Physics Notes

DSSSB
Quick Revision

By Abhimanu Sir

Contact - 7982334500
B.NO - 1625C, Near ESI
Dispensary, Thana Road,
Najafgarh, New Delhi - 11043
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
Physical Quantities Those quantities • It an object travels equal distances in acceleration is negative called
which can describe the laws of physics equal intervals of time, then it is said to deceleration or retardation.
and possible to measure are called be in uniform motion. • If acceleration does not change with
physical quantities. The physical • It an object travels unequal distances time, it is said to be constant
quantities which do not depend upon in equal intervals of time, then it is said acceleration.
other physical quantities are called to be in non-uniform motion. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated
fundamental quantities Speed Motion (Along straight lin(e)
The physical quantities which depend • The distance covered by a moving If a body started its motion with initial
on fundamental quantities are called body in a unit time interval is called its velocity u and attains final velocity v in
derived quantities e.g. speed, speed. the interval t. The acceleration
acceleration, force, etc. • Speed = Distance travelled/ Time assumed to be uniform in motion is a
Units The unit of a physical quantity is taken and the distance travelled is s, then
the reference standard used to • When a body travels equal distances equations of motion:
measure it. Types of Units with speed 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 , then average • 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1. Fundamental Units-The units defined speed is the harmonic mean of the two • 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1 2 𝑎𝑡 2
for the fundamental quantities are speeds. • 𝑣 2 = 𝑢 2 + 2𝑎𝑠
called fundamental or base units. • 2/ 𝑣 = 1/ 𝑣1 + 1/ 𝑣2 ⇒ 𝑣 = 2𝑣1𝑣2/ • If any body is falling freely under
Fundamental Fundamental 𝑣1+𝑣2 gravity, then a is replaced by g in above
Physical Quantity Units • When a body travels for equal times equations.
Mass (M) Kilogram (Kg) with speeds 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 , then average • If an object is thrown vertically
Length (L) Metre (m) speed is the arithmetic mean of the upward, then in above equations of
Time (T) Second (s) two speeds. motion a is replaced by (–g).
Temperature (K) Kelvin (K) • 𝑣 = 𝑣1+𝑣2/ 2 • Velocity–Time Graph For accelerating
Electric Current (I) Ampere (A) Velocity or decelerating body the graph will be
Luminous Candela (C(D) • The time rate of change of a straight line inclined to time axis and
Intensity displacement of a body is called its velocity axis.
Amount of Mole (mol) velocity. • Graph between position (distanc(e)-
Substace • Velocity = Displacement/ Time time for an accelerating or decelerating
2. Derived Units The units defined for • An object is said to be moving with body is always a parabola.
the derived quantities are called uniform velocity if it undergoes equal • Acceleration-time graph for
derived units. e.g. unit of speed or displacements in equal intervals of uniformly accelerating body is a line
velocity (metre per secon(d), time. parallel to time axis.
acceleration (metre per second2) etc. • An object is said to be moving with • In case of uniform accelerated, the
Rest and Motion non-uniform or variable velocity if it graph between position and velocity is
An object is said to be at rest if it does undergoes unequal displacement in always parabola.
not change its position which respect equal intervals of time. • In case of uniformly accelerated
to its surroundings with time and said • Average velocity = Time displacement motion, the graph between velocity
to be in motion if it changes its position / Total time taken and time is always a straight line.
with respect to its surrounding with Acceleration • Slope of displacement-time graph
time. • The time rate of change of velocity of gives velocity and slope of velocity-
• Rectilinear motion moving car on a body is called its acceleration. time graph gives acceleration.
horizontal road, motion under gravity • Acceleration = Change in velocity/ Projectile Motion
etc. Time taken • When a body is thrown from
• Angular motion such as particle going • It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is horizontal making an angle (θ) except
on a circle, projectile motion, rotation 𝑚𝑠 −2 . 90°, then its motion under gravity is a
of machine shaft etc. • Acceleration at an instant of time is curved parabolic path, called trajectory
• Rotational motion such as motion of known as instantaneous acceleration. and its motion is called projectile
a fan. • When the velocity of a body motion.
increases with time, then its • Examples:
acceleration is positive and if velocity • The motion of a bullet shot from the
decreases with time, then its gun
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
• The motion of a rocket after burn-out • Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to • A passenger jumping out from a
• The motion of a bomb dropped from obtain required centripetal force. To rapidly moving bus or train is advised
a aeroplane etc. take a safe turn cyclist slower down his to jump in forward direction and run
Properties of Projectile Motion speed and moves on a path of larger forward for a short mile due to inertia
If we drop a ball from a height and at radius. of rest.
the same time thrown another ball in a • Roads are banked at turns to provide Inertia of Motion
horizontal direction, then both the required centripetal force for taking a When a running bus or train stops
balls would strike the earth turn. suddenly, the passengers sitting in it
simultaneously at different places. • For taking turn on a curved road, the jerk in forward direction due to inertia
Circular Motion frictional force is acting between the of motion.
• The motion of an object along a tyres of the vehicle and the road acts Momentum
circular path is called circular motion. as centripetal force. The momentum of a moving body is
• Circular motion with a constant • If a bucket containing water is equal to the product of its mass and its
speed is called uniform circular motion. revolved fast in a vertical plane, the velocity.
• The direction of motion at any point water may not fall even when bucket is Conservation of Linear Momentum
in circular motion is given by the completely inverted because a • The linear momentum of a system of
tangent to the circle at that point. centrifugal force equal or greater than particles remains conserved if the
• In uniform circular motion, the the weight of water pushes the water external force acting on the system is
velocity and acceleration both changes. to the bottom of the bucket. zero.
• In case of non-uniform circular • For orbital motion of electrons • Rocket propulsion and engine of jet
motion, the speed changes from point around the nucleus electrostatic force aeroplane works on principle of
to point on the circular track. of attraction is acting between the conservation of linear momentum. In
Centripetal Acceleration electrons and the nucleus as rocket, ejecting gas exerts a forward
During circular motion an acceleration centripetal force. force which helps in accelerating the
acts on the body towards the centre, • Cream is separated from milk when it rocket upward.
called centripetal acceleration. The is rotated in a vessel about the same Newton’s Second Law
direction of centripetal acceleration is axis. During rotation lighter particles of The rate of change of momentum of a
always towards the centre of the cream experience a lesser force than body is directly proportional to the
circular path. the heavier particles of milk. force applied on it and change in
Force • For revolution of the earth around momentum takes place in the direction
It is an external push or pull with can the sun, gravitational force of of applied force. 𝐹 = ∆𝑝/ ∆𝑡 = 𝑚∆𝑣/ ∆𝑡
change or tries to change the state of attraction between the earth and the = 𝑚𝑎
rest or of uniform motion. SI unit is sun acts as centripetal force. Newton’s Third Law
newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = Newton’s Laws of Motion For every action, there is an equal and
105 dyne. If sum of all the forces acting Newton’s First Law of Motion opposite reaction and both act on two
on a body is zero, then body is said to A body continues in its state of rest or interacting objects. Rocket is propelled
be in equilibrium. of uniform motion in a straight line by the principle of Newton’s third law
Centripetal Force unless an external force acts on it. It is of motion.
During circular motion a force always based on lawof inertia. Inertia is the Impulse
acts on the body towards the centre of property of a body by virtue of which is • A large force which acts on a body for
the circular path, called centripetal opposes any change in its state of rest a very short interval of time and
force. or of uniform motion in a straight line. produces a large change in its
Centrifugal Force Inertia of Rest momentum is called an impulsive
In circular motion we experience that a • When a bus or train at rest starts, to force.
force is acting on us in opposite to the move suddenly, the passengers sitting • Its unit is newton-second.
direction of centripetal force called in it jerk in backward direction due to • A fielder lowers its hand when
centrifugal force. This is an apparent their inertia of rest. catching a cricket ball because by
force or imaginary force and also called • The dust particles come out from a lowering his hands, he increases the
a pseudo force. carpet when it is beaten with a stick time of contact for stopping the ball
Applications of centripetal and due to their inertia of rest. and therefore fielder has to apply
centrifugal forces lesser force to stop the ball. The ball
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
will also exert lesser force on the hands ii. It acts tangential to the two surfaces When a particle executing SHM is at
of the fielder and the fielder will not in contact and in a direction opposite the extreme end, then:
get hurt. to the direction of motion of the body. 1. Acceleration of the particle is
• Wagons of a train are provided with iii. The value of limiting friction is maximum.
the buffers to increase the time of independent of the area of the surface 2. Restoring force acting on particle is
impact during jerks and therefore, in contact so long as the normal maximum.
decreases the damage. The vehicles reaction remains the same. 3. Velocity of particle is zero.
like scooter, car, bus, truck etc. are iv. The limiting friction ( fs max ) is 4. Kinetic energy of particle is zero.
provided with shockers. directly proportional to the normal 5. Potential energy is maximum.
Friction reaction R between the two surfaces. Simple Pendulum
Friction is a force which opposes the OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES • A heavy point mass suspended from
relative motion of the two bodies when Periodic Motion a rigid support by means of an elastic
one body actually moves or tries to • A motion which repeats itself inextensible string, is called a simple
move over the surface of another identically after a fixed interval of time, pendulum.
body. The cause of friction is the strong is called a periodic motion. • Time period of a simple pendulum is
atomic or molecular forces of • For example given by 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑙/ 𝑔
attraction acting on the two surfaces at ▪ Motion of arms of a clock, orbital • The time period of a simple
the point of actual contact. motion of the earth around the sun, pendulum of infinite length is 84.6 min.
Uses of Friction motion of a simple pendulum etc. The time period of a second’s
• A ball bearing is a type of rolling- • Oscillatory Motion pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the earth
element that uses balls to maintain the • A periodic motion taking place to and is nearly 100 cm.
separation between the bearing races. fro or back and forth about a fixed • Acceleration due to gravity decreases
The purpose of a ball bearing is to point, is called oscillatory motion. with altitude (height) and therefore
reduce rotational friction and to • For example time period of a pendulum clock will
support loads (weight). ▪ Motion of a simple pendulum. increase and clock becomes slow.
• Friction is necessary for walking, to ▪ Motion of a loaded spring etc. • If the bob of a simple pendulum is
apply brakes in vehicles, for holding • If a particle oscillates with its own suspended from a metallic wire, then
nuts and bolts in a machinery etc. natural frequency without help of any the length of the pendulum increases
• Friction can be decreases by polishing external periodic force. The oscillation with increase in temperature and
the surfaces by using lubricants or by is then called damped oscillation. therefore its time period also
using ball bearings. • When a body oscillates with the help increases.
• Tyres are made of synthetic rubber of an external periodic force with a • A girl is swinging over a swing. If she
because its coefficient or friction with frequency different from natural stands up over the swing, then the
road is larger and therefore, large force frequency of the body, then oscillation effective length of the swing decreases
of friction acts on it, which stops sliding is called forced oscillation. and therefore, the time period of
at turns. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) oscillations decreases.
• The tyres are threading which also • An oscillatory motion of constant • A pendulum clock cannot be used in
increases the friction between the amplitude and of single frequency a space-ship.
tyres and the road. under a restoring force whose • Damped Harmonic Motion
• When pedal is applied to a bicycle, magnitude is proportional to the • When there is friction or any other
the force of friction on rear wheel is in displacement and always acts towards force acting within an oscillating
forward direction and on front wheel is mean position, is called Simple system, the amplitudes of the
in the backward direction. Harmonic Motion. oscillation decreases over time to this
• Loses due to Friction Characteristics of SHM damping force. This is called damped
• Too much Loss of Energy in machines When a particle executing SHM passes harmonic motion.
and then ultimately the machines are through the mean position: Wave
damaged. 1. No force acts on the particle. A wave is a disturbance which
• Laws of Limiting Friction 2. Acceleration of the particle is zero. propagates energy from one place to
i. It depends on the nature of the 3. Velocity is maximum. the other without the transport of
surfaces in contact and their state of 4. Kinetic energy is maximum. matter. Waves are broadly of two
polish. 5. Potential energy is zero. types:
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
1. Mechanical Wave 3. Ultra-violet rays - Johann Ritter • The minimum distance from a sound
2. Non-mechanical wave 4. Visible radiation - Newton reflecting surface to hear an echo is
Mechanical Wave: The waves which 5. Infra-red rays - Hershel nearly is nearly 17 m.
required material medium (solid, liquid 6. Short radio waves or Hertzian Waves • Sound proof rooms are made of two
or gas) for their propagation are called - Heinrich Hertz layers of walls having vacuum between
mechanical wave or elastic wave. 7. Long Radio Waves - Marconi them.
Mechanical waves are of two types. Note: Electromagnetic waves of • Reverberation arises due to multiple
1. Longitudinal wave: If the particles of wavelength range 10−3m to 10−2m are reflection of sound.
the medium vibrate in the direction of called microwaves. • While designing an auditorium for
propagation of wave, the wave is called Amplitude: Amplitude is defined as the speech or musical concerts, one has to
longitudinal wave. maximum displacement of the take proper care for the absorption
2. Transverse Wave: If the particles of vibrating particle on either side from and reflection of sound.
the medium vibrate perpendicular to the equilibrium position. • Time taken by reverberant sound to
the direction of propagation of wave, Wavelength: Wavelength is the decrease its intensity by a factor of 106
the wave is called transverse wave. distance between any two nearest is called reverberation time.
Waves on strings under tension, waves particle of the medium, vibrating in the • Refraction
on the surface of water are examples same phase. It is denoted by the Greek • When a sound wave move from one
of transverse waves. letter lambda(λ). In transverse wave mechanical medium to another
Non-mechanical waves or distance between two consecutive mechanical medium, it shows deviation
electromagnetic waves: The waves crests or troughs and in longitudinal from the original path of the incident
which do not require medium for their wave, distance between two wave. The phenomenon is called
propagation i.e. which can propagate consecutive compressions or refraction. It is due to difference is
even through the vacuum are called rarefactions is equal to wavelength. speed of sound in media.
non mechanical wave. Velocity of wave = frequency × • Diffraction
Light, heat are the examples of non- wavelength. • When sound waves originated by a
mechanical wave. In fact all the Sound vibrating source, they spread in the
electromagnetic waves are non- Sound waves are mechanical medium and if the medium is
mechanical. All the electromagnetic longitudinal waves and require homogeneous, this leads to bending of
wave consists of photon. The medium for their propagation. It sound waves around the edges. Which
wavelength range of electromagnetic cannot propagate through vacuum. is known as diffraction.
wave is 10−14m to 104 m. When propagated speed and • The sound waves diffracted broadly
Properties of electromagnetic waves wavelength changes but frequency and one can easily hears the voice of
1. They are neutral (uncharge(d). remains constant. It is of three types: the another person.
2. They propagate as transverse wave. Infrasonic waves – 0 to 20,000 Hz Musical Scale
3. They propagate with the velocity of Audible waves – 20 to 20,000 Hz • In theory of music, a musical scale is
light. Ultrasonic waves – >20,000 Hz a set of musical notes by the
4. They contains energy and Properties of Sound Wave frequencies of which are in simple
momentum. Reflection ratios to one another. Sa, re, ga, ma,
5. Their concept was introduced by • The bouncing back of sound when it pa, dha, ni is one such scale called the
Maxwell. strikes a hard surface, is called diatonic scale. The interval sa-sa is
Following waves are not reflection of sound. called an octave (8).
electromagnetic • The laws of reflection of light are also Noise Reduction in Recording Media
1. Cathode rays obeyed during reflection of sound. • Five types of noise reduction system
2. Canal rays • The working of megaphone, sound exists in recording media as discussed
3. α rays boards and ear trumpet is based on below
4. β rays reflection of sound. ▪ Dolby A noise reduction system,
5. Sound wave 6. Ultrasonic wave • The repetition of sound due to intended for use in professional
Some Important Electromagnetic reflection of sound waves, is called an recording studios. It provided about 10
Waves & their discoverer echo. dB of broadband noise reduction.
1. γ-Rays - Henry Becqueral • The persistence of hearing on human ▪ Dolby B was developed to achieve
2. X-Rays - W. Rontgen ear is 1 10 th of a second. about 9 dB noise reduction primarily
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
for cassettes. It was much simpler than • The transfer of heat is always from 3. Other thermometers - These include
Dolby A and therefore less expensive hotter to colder body. constant volume gas thermometer,
to implement in consumer products. Temperature platinum resistance thermometer etc.
▪ Dolby C provides about 15 dB noise • Temperature is measure of hotness • Clinical thermometer measures
reduction. or coldness of a body. temperature in degree fahrenheit (°(F).
▪ Dolby SR (Spectral Recording) system • The heat flows from one body to • In thermometer, mercury is
is much more aggressive noise another due to the difference in their commonly used through a wide range
reduction approach than Dolby A. body temperature. from –30°C to 300°C.
Dolby SR is much more expensive to Scale of Temperature • Thermometer was developed by
implement than Dolby B or C, but it is • To measure the temperature of a Galileo who found that the gases
capable of providing upto 25 dB noise body following temperature scales are expand on heating. Thermal Expansion
reduction in the high frequency range. used. • The expansion of a body caused by
▪ Dolby S is found on some Hi-Fi and • Celsius scale of temperature freezing heat is known as thermal expansion.
semi-professional recording point is 0°C Boiling point of water is Thermal Expansion of Solids Thermal
equipment. It is capable of 10 dB of 100°C expansion of solids is of three types
noise reduction at low frequencies and • Fahrenheit scale of temperature ice 1. Expansion in length on heating, is
upto 24 dB of noise reduction at high point or freezing of water = 32° F called linear expansion. The increase in
frequencies. • Boiling point of water = 212° F length of a rod of unit length of a
SONAR • Kelvin or absolute scale of substance due to increase in its
• SONAR stands for Sound Navigation temperature ice point of water = 273° temperature by 1°C is called the
And Ranging. It is used to measure the K coefficient of linear expansion of the
depth of a sea, to locate the enemy • Boiling point of water = 373° K substance of that rod. It is represented
submarines and shipwrecks. • Reaumur scale of temperature ice by α. α = Increase in length/ Initial
• The transmitter of a sonar produces point of water is 0° R, length × Rise in temperature = ∆L/ L ×
pulses of ultrasonic sound waves of • Boiling point of water = 80°R ∆t — Its unit is °C–1.
frequency of about 50000 Hz. The Relation between Different Scales of 2. Expansion in area on heating, is
reflected sound waves are received by Temperature called superficial expansion. Coefficient
the receiver. Different scales of temperature are of superficial expansion is given as β =
• Human Ear related as follows: C/ 100 = F – 32/ 180 Increase in area/ Initial area × Rise in
• We are able to hear with the help of = R/ 80 = K – 273/ 100 K =273+ °C temperature = ∆A A × ∆t — Its unit is
an extremely sensitive organ of our • At temperature – 40°C = – 40°F, °C–1. 3. Expansion in volume on
body called the ear. There are three Celsius scale is equal to Fahrenheit. heating, is called volume expansion or
parts of human ear. • The temperature at which the three cubical expansion. Coefficient of
• The outer ear is called pinna. It phases of water remains at equilibrium volume or cubical expansion is given as
collects the sound from the is called triple point of water (273.16 K) γ = Increase in volume/ Original volume
surroundings. The middle ear transmits Thermometers × Rise in temperature = ∆V/ V × ∆t —
the amplified pressure variations • The instruments used to measure Its unit is °C-1
received from the sound wave to the temperature of a body is called Relation between Coefficients of
inner ear. thermometer. Thermometers are of Expansions
• In the inner ear, the pressure following three types – • Coefficients of thermal expansions
variations are turned into electrical 1. Clinical thermometer - It is used to are related as
signals by the cochlea. These electrical measure human body temperatures • β = 2α and γ = 3α
signals are sent to the brain via the and ranges from 96° F to 110°F or 35°C • and α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3
auditory nerve and the brain interpret to 43°C. • In laying a railway line, a small gap is
them as sound. 2. Electronic thermometer - Basic left in between two iron rails otherwise
HEAT components of an electronic railway line will become curved on
• Heat is the form of energy which thermometer are thermistors or heating in summer.
produces the sensation of warmth. Its thermoresistors. Range of electronic • Telephone wires are not tighten on
SI unit is joule and other unit is calorie thermometer is –40° to 450°F. poles because in winter, wires get
(1 cal = 4.2 Joul(e). contract and can break.
Thermal Expansion of Liquids
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
• In liquids, only expansion in volume substances. Therefore, water is used as combustion heat engine are two types
takes place on heating. coolant in radiator in vehicle and hot of heat engine.
• Expansion of liquid is of two types: water is used for the fermentation. • Car engine uses coolant added with
• When expansion of the container, • Heat energy given or taken to change water to reduce harmful effects like
containing liquid, on heating, is not the temperature of a body is given by corrosion, rusting etc. Such as ethylene
taken into account, then observed Q = ms∆θ where, m = mass of the body glycol, potassium dichromate etc,
expansion is called apparent expansion and ∆θ = change in temperature. • Carnot’s theorem tells about
of liquids. The amount of heat required to raise maximum efficiency of heat engine. It
• When expansion of the container, the temperature of 1 mole of a gas by refers to carnot cycle.
containing liquid, on heating, is also 1°C is called molar specific heat. • Entropy measures the molecular
taken into account, then observed Latent Heat disorder of a system and is a
expansion is called real expansion of • The heat energy absorbed or thermodynamic function depending
liquids. γr = γa + γg released at constant temperature per only on the temperature of the system.
where, γr and γa , are coefficients of unit mass for change of state, is called • Evaporation is a process in which
real and apparent expansion of liquids latent heat. molecules escape slowly from the
and γg = coefficient of cubical • It is denoted by L and its SI unit is surface of a liquid.
expansion of the container. cal/g or kcal/kg. • For a given liquid the rate of
Anomalous Expansion of Water When • Heat energy absorbed or released evaporation demands on the
temperature of water is increased from during change of state is given by Q = temperature and area of evaporating
0°C, then its volume decreases up to mL where, m = mass of the substance. surface.
4°C, becomes minimum at 4° C and • Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 • Refrigerator is a device used for
then increases. This behavior of water cal/g. cooling things by the evaporation and
expansion around 4°C is called, • Latent heat of vaporisation of steam compression of a volatile liquid inside a
anomalous expansion of water. is 536 cal/g. copper coil.
Thermal Expansion of Gases There are Thermodynamics Humidity
two types of coefficient of expansion in The branch of physics which deals with • The presence of moisture in the
gases. the study of relation of heat energy atmosphere, is called humidity.
— At constant pressure, the change in with different types of energy is called • The amount of water vapour present
volume per unit volume per degree thermodynamics. in the unit volume of atmosphere, is
celsius, is called volume coefficient (γv Zeroth Law called absolute humidity.
). — At constant volume, the change in • Zeroth law of thermodynamics tells • The relative humidity of air at a given
pressure per unit, pressure per degree about thermal equilibrium. temperature is the ratio of mass of
celsius, is called pressure coefficient • First Law water vapour present in a certain
(yp). • As per first law about energy, heat volume of air to the mass of water
Calorimetry given to a substance is equal to sum of vapour required to saturate the same
• Amount of heat required to raise the change in internal energy and work volume of air at the same temperature,
temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C is done. Second Law multiplied by 100.
called 1 calorie. • In second law work can be converted • Relative humidity is measured by
• Calorimetry states that heat lost by into heat and vice-versa but conversion hygrometer.
hotter body equals the heat gained by is not possible with 100% efficiency. • Relative humidity of about 50% is
colder body. • It is impossible for a machine considered comfortable at
Specific Heat operating in a cyclic process to convert temperature 22°– 25° C.
• The amount of heat required to raise heat completely into work, it is kelvin’s • If the relative humidity is very low in
the temperature of unit mass (m) of a statement. air, then lips become dry and cracks
substance through 1°C, is called its • Heat by itself can not transfer from a appear in them.
specific heat (s). colder to a hotter body. It is clausius • If relative humidity is very high in air
• It is denoted by s and its unit is statement. Refrigerator is based on this then the sweat from our body does not
‘cal/g°C or Joule/g°/C. statement. evaporate readily and therefore we
• The specific heat of water is 4200 • Heat engine is a device which feel uncomfortable.
J/kg1/°C or 1000 cal/ g1/° C–, which is converts heat into mechanical work. • Air conditioning provides
high compared with most other Internal combustion and external comfortable conditions by regulating
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
temperature and humidity. • Radiator in a motor car works on the • White colour is a bad absorbers and
Transmission of Heat principle of convection. good reflectors of heat radiations while
• Heat can be transferred from one Newton’s Law of Cooling black colour is good absorbers and bad
place to another by process of The rate of loss of heat from a body is reflectors of heat. Therefore, clothes of
transmission. directly proportional to the difference light colors give better feeling in
• There are three methods of in temperatures of the body and its summer and clothes of dark colors give
transmission of heat. Conduction surroundings. better feeling in winter.
• The mode of transmission of heat in If we take hot water and fresh water MATTER
solids from higher temperature part to and put it in a refrigerator, then rate of Matter is considered as any thing
lower temperature part without actual cooling of hot water will be faster than which has weight and occupy space. It
movement of the particles, is called the fresh tap-water. exist in three states: Solid, liquid and
conduction. • Sea Breeze During day time, the gas.
• Transmission of heat in solids takes seashore warms up much faster than Solid
place mainly through conduction. sea water. Hot air over the seashore It is that, state of matter which has
• Metals are good conductors of heat. rises and cooler air from sea water definite shape and definite volume. In
• Wood, cotton, wool, glass are bad moves towards seashore to take its this state molecules are very closely
conductors of heat, dry air is also a bad place resulting in a sea breeze. packed.
conductor of heat. • Land Breeze At night, land cools Properties of Solids
• Woollen clothes do not allow the faster than sea water. Now hot air over Elasticity
heat of our body to escape and sea water rises and cooler air from land The property of a body by virtue of
therefore we feel warm. moves towards sea to take its place which it regain its original
• On a cold night two thin blankets give and resulting in a land breeze. configuration after the removal of
more warmth than a single thick • Cloudy night are warmer than clear deforming force, is called elasticity.
blanket because the layer of air night because clouds reflect the Quartz and phosphor bronze are
between the two blankets works as a radiations emitted by the earth at night almost perfectly elastic bodies.
better insulator. and keep it warm. Plasticity
• Refrigerators and ice-boxes have Radiation The property of a body by virtue of
double walls having thermocol • The process of heat transmission in which it does not regain its original
between them which minimise heat the form of electromagnetic waves, is configuration after the removal of
gain by conduction. called radiation. deforming force, is called plasticity.
Convection • Radiation does not require any Strain
• The mode of transmission of heat in medium for propagation and it The fraction I change in configuration
fluids (liquids and gases) due to actual propagates without heating the i.e. length, volume and shape, is called
movement of the particles, is called intervening medium. Black Body strain. Strain has no unit. On the basis
convection. • A body that absorbs all the radiation of change in configuration, strain is of
• In liquids and gases, heat is incident on it is called perfectly black three types
transmitted by convection. body. - Longitudinal strain = ∆𝐼/ 𝐼 –
• When a liquid in a vessel is heated at • Ratio of heat absorbed (radiation) to Volume strain = ∆𝑉/ 𝑉
the bottom, the liquid at bottom gets total incident radiation for a body is - Shearing strain = Δθ/θ
heated and expands. called absorptive power (a) of body. It Stress
• Due to its lower density, hot liquid has no unit. The internal restoring force acting per
rises and its place is taken by cold • Amount of heat radiation per unit unit area of crosssection of a deformed
liquid from above. Convection currents area of the surface at a given body, is called stress. Stress is of two
are set up in the liquid until the temperature is called emissive power types
temperature of the whole liquid of the surface. - Normal stress
becomes same. • Its unit is J/m2 – s. - Tangential stress
• The cooling unit in a refrigerator is • The ratio of emissive power and The maximum deforming force upto
fitted near the top as cold air move absorptive power of a body is always which a body retains its property of
downward and keeps cool the whole same. It is equal to emissive power of a elasticity is called the limit of elasticity
interior. black body. This is known as Kirchhoff’s of the material body. The minimum
law.
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
stress required to break a wire is called The density of water is maximum at (B) of the floating body must lie on the
breaking stress. 4°C. same straight line.
The torque required to produce a given Hydrometer - It is an instrument used Ice and large icebergs float on water
twist in a hollow cylinder is greater to measure density or relative density surface as its density (0.92 g/cm3) is
than that required to produce the of liquid. Its working is based on law of lesser than the density of water.
same twist in a solid cylinder. floatation. When a piece of ice floats on water, its
Therefore, hollow shaft is stronger Fluid Pressure Thrust(the normal ( 11 12) 𝑡ℎ part submerged in water
than a solid shaft. Springs are made of forc(e) exerted by a liquid per unit area and (1/12) th part is outside the water.
steel, not of copper as Young's of the surface in contact at rest, is In sea water, (8/ 9) th part of icebergs
modulus of elasticity of steel is more called fluid pressure. Fluid pressure (p) is submerged and (1/9) th part is
than that of copper. = 𝐹 𝐴 . Its unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 or Pascal (P(a). outside the water during floating. It is
Elastic Limit Atmospheric Pressure The pressure easier to swim in sea water than in a
It is the limit of stress and strain upto exerted by the atmosphere, is called river as density of sea water is greater
which a wire remains elastic. atmospheric pressure. than the density of river water. In sea
Plastic Behaviour Aneroid barometer is used to measure water, buoyant force is greater than
If the wire is stretched beyond the atmospheric pressure and height of a that in river water. The density of
elastic limit, the strain increases much place. Other units of atmospheric human body is less than the density of
more rapidly. If the stretching force is pressure are torr and bar. water but the density of human head is
removed, the wire does not comes Pascal’s Law The pressure exerted greater than the density of water.
back to its natural length. anywhere at a point of confined fluid is Therefore, during swimming a person
Fracture Point transmitted equally and undiminished, displaces the liquid with hands and legs
If the deformation is increased further in all directions throughout the liquid. and total weight of displaced liquid
the plastic behaviour, the wire breaks Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press hydraulic becomes equal to the weight of the
at a point known as fracture point. brakes works on the basis of Pascal’s body.
Ductile and Brittle Materials law. Surface Tension
If large deformation takes place Buoyancy The property of a liquid by virtue of
between the elastic limit and the When a body is partially or wholly which it tries to minimise its free
fracture point, the material is called immersed in a liquid, an upward force surface area is called surface tension.
ductile. If the wire breaks soon after acts on it, which is called buoyant force The minimum surface area of a given
the elastic limit is crossed, it is called or upthrust and this property of fluids amount of liquid is for spherical shape.
brittle. is called buoyancy. Buoyant force is Therefore, rain drops are spherical.
Elastic Fatigue equal to the weight of the liquid Factors Affecting Surface Tension
It is the property of an elastic body by displaced by the submerged part of the Temperature -The surface tension of a
virtue of which its behaviour becomes body. The buoyant force acts at the liquid decreases with increase in
less elastic under the action of centre of gravity of the liquid displaced temperature.
repeated alternating deforming force. by the submerged part of the body, Soluble Impurities - If the impurities
Due to elastic fatigue, the bridges which is called ‘centre of buoyancy’. are less soluble in liquid, then its
becomes less elastic after a use of long Archimedes Principle surface tension decreases. If impurities
time and therefore are declared When a body is partially or completely are highly soluble in liquid, then its
unsafe. immersed in a quid, it loses some of its surface tension increases.Surface
Fluid weight. The loss in weight is equal to tension of a liquid becomes zero at
A substance which begins to flow the weight of the liquid displaced by critical temperature.
under an external force is called a fluid. the submerged part of the body. • Applications of Surface Tension
Liquids and gases are fluids. Law of Floatation • When soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl
Fluid Density A body will float in a liquid if weight of etc., are mixed in water then its surface
The ratio of mass to the volume of a the body is equal weight of the liquid tension decreases. When salt is added
body is called its density. (i.e. mass displaced by the immersed part of the in water, its surface tension increases.
present in its unit volum(e). It is a body. • When oil spreads over the surface of
scalar quantity having SI unit kg/𝑚3 . In floating condition, the centre of water, its surface tension decreases.
The density of water is 1000 kg/𝑚3 . gravity (g) and the centre of buoyancy • When kerosene oil is sprinkled on
water, its surface tension decreases. As
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
a result the larva of mosquitoes molecules of different substance is energy, kinetic energy and potential
floating on the surface of water die due called adhesive force. energy, per unit volume of the liquid
to sinking. For e.g., Intermolecular force of remains constant. Venturi tube and
• Warm soup is tasty because at high attraction acting between the aspirator pump works on Bernoulli’s
temperature its surface tension is low molecules of paper and gum, paper theorem.
and consequently the soup spreads on and ink, etc. According to Bernoulli's theorem, with
all parts of the tongue. Viscous force: The force which opposes increase in velocity of liquid its
• Antiseptics like dettol have low the relative motion between different pressure decreases and vice-versa.
surface tension and therefore it layers of liquid or gases is called During storms or cyclones, the roofs of
reaches in the tiny cracks of the wound viscous force. Viscosity: the huts or tinned roofs blown off
and cleans the germs and bacteria. Viscosity is the property of a liquid by because wind blows with very high
• The surface tension of soap solution virtue of which it opposes the relative speed over the top of the roof and
in water is less than the surface tension motion between its different layers. therefore pressure of air decreases.
of pure water. Therefore, soap solution Viscosity is the property of liquids and Due to the pressure difference of air
cleans greasy strains of clothes better gases both. The viscosity of a liquid is above and below the roof, a lifting
than pure water. due to cohesive force between its force acts on the roof. If it is sufficient
Capillarity molecules. to balance the weight of the roof it
The phenomenon of rising or falling of The viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion start to fly off.
liquid column in a capillary tube (glass of its molecules from one layer to Magnus Effect : Motion of a Spinning
tube of very fine bor(e) is called other layer. Viscosity of gases is much Ball
capillarity. less than that of liquids. There is no When swing bowlers deliver the ball,
Examples of Capillarity – viscosity in solids. the ball changes its plane of motion in
1. A piece of blotting paper soaks ink Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero. air.
because the pores of the blotting paper With rise in temperature, viscosity of LIGHT
serve as capillary tubes. liquids decreases and that for gases REFLECTION OF LIGHT (Law of
2. The oil in the wick of a lamp rises increases. Reflection)
due to capillary action of threads in the Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its (i) The angle of incidence is equal to
wick. coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is the angle of reflection.
3. The root hairs of plants draws water decapoise (kg/ms) or pascal second. It (ii) The incident ray, the normal, the
from the soil through capillary action. is generally denoted by η. point of incidence and the reflected
4. To prevent loss of water due to Stoke’s Law ray, all lie in the same plane.
capillary action, the soil is loosened According to this law, the viscous force Spherical Mirrors & their Uses
and split into pieces by the farmers. depends upon the coefficient of Uses of concave mirrors
5. If a capillary tube is dipped in water viscosity, velocity of the moving object • Concave mirrors are commonly used
in an artificial satellite, water rises up and its size. in torches, search-lights and vehicles
to other end of tube because of its zero Terminal Velocity headlights to get powerful parallel
apparent weight, how long the tube When a small spherical body falls beams of light.
may be. through a long liquid column its • They are often used as shaving
6. Action of towel in soaking up water velocity increases gradually but later mirrors to see a larger image of the
from the body is due to capillary action on it becomes constant, called terminal face. The dentists use concave mirrors
of cotton in the towel. velocity. The radius of spherical rain to see large images of the teeth of
7. Melted wax, in a candle rises up to drops is very small therefore their patients.
wick by capillary action. terminal velocity is also small, with • Large concave mirrors are used to
Cohesive and Adhesive Forces which they strike the earth’s surface. concentrate sunlight to produce heat
The intermolecular force of attraction When a liquid flow through a pipe, its in solar furnaces.
acting between the molecules of same speed i maximum near axis and Uses of convex mirrors
substance is called cohesive force. e.g., minimum near the walls of the pipe. Convex mirrors are commonly used as
Intermolecular force of attraction Bernoulli’s Theorem rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles,
acting between the molecules of If a non-viscous and incompressible enabling the driver to see traffic
water, mercury etc. The intermolecular liquid is flowing in stream-lined flow behind him/her to facilitate safe
force of attraction acting between the then total energy, i.e., sum of pressure driving. They always give an erect,
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
though diminished, image. Also, they Different colors of light bend through The blue colour of the sky, colour of
have a wider field of view as they are different angles with respect to the water in deep sea, the reddening of the
curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors incident ray, as they pass through a sun at sunrise and the sunset. Total
enable the driver to view much larger prism. The red light bends the least Internal Reflection
area than would be possible with a while the violet the most. Thus the rays Total internal reflection is a
plane mirror. of each colour emerge along different phenomenon that occurs when light
REFRACTION OF LIGHT paths and thus become distinct.Itis the travels from a more optically dense
The refraction of light when it passes band of distinct colors that we see in a medium to a less optically dense one,
from a fast medium to a slow medium spectrum. such as glass to air or water to air.
bends the light ray toward the normal A rainbow is a natural spectrum Examples of Total Internal Reflection –
to the boundary between the two appearing in the sky after a rain (a) Mirage – Hotter air is less dense,
media. When a thick glass slab is shower. It is caused by dispersion of and has smaller refractive index than
placed over some printed matter, the sunlight by tiny water droplets, present the cooler air. On hot summer days,
letters appear raised when viewed in the atmosphere. A rainbow is always the air near the ground becomes
through the glass slab the bottom of a formed in a direction opposite to that hotter than the air at higher levels
tank or a pond containing water of the Sun. The water droplets act like noticed that while moving in a bus or a
appears to be raised seen a pencil small prisms. They refract and disperse car during a hot summer day, a distant
partly immersed in water in a glass the incident sunlight, then reflect it patch of road, especially on a highway,
tumbler. It appears to be displaced at internally, and finally refract it again appears to be wet. This is also due to
the interface of air and water. when it comes out of the raindrop. Due mirage.
A lemon kept in water in a glass to the dispersion of light and internal (b) Diamonds - Their brilliance is mainly
tumbler appears to be bigger than its reflection, different colors reach the due to the total internal reflection of
actual size, when viewed from the observer’s eye. light inside them.
sides. ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION (c) Optical fibres too make use of the
The following are the laws of refraction The air just above the fire becomes phenomenon of total internal
of light : hotter than the air further up. The reflection.Light undergoes repeated
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray hotter air is lighter (less dens(e) than total internal reflections along the
and the normal to the interface of two the cooler air above it, and has a length of the fibre there is no
transparent media at the point of refractive index slightly less than that appreciable loss in the intensity of the
incidence, all lie in the same plane. of the cooler air. Since the physical light signal.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of conditions of the refracting medium Tyndall Effect
incidence to the sine of angle of (air) are not stationary, the apparent The Tyndall effect is the scattering of
refraction is a constant, for the light of position of the object, as seen through light as a light beam passes through a
a given colour and for the given pair of the hot air, fluctuate. This wavering is colloid. The individual suspension
media. This law is also known as Snell’s thus an effect of atmospheric particles scatter and reflect light,
law of refraction. If i is the angle of refraction (refraction of light by the making the beam visible. The earth’s
incidence and r is the angle of earth’s atmospher(e) . atmosphere is a heterogeneous
refraction, then, Sin i/Sin r = constant. Twinkling of stars mixture of minute particles like smoke,
The one with the larger refractive index The twinkling of a star is due to tiny water droplets, suspended
is optically denser medium than the atmospheric refraction of starlight. particles of dust and molecules of air.
other. The other medium of lower Advance sunrise and delayed sunset When a beam of light strikes such fine
refractive index is optically rarer. The The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes particles, the path of the beam
speed of light is higher in a rarer before the actual sunrise, and about 2 becomes visible.
medium than a denser medium. minutes after the actual sunset Tyndall effect is seen when a fine beam
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A because of atmospheric refraction. of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room
GLASS PRISM SCATTERING OF LIGHT through a small hole. Tyndall effect can
The prism has probably split the Scattering of light is the phenomenon also be observed when sunlight passes
incident white light into a band of by which a beam of light is redirected through a canopy of a dense forest.
colors. The sequence of colors in many different directions when it Power of Accomodation of Eye - The
VIBGYOR . The splitting of light into its interacts with a particle of matter. ability of the lens to change its shape
component colors is called dispersion. to focus near and distant objects is
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
called accommodation. A normal distance between them. F= K(qa- given to the conductor to change in its
human eye can see objects clearly that q(b)/r2 . potential (V) is given by C = 𝑞 𝑉 .
are between 25 cm and infinity. Electric Field • Its unit is coulomb/volt or farad.
Defects of Vision and Their Correction • The space in the surrounding of any Farad ((F) is a large unit of capacitance.
Nearsightedness: If the eyeball is too charge in which its influence can be Its practical unit is microfarad (𝜇𝐹).
long or the lens too spherical, the experience by other charge, is called • 1𝜇𝐹 = 10−6𝐹 Type of Materials
image of distant objects is brought to a electric field. • Conductors are those type of
focus in front of the retina and is out of • Electric field intensity (E) at any point materials which have number of free
focus again before the light strikes the is defined as the electrostatic force ((F) electrons to conduct the electricity.
retina. Nearby objects can be seen acting per unit positive test charge (q) The metals are good conductors of
more easily. Eyeglasses with concave at the point. electricity.
lenses correct this problem by • 𝑬 = 𝑭/ 𝑞 • Insulators are that type of materials
diverging the light rays before they • Its unit is newton/coulomb. which do not have the free electrons in
enter the eye. Nearsightedness is • Therefore, electric field intensity is its volume and hence, it does not
called myopia. inversely proportional to the square of conduct the electricity at all.
Farsightedness: If the eyeball is too the distance r from the point charge. • Semiconductor is that type of
short or the lens too flat or inflexible, Electric Field Lines materials which do not have free
the light rays entering the eye — • An electric field line is an imaginary electrons at the normal temperature,
particularly those from nearby line, so that its tangent at any point is but has the free electrons at the
objects— will not be brought to a focus in the direction of the electric field increased temperature and hence,
by the time they strike the retina. vector at that point. behaves like a conductor. The
Eyeglasses with convex lenses can • Two lines can never intersect. Electric materials such as silicon, germanium
correct the problem. Farsightedness is field lines always begin on a positive etc., are the semiconductor.
called hypermetropia. charge and end on a negative charge Electric Current
Astigmatism : Astigmatism is the most and do not start or stop in mid-space. • An electric current whose magnitude
common refractive problem Electric Potential and direction do not change with time
responsible for blurry vision. Most of • Electric potential at a point in an is called direct current, and whose
the eyeball’s focusing power occurs electric field is equal to the work done magnitude changes continuously and
along the front surface of the eye, per unit charge in carrying a test direction changes periodically is called
involving the tear film and cornea (the charge from infinity to that point. Its alternating current.
clear ‘window’ along the front of the unit is joule/coulomb. • Inverter is a device which converts
eyeball). The ideal cornea has a • Electric potential, V = 𝑊 𝑞 . DC to AC.
perfectly round surface. Anything other • Potential difference is that physical • In solid conductors, electric current
than perfectly round contributes to quantity which decides the direction of flows due to flow of electrons, in
abnormal corneal curvature– this is flow of charge between two points in liquids due to flow of ions as well as
astigmatism. Cylindrical lens is use to electric field. • Positive charge always electrons and in semiconductors due to
correct astigmatism. tends to move from higher potential flow of electrons and holes.
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY towards lower potential. • Its S.I. unit is Ampere
Electricity — Flow of Electrons is called Electric Dipole and Capacitor Resistance
Electricity. • An electric dipole consists of two • Resistance is the opposition that a
• The electricity produced by friction equal and opposite point charges substance offers to the flow of electric
between two appropriate bodies, is separated by a very small distance. current.
called static electricity, it is also called • Electric dipole moment of the dipole • It is represented by R.
frictional electricity. is product of charge and the separation • Its S.I. unit is ohm.
Coulomb’s law - The electrostatic force between the charges. Conductance
of interaction acting between two • A capacitor or condenser is a device • Conductance and conductivity is the
stationary point charges is directly over which a large amount of charge reciprocal of resistance and the
proportional to the product of can be stored without changing its resistivity of the material respectively.
magnitude of charges and inversely dimensions. The SI unit of conductance is Ω −1 i.e.,
proportional to the square of the • The capacitance of a conductor is mho and to that of conductivity is Ω
equal to the ratio of the charge (q) −1m−1 .
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
Resistivity (electromotive forc(e). Electromotive protect this lightning conductors are
• Resistivity of a material depends on force is work but not a force. used.
the temperature and nature of the Joule’s Law of Heating Magnetism
material depends on temperature and • Current can produce three effects: • A magnet is a material which can
nature of the material. It is heating effect, magnetic effect and attract iron objects.
independent of dimensions of the chemical effect. • A natural magnet is an ore of iron
conductor, i.e., length, area of • Heat is produced in conductor in time (𝐹𝑒3𝑂4 ) called magnetite or
crosssection etc. t is given by H = I 2Rt = V 2 R t = VIt lodestone.
• Resistivity of metals increases with • This is known as Joule’s law of • A magnet which is prepared
increase in temperature. Combination heating. artificially, is called an artificial magnet.
of Resistances • Electric bulb, electric kettle, heater • A freely suspended magnet always
• It resistance 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are etc., devices work on the basis of aligns itself into North-South direction.
connected in series, then their heating effect of electric current. Like magnetic poles repel and unlike
equivalent resistance is given by 𝑅 = 𝑅1 • To protect the domestic appliances magnetic poles attract each other.
+ 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 • In series combination, from sudden change in electricity, • A current-carrying coil containing a
equal current flows through each fuses are used. It is made of tin, lead, soft iron core, is called an
resistors but Voltage varies. alloy (63% + 37%). electromagnet.
• If resistances 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 ,𝑅3 are • It should have high resistance and • An electromagnet is utilised in
connected in parallel, then their low melting point always connected in electric bell, telegraph receiver,
equivalent resistance is given by 1 𝑅 = series. telephone diaphragm, transformer,
1 𝑅1 + 1 𝑅2 + 1 𝑅3 Electric power dynamo etc.
• In parallel combination, potential • The electrical energy produced or • Permanent magnets are made of
difference across each resistor remains consumed per unit time is called steel and temporary magnet or
same but current varies. electric power. • Electric power, P = VI electromagnets are made of soft iron
Ohm’s law = 𝐼 2𝑅 = 𝑉 2 𝑅 • 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J because steel cannot magnetised easily
• It states that if physical conditions of Chemical Effect of Electric Current but when it is magnetised one time,
any conductor such as temperature, • When an electric current is passed cannot be demagnetised easily. The
pressure etc., remain unchanged, then through an acidic or basic solution, it soft iron can be magnetised or
electric current (I) flowing through it, is decomposes into its positive and demagnetised easily.
directly proportional to the potential negative ions. The positive ions collect Properties of Magnet
difference (V) applied across its ends, at negative electrode (cathod(e) and • Attractive property: A magnet can
i.e., I ∝ V or V = IR the negative ions collect at positive attract small pieces of magnetic
• where, R is the electrical resistance of electrode (anod(e). substances like iron, steel, cobalt,
the conductor. Electric Cell • This phenomenon is called nickel etc. The attraction is maximum
• An electric cell is a device which electrolysis. It is chemical effect of at poles. Unlike poles attract and like
converts chemical energy into current. The process of coating of a poles repel.
electrical energy. base metal with a layer of more • Directive property: A magnet, when
• Electric cell are of two types expensive metal, is called suspended freely, aligns itself
Primary cell cannot be charged. Voltaic, electroplating. approximately along geographical N-S
Daniel and Leclanche cells are primary Domestic Electrification line.
cells. • From the distribution, the two • Magnetic poles exist in pairs: If a
Secondary cell can be charged again terminals are supplied to the houses magnet is cut into two equal parts
and again. Acid and alkali accumulators named as live and neutral (neutral is transverse to its length, then N and
are secondary cells. earthed at local substation). The third Spoles of the magnet do not get
• Working of electric cells is based on terminal is introduced as the earth for separated.
chemical effect of electric current. the safety in the building. Magnetic Field
Emf of a Cell Lightning Appliance • The space in the surrounding of a
• The work done by the cell to bring a • The electric discharge occurring magnet or a current carrying conductor
(+)ve charge from its own terminal to between two charged clouds or in which its magnetic effect can be
the other is known as its emf between a charged cloud and earth can experienced, is called magnetic field.
damage the houses or buildings. To
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
• Magnetic lines of force is an • A voltmeter is a device used to magnetic field when placed in it, are
imaginary line drawn in magnetic field measure potential difference between called ferromagnetic substances.
at which a magnetic North pole will two points in an electric circuit. • For examples —Iron, nickel, cobalt
move, if it is free to do so. • The resistance of an ideal voltmeter etc.
• A tangent drawn at any point of an is infinity. It is always connected in • The magnetism produced in these
magnetic line of force represents the parallel. substances decreases with increase in
direction of magnetic field at that • A galvanometer can be converted temperature and at a particular
point. into a voltmeter by connecting a high temperature, called Curie temperature.
• The magnetic flux linked with a resistance in series. • At the Curie temperature, a
surface is equal to the total number of • A small resistance connected in paramagnetic substance becomes
magnetic lines of force passing through parallel with the load resistance to diamagnetic.
that surface normally. Its unit is weber. reduce amount of electric current • Curie temperature for iron is 770°C
Earth’s Magnetism through resistor is called shunt. and for nickel is 358°C.
• The earth has its own magnetic field. Magnetic Substances Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
The pole near the geographic North of • There are three types of magnetic • Whenever the magnetic flux linked
the earth is called the magnetic North substances Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic with an electric circuit changes, an emf
pole. Similarly, the pole near the and Ferromagnetic. is induced in the circuit. This
geographic South pole is called the Paramagnetic Substances phenomenon is called electromagnetic
magnetic South pole. • Those substances which are feebly induction.
• The Earth's magnetic field diverts magnetised in the direction of Faraday’s Laws of EMI
charged particle coming from space magnetic field when placed in strong • Whenever the magnetic flux linked
towards its poles and saves living magnetic field, are called paramagnetic with a circuit changes, an induced emf
beings from being severely harmed. substances. is produced in it. The induced emf loses
• Magnetic compass A magnetic needle • For examples—Aluminium, platinum, as long as the change in magnetic flux
which always direct in North-South (N- chromium, manganese, solutions of continues.
S) direction. salts of iron, nickel, oxygen etc. • These Lenz’s Law
Magnetic storm substances are attracted towards • The direction of induced emf or
• Local disturbances in the earth’s strong magnetic field in a non-uniform induced current is always in such a way
magnetic field which can damage magnetic field. that it opposes the cause due to which
telecommunication which are probably • The magnetism of these substances it is produced.
caused by lump of charged particles decreases with increase in Eddy Current
emanating from the sun is known as temperature. • If a piece of metal is placed in a
magnetic storm. Diamagnetic Substances varying magnetic field or rotated with
• In the Arctic Circle, they are known as • Those substances which are feebly high speed in a uniform magnetic field,
Aurora Borealis or the northern lights, magnetised in the opposite direction of then induced current set up in the
while in the Antarctic Circle they are magnetic field when placed in strong piece is like whirlpool of air, called
called Aurora Australis or the southern magnetic field are called diamagnetic eddy current, also known as foucault’s
lights. substances. current.
• Moving Coil Galvanometer • For examples— Gold, silver, zinc, Uses
• A moving coil galvanometer is used copper, mercury, water, alcohol, air, • Eddy currents are used in dead beat
to detect the presence of current and hydrogen etc. galvanometer, induction furnaces,
the direction of current in any circuit. • These substances are attracted induction motor, speedometers of
towards weak magnetic field in a non- automobiles etc.
Ammeter and Voltmeter uniform magnetic field. • Eddy currents are used in diathermy
• An ammeter is an instrument used to • The magnetism produced in these for deep heat treatment of the human
measure electric current. It is always substances does not change with body.
connected in series. The resistance of increase or decrease in temperature. Self and Mutual Induction
an ideal ammeter is zero. Ferromagnetic Substances • The phenomenon of production of
• A galvanometer can be converted • Those substances which are strongly induced emf in a circuit due to change
into an ammeter by connecting a low magnetised in the direction of in current flowing in its own, is called
resistance in parallel. self induction.
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
• The unit of self induction is Henry (H). The energy liberated in a controlled corresponding isotopes, which are not
• The phenomenon of production of manner is used to produce steam, radioactive.
induced emf in a circuit due to change which can run turbines and produce Shield - The whole assembly is shielded
in magnetic flux in its neighbouring electricity. with heavy steel or concrete to check
circuit, is called mutual induction. Fuel (Uranium - 235 , Plutonium-239 ) harmful radiation from coming out.
• Its unit is Henry (H). The fissionable material is used in the WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Alternating Current reactor along with a small neutron Work
• An electric current whose magnitude source.The solid fuel is made into rods Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is
and direction changes continuously is and is called fuel rods. joule and CGS unit is erg. 1 joule = 107
called alternating current. The Role of extra neutron - These neutrons erg.
frequency of alternating current in in turn can initiate fission processes, Work done by a force is zero when
India is 50 Hz. producing still more neutrons, and so -Body is not displace actually, i.e. s = 0
• Mean or average value of AC is zero on. This starts a chain reaction. Slow -Body is displaced perpendicular to the
for one complete cycle. • Root mean neutrons (thermal neutrons) are much direction of force i.e. θ = 90°.
square value of AC is given by more likely to cause fission in U92 235 Work done by a variable force
• 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼0/ √2 than fast neutrons. Fast neutrons If we throw a ball upward, work done
• An AC ammeter and AC voltmeter liberated in fission would escape against gravity is given by, W = mgh
read root mean square value of instead of causing another fission where, m = mass of the body,
alternating current and alternating reaction. g = acceleration due to gravity and h =
voltage respectively. If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it height through which the ball is raised.
AC Generator or Dynamo leads to explosive energy output, as in The centripetal force acts on a body
• It is a device which Inverts a nuclear bomb or Atom bomb. Each perpendicular to the direction of
mechanical energy into alternating time an atom splits, it releases large motion. Therefore, work done by or
current. amounts of energy in the form of heat. against centripetal force in circular
• Its working is based on Moderators -(water, heavy water motion is zero.
electromagnetic induction. (D2O) and graphit(e) Light nuclei called If a coolie is carrying a load on his head
DC Motor moderators are provided along with and moving on a horizontal platform,
• It is a device which converts electrical the fissionable nuclei for slowing down then work done by force of gravity is
energy into mechanical energy. fast neutrons. zero as displacement is perpendicular
• Its working is based on the fact that Core - The core of the reactor is the to the direction of force of gravity.
when a current carrying coil is placed in site of nuclear fission. It contains the Energy
uniform magnetic field, a torque acts fuel elements in suitably fabricated Energy of a body is its capacity of doing
on it. form. work. It is a scalar quantity and its SI
Transformer Reflector-The core is surrounded by a unit is joule. Energy can be
• It is a device which can change a low reflector to reduce leakage. The energy transformed into work and vice-versa
voltage current into a high voltage (heat) released in fission is with the help of some mechanical
current and vice-versa. continuously removed by a suitable device. There are two types of
• Its working is based on mutual coolant. Mechanical Energy, which are as
induction. Coolant - (water, heavy-water, liquid follows
Step-up Transformer sodium, helium,Liquid oxygen) The Kinetic Energy
• It converts a low voltage current into coolant transfers heat produced during The energy possessed by a body by
a high voltage current. fission to a working fluid which in turn virtue of its motion is called its kinetic
• Step-down Transformer may produce steam. The steam drives energy. Kinetic energy of the body of
• It converts a high voltage current into turbines and generates electricity. mass m moving with velocity
a low voltage current. Control rods- (cadmium,Boron) The v is given by K = 1/ 2 𝑚𝑣 2 .
NUCLEAR REACTOR A nuclear reactor is reactor can be shut down by means of Potential Energy The energy possessed
a device that contains and controls rods (made of, for example, by any object by virtue of its position
sustained nuclear chain reactions. In cadmium,Boron) that have high or configuration is called its potential-
nuclear reactors, the nuclear fission is absorption of capacity of energy. Gravitational potential energy,
controlled by controlling the number of neutrons.cadmium and boron can U = mgh.
neutrons released during the fission. absorb neutrons to form the Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
According to this relation, the mass can where, G is universal gravitational It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is
be transformed into energy and vice- constant. newton (N). It is measured by a spring
versa. Its value is 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 – 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔 −2 . balance.
When ∆m mass is disappeared, then Gravitational force is a central as well Weight of a body is not constant, it
produced energy E= ∆𝑚𝑐 2 where, c = as conservative force. changes from place to place.
speed of light in vacuum. Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth Weight of a Body in a Lift
Law of Conservation of Energy The uniform acceleration produced in a When lift is rest or in uniform motion
Energy can neither be created nor be freely falling body due to the earth’s The weight recorded in spring balance
destroyed, only one type of energy can gravitational pull, is called acceleration (i.e. apparent weight) is equal to the
be transformed into other form of due to gravity, g = 𝐺𝑀 𝑅2 real weight of the body w = mg.
energy. Only for conservative forces, where, M = mass of the earth, R = When lift is accelerating upward The
(total mechanical energy) radius of the earth. The value of g weight recorded in spring balance is
initially = (total mechanical energy) changes slightly from place to place but greater than then real weight of the
finally. its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8 body
Some Equipment used to Transform 𝑚𝑠 −2 . w’ = m(g + (a)
Energy Gravitational force is the weakest force When lift is accelerating downward
S. Equipment Energy in nature. It is 1036 times smaller than The weight recorded in spring balance
Transformed electrostatic force and 1038 times is smaller than the real weight of the
1 Dynamo Mechanical into smaller than nuclear force. body w’ = m(g – (a).
energy Factors Affecting Acceleration due to When lift is falling freely under gravity
2 Candle Chemical into light Gravity The apparent weight of the body
and heat Shape of Earth - Earth is not completely w' = m (g – g) (∵ a = g)
3 Microphone Sound into spherical its radius at equator is w’ = 0
electrical approximately 42 km greater than its Therefore, body will experiences
4 Loud Electrical into radius at poles. The value of g is weightlessness.
Speaker sound maximum at poles and minimum at Weight of a Body at the Moon
5 Solar Cell Solar into equator. There is no effect of rotation As mass and radius of moon is lesser
electrical of the earth at poles and maximum at than the earth, so the force of gravity
6 Tube Light Electrical into light equator. at the moon is also less than that of the
7 Electric Electrical into light Effect of Altitude - g decreases with earth. It’s value at the moon’s surface
bulb and Heat altitude. is 𝑔 6 .
8 Battery Chemical into Effect of Depth - g decreases with Satellite
electrical depth and becomes zero at centre of A heavenly body revolving around a
9 Electric Electrical into the earth. planet in an orbit is called a satellite.
Motor mechanical Mass and Weight The mass of a body is Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
the quantity of matter contained in it. The satellite may be artificial. Artificial
10 Sitar Mechanical into
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is satellites are of two types.
sound
kg. Mass is measured by an ordinary Geostationary Satellites
Gravitation
equal arm balance. Mass of a body It revolves around the earth in
Each and every massive body attracts
does not change from place to place equatorial orbits which is also called
each other by virtue of their masses.
and remains constant. Geostationary or Geosynchronous
This phenomenon is called gravitation.
The weight of a body is the force with orbit. The time period of these
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
which it is attracted towards the centre satellites is 24 hour.
The gravitational force acting between
of the earth. Weight of a body (w) = mg Polar Satellites
two point objects is directly
The centre of gravity of a body is that These satellites revolve around the
proportional to the product of their
point at which the whole weight of the earth in polar orbits at a height of
masses and inversely proportional to
body appears to act. The centre of approximately 800 km.
the square of the distance between
gravity of a body can be inside the Weather monitoring which is predicted
them.
material of the body or outside it. on the basis of information about
Gravitational force ((F) = 𝐺𝑚1𝑚2/ 𝑟 2
moisture present in air, atmospheric
GROW ACADEMY
Name……… (Physics) Batch……
pressure etc, obtained through a polar
satellite.
We are able to see a live telecast of
cricket world cup match or other
programme with the help of a
communication satellite which is a
geostationary satellite.
Launching vehicles – PSLV & GSLV.
Time Period of a Satellite
It is the time taken by a satellite to
complete one revolution.
If satellite is near the earth's surface,
then T = 2π√ 𝑅 𝑔 ≈ 84.6 min.
Escape Velocity
Escape velocity: Escape velocity is that
minimum velocity with which a body
should be projected from the surface
of earth so as it goes out of
gravitational field of earth and never
return to earth. Escape velocity is
independent of the mass, shape and
size of the body and its direction of
projection.
Escape velocity is also called second
cosmic velocity. For earth, escape
velocity = 11.2 km/s. For moon, escape
velocity = 2.4 km/s.
Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of a satellite 𝑉0 = √𝑔𝑅
and escape velocity 𝑉𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅 where R
= Radius of earth. i.e. 𝑉𝑒 = √2𝑉0 i.e.
escape velocity is √2 times the orbital
velocity.
There if the orbital velocity of a
satellite is increased to √2 times
(increased by 41%), the satellite will
leave the orbit and escape.