / 2.
time (T), temperature (K), electric
current (I), luminous intensity, Velocity
and amount of substance.
b. Corresponding fundamental units • Velocity is the time rate of change of
Kilogram (Kg), Metre (m), Second displacement of a body.
(s), Kelvin (K), Ampere (A), • The formula for velocity is given by
Candela (C(d)), Mole (mol). Displacement divided by Time.
2. Derived Units • An object is considered to be moving with
a. Units defined for derived uniform velocity if it experiences equal
quantities, e.g., speed (metre per displacements in equal intervals of time.
second), acceleration (metre per • If an object undergoes unequal
second²). displacement in equal intervals of time, it
is said to be moving with non-uniform or
variable velocity.
• Average velocity is calculated as Time
Rest and Motion displacement divided by Total time taken.

• An object is at rest when it doesn't

change its position with respect to Acceleration
surroundings over time; it's in motion
when it changes position over time. • Acceleration is defined as the time rate of
• Types of motion include rectilinear change of velocity of a body.
(e.g., moving car on a horizontal road, • The formula for acceleration is given by
Change in velocity divided by Time taken.
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 • Acceleration is a vector quantity, and its o The slope of the displacement-
SI unit is 𝑚/s². time graph gives velocity.
• Instantaneous acceleration refers to the o The slope of the velocity-time
acceleration at a specific instant in time. graph gives acceleration.
• If the velocity of a body increases with
time, its acceleration is positive; if
velocity decreases, it's negative, referred Projectile Motion
to as deceleration or retardation.
• Constant acceleration occurs when • Projectile motion occurs when a body is
acceleration does not change with time. thrown at an angle (θ) from the
horizontal, excluding 90°. In this motion,
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated the body follows a curved parabolic path
Motion (Along straight line) known as a trajectory due to the influence
of gravity.
If a body starts its motion with initial velocity
u and attains final velocity v in the interval t, ❖ Examples of Projectile Motion
assuming uniform acceleration a and • The motion of a bullet shot from a
gun.
traveling a distance s, the equations of motion
• The motion of a rocket after burn-out.
are as follows • The motion of a bomb dropped from
o v = u + at an airplane, etc.
o S = ut + ½ at2 ❖ Properties of Projectile Motion
o V2 = u2 + 2as • Simultaneous Impact If we drop a
o For free fall under gravity, replace a ball from a height and simultaneously
with g in the equations. throw another ball horizontally, both
o When an object is thrown vertically balls will strike the earth
upward, replace a with g in the simultaneously, even though they
equations. follow different paths.
❖ Velocity–Time Graph For an
accelerating or decelerating body, the Circular Motion
graph is a straight line inclined to both
the time axis and velocity axis. Circular motion refers to the motion of an
❖ Position (Distance)–Time Graph The object along a circular path.
graph for an accelerating or decelerating
body is always a parabola. ❖ Uniform Circular Motion
❖ Acceleration–Time Graph For a o Circular motion with a constant
uniformly accelerating body, the graph is speed is termed uniform circular
a line parallel to the time axis. motion.
❖ Position–Velocity Graph In the case of o The direction of motion at any
uniformly accelerated motion, the graph point in circular motion is given
between position and velocity is always a by the tangent to the circle at that
parabola. point.
❖ Velocity–Time Graph In the case of ❖ Uniform Circular Motion
uniformly accelerated motion, the graph Characteristics
between velocity and time is always a o In uniform circular motion, both
straight line. velocity and acceleration change.
❖ Graph Interpretations ❖ Non-uniform Circular Motion
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 o In the case of non-uniform centripetal force. Slowing down speed
circular motion, the speed varies and moving on a path of a larger
from point to point on the circular radius ensures a safe turn.
track. b) Banked Roads
i) Roads are often banked at turns to
provide the necessary centripetal
Centripetal Acceleration force for vehicles taking a turn.
c) Frictional Force in Turns
i) When a vehicle takes a turn on a
• During circular motion, an acceleration curved road, the frictional force
acts on the body towards the center, between the tires and the road acts as
known as centripetal acceleration. the centripetal force.
• The direction of centripetal acceleration d) Bucket of Water
is always towards the center of the i) If a bucket containing water is
circular path. revolved fast in a vertical plane, the
water may not fall even when the
Force bucket is completely inverted. The
centrifugal force, equal or greater
• Force is an external push or pull that than the weight of water, pushes the
can change or attempt to change the water to the bottom of the bucket.
state of rest or uniform motion. e) Orbital Motion of Electrons
• The SI unit of force is the newton (N), i) In the orbital motion of electrons
and the CGS unit is dyne, where 1 N = around the nucleus, the electrostatic
10^5 dyne. force of attraction between the
• If the sum of all the forces acting on a electrons and the nucleus acts as the
body is zero, the body is said to be in centripetal force.
equilibrium. f) Cream Separation
i) When a vessel containing milk is
rotated about the same axis, cream is
Centripetal Force separated from milk. Lighter particles
• During circular motion, a force always of cream experience a lesser force
acts on the body towards the center of than the heavier particles of milk
the circular path, called centripetal during rotation.
force. g) Earth's Orbit around the Sun
i) For the revolution of the Earth around
Centrifugal Force the Sun, the gravitational force of
• In circular motion, we experience a attraction between the Earth and the
force acting on us opposite to the Sun acts as the centripetal force.
direction of centripetal force, known
as centrifugal force.
• Centrifugal force is an apparent or Newton’s Laws of Motion
imaginary force, also called a pseudo
force.
• Newton’s First Law of Motion
o A body continues in its state of rest or of
Applications of Centripetal and uniform motion in a straight line unless
an external force acts on it.
Centrifugal Forces
o This law is based on the concept of
a) Cyclist Taking a Turn
inertia, the property of a body resisting
i) A cyclist inclines their body from the
changes in its state of rest or uniform
vertical to obtain the required
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 motion. This law describes how the velocity of an
• Inertia of Rest object changes when it is subjected to an
o When a bus or train at rest starts external force. It quantifies the relationship
suddenly, passengers jerk backward due between force, mass, and acceleration,
to their inertia of rest.
indicating that the greater the force applied to
o Dust particles come out from a carpet
when beaten with a stick due to their an object, the greater its acceleration, and the
inertia of rest. greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration
o A passenger jumping out from a rapidly for the same force.
moving bus or train is advised to jump in
the forward direction and run forward for • Newton's Third Law of Motion
a short distance due to inertia of rest. Newton's third law of motion states that for
every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. This means that whenever one
Inertia of Motion When a running bus or train
object exerts a force on a second object, the
stops suddenly, passengers jerk forward due to
second object exerts an equal force in the
inertia of motion.
opposite direction back on the first object.
Momentum The momentum of a moving body is Both forces act on two interacting objects.
equal to the product of its mass and its velocity.
Application - Rocket Propulsion
Conservation of Linear Momentum
• The propulsion of a rocket is a practical
• The linear momentum of a system of application of Newton's third law of
motion.
particles remains conserved if the
• In a rocket, as gases are expelled from the
external force acting on the system is rocket engine in one direction (action), an
zero. equal and opposite force is exerted on the
rocket in the opposite direction
• Rocket propulsion and the engine of a (reaction). This propels the rocket
jet aeroplane work on the principle of forward.
conservation of linear momentum. In • The principle of action and reaction is
a rocket, the ejecting gas exerts a crucial for the functioning of various
forward force, helping in accelerating propulsion systems, including rockets.
the rocket upward.
Impulse
• Newton's Second Law of Motion
Newton's second law of motion states that the Impulse refers to a large force acting on a
acceleration of an object is directly body for a very short interval of time,
proportional to the net force acting upon it resulting in a significant change in its
and inversely proportional to its mass. In momentum.
mathematical terms, it is expressed as F=ma
where Key Points

• F is the net force acting on the • Unit The unit of impulse is newton-
object, second (N·s).
• m is the mass of the object, Application - Fielder Catching a Cricket
• a is the acceleration of the object. Ball
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 • A fielder lowers their hand when catching the force of friction on the rear wheel
a cricket ball to increase the time of is in the forward direction, and on the
contact during the catch. front wheel, it is in the backward
• By increasing the time of contact, the direction.
force required to stop the ball is reduced. Losses due to Friction
• This helps the fielder exert a lesser force
on the ball, reducing the force exerted by • Too much loss of energy in machines can
the ball on the fielder's hands and lead to damage over time. Frictional
minimizing the risk of injury to the forces in machines can result in energy
fielder. dissipation and decreased efficiency.
Friction
Laws of limiting friction
Friction is a force that opposes the relative
motion of two bodies when one body actually The laws of limiting friction describe the behavior
moves or attempts to move over the surface of friction between two surfaces when the
of another body. relative motion or tendency of motion is
impending. The laws of limiting friction are
Causes of Friction typically stated as follows
• The cause of friction is the strong atomic 1. The Direction of Friction
or molecular forces of attraction acting on o The frictional force always acts in a
the two surfaces at the point of actual direction opposite to the direction of
contact. the applied force or the direction of
motion (or impending motion).
Uses of Friction 2. Magnitude of Friction
o The magnitude of the limiting friction
• Ball Bearings (friction just before motion starts) is
• Ball bearings use balls to reduce directly proportional to the normal
rotational friction and maintain reaction force between the two
separation between the bearing races. surfaces. Mathematically, friction
• Everyday Applications =μ×N, where μ is the coefficient of
• Friction is essential for walking, friction and N is the normal reaction
applying brakes in vehicles, and force.
holding nuts and bolts in machinery. 3. Independent of Area
• Decreasing Friction o The area of contact between the
• Friction can be reduced by polishing two surfaces does not affect the
surfaces, using lubricants, or magnitude of the limiting friction.
employing ball bearings. The frictional force depends only
• Tyres on the nature of the surfaces in
• Tyres are made of synthetic rubber contact and the normal force.
with a higher coefficient of friction 4. Independent of Velocity
with the road to provide better grip o The limiting frictional force is
and prevent sliding, especially during independent of the velocity of the
turns. object. It does not matter if the
• Tyre treading increases friction object is at rest, in motion, or
between tyres and the road. approaching motion; the
• Bicycle Pedals magnitude of the frictional force
• When a pedal is applied to a bicycle, remains constant just before
motion starts.
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5. Proportional to the Force Tending to force that is proportional to the
Produce Motion displacement and always acts toward
o The magnitude of the limiting the mean position.
friction is directly proportional to
the force tending to produce Characteristics of SHM
motion (the applied force). The
frictional force increases if the Mean Position
applied force trying to move the
object increases. o When a particle executing SHM
passes through the mean position
o No force acts on the particle.
Oscillations And Waves o Acceleration of the particle is
zero.
• Periodic Motion o Velocity is maximum.
o Periodic motion is defined as a motion o Kinetic energy is maximum.
that repeats itself identically after a o Potential energy is zero.
fixed interval of time. Extreme Position
• Examples of Periodic Motion
o Motion of the arms of a clock. o When a particle executing SHM is
o Orbital motion of the Earth around at the extreme end
the Sun. o Acceleration of the particle is
o Motion of a simple pendulum. maximum.
• Oscillatory Motion o Restoring force acting on the
o Oscillatory motion is a type of particle is maximum.
periodic motion that involves o Velocity of the particle is zero.
movement to and fro or back and o Kinetic energy of the particle is
forth about a fixed point. zero.
• Examples of Oscillatory Motion o Potential energy is maximum.
o Motion of a simple pendulum.
o Motion of a loaded spring.
• Damped Oscillation
Simple Pendulum
o Damped oscillation occurs when a
A simple pendulum is a heavy point mass
particle oscillates with its own natural
frequency without the help of any suspended from a rigid support by means of an
external periodic force. However, the elastic, inextensible string.
oscillation gradually diminishes in
amplitude over time. Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
• Forced Oscillation
o Forced oscillation occurs when a body o The time period (T) of a simple pendulum
oscillates with the assistance of an is given by the formula T=2πgl where
external periodic force with a ▪ T is the time period,
frequency different from the natural ▪ l is the length of the pendulum,
frequency of the body. The external ▪ acceleration due to gravity.
force drives the oscillation at a Additional Information
specific frequency.
o The time period of a simple pendulum
• Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
with infinite length is 84.6 minutes.
o Simple Harmonic Motion is an
o The time period of a second's pendulum is
oscillatory motion characterized by
2 seconds, and its length on Earth is
constant amplitude and a single
approximately 100 cm.
frequency. It occurs under a restoring
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Effects on Time Period oscillations of the body are termed
resonant oscillations.
• Acceleration due to gravity decreases
with altitude, causing the time period of a In resonant oscillations, the external force
pendulum clock to increase, making the reinforces the natural frequency of the body,
clock run slower. leading to enhanced amplitudes. This
phenomenon is often exploited in various fields,
• If the bob of a simple pendulum is such as music, engineering, and electronics, to
suspended from a metallic wire, the achieve maximum efficiency or desired effects.
length of the pendulum increases with an
increase in temperature, leading to an Wave
increase in its time period.
• A wave is a disturbance that propagates
• When a girl swings on a swing and stands
energy from one place to another without
up, the effective length of the swing
the transport of matter.
decreases, resulting in a decrease in the
time period of oscillations. Types of Waves

1. Mechanical Wave

Pendulum Clock in Space • Mechanical waves require a

material medium (solid, liquid, or
• A pendulum clock cannot be used in a
gas) for their propagation and are
space-ship since it relies on gravity, which
also known as elastic waves.
is absent or significantly different in a
microgravity environment. Pendulum- Types of Mechanical Waves
based timekeeping methods are
impractical in such conditions. 1. Longitudinal Wave

Damped Harmonic Motion • If the particles of the medium

vibrate in the direction of the
• Damped Harmonic Motion occurs when wave's propagation, the wave is
there is a damping force, such as friction, called a longitudinal wave.
acting within an oscillating system. In this
type of motion, the amplitudes of the 2. Transverse Wave
oscillation decrease over time due to the
• If the particles of the medium
influence of the damping force.
vibrate perpendicular to the
Resonant Oscillations direction of the wave's
propagation, the wave is called a
• Resonant Oscillations occur when a body transverse wave.
oscillates with its own natural frequency
(v0) with the assistance of an external Examples
periodic force, also known as forced
• Waves on strings under tension.
harmonic motion. If the frequency (v)
• Waves on the surface of water.
provided by the external agent is equal to
the natural frequency of the body (v0), the
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