PHYSICS

KINEMATICS  The time rate of change of velocity of a body is called

its acceleration.
Kinematics  Acceleration =
Kinematics is branch of mechanics which deals with the
 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is .
study of motion of the objects without taking into account
 Acceleration at an instant of time is known as
the cause of their motion.
instantaneous acceleration.
 When the velocity of a body increases with time, then
Rest and Motion
An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its its acceleration is positive and if velocity decreases
position which respect to its surroundings with time and with time, then its acceleration is negative called
deceleration or retardation.
said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect
to its surrounding with time.  If acceleration does not change with time, it is said to
be constant acceleration.
 Rectilinear motion moving car on horizontal road,
motion under gravity etc.
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion (Along
 Angular motion such as particle going on a circle,
straight line)
projectile motion, rotation of machine shaft etc.
If a body started its motion with initial velocity u and
 Rotational motion such as motion of a fan.
attains final velocity v in the interval t. The acceleration
 It an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of
assumed to be uniform in motion is a and the distance
time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
travelled is s, then equations of motion:
 It an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals

of time, then it is said to be in non-uniform motion.

Speed 
 The distance covered by a moving body in a unit time  If any body is falling freely under gravity, then a is
interval is called its speed. replaced by g in above equations.
 Speed =  If an object is thrown vertically upward, then in above
equations of motion a is replaced by (–g).
 When a body travels equal distances with speed
 For a body with zero acceleration or constant speed,
and , then average speed is the harmonic mean of
graph between velocity and time will be a line parallel
the two speeds.
to time axis.
  Velocity–Time Graph For accelerating or decelerating
 When a body travels for equal times with speeds body the graph will be a straight line inclined to time
and , then average speed is the arithmetic mean of axis and velocity axis.
the two speeds.  Graph between position (distance)-time for an
 accelerating or decelerating body is always a parabola.
 Acceleration-time graph for uniformly accelerating
Velocity body is a line parallel to time axis.
 The time rate of change of displacement of a body is  In case of uniform accelerated, the graph between
called its velocity. position and velocity is always parabola.
 In case of uniformly accelerated motion, the graph

between velocity and time is always a straight line.
 An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity  Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity and
if it undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals slope of velocity-time graph gives acceleration.
of time.
 An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or Projectile Motion
variable velocity if it undergoes unequal displacement  When a body is thrown from horizontal making an
in equal intervals of time. angle (θ) except 90°, then its motion under gravity is a
 Average velocity = curved parabolic path, called trajectory and its motion
is called projectile motion.
Acceleration Examples:
 The motion of a bullet shot from the gun  If a bucket containing water is revolved fast in a
 The motion of a rocket after burn-out vertical plane, the water may not fall even when
 The motion of a bomb dropped from a aeroplane etc. bucket is completely inverted because a centrifugal
force equal or greater than the weight of water pushes
Properties of Projectile Motion the water to the bottom of the bucket.
If we drop a ball from a height and at the same time  For orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus
thrown another ball in a horizontal direction, then both the electrostatic force of attraction is acting between the
balls would strike the earth simultaneously at different electrons and the nucleus as centripetal force.
places.  Cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in a
vessel about the same axis. During rotation lighter
Circular Motion particles of cream experience a lesser force than the
 The motion of an object along a circular path is called heavier particles of milk.
circular motion.  For revolution of the earth around the sun,
 Circular motion with a constant speed is called gravitational force of attraction between the earth and
uniform circular motion. the sun acts as centripetal force.
 The direction of motion at any point in circular motion
is given by the tangent to the circle at that point. Newton‘s Laws
 In uniform circular motion, the velocity and Newton‘s First Law
acceleration both changes. A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion
 In case of non-uniform circular motion, the speed in a straight line unless an external force acts on it. It is
changes from point to point on the circular track. based on law of inertia.
Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which is
Centripetal Acceleration opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform
During circular motion an acceleration acts on the body motion in a straight line.
towards the centre, called centripetal acceleration.
The direction of centripetal acceleration is always towards
the centre of the circular path.

Force
It is an external push or pull with can change or tries to
change the state of rest or of uniform motion. SI unit is
newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = dyne.
If sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then body
is said to be in equilibrium.

Centripetal Force
During circular motion a force always acts on the body
towards the centre of the circular path, called centripetal
force.

Centrifugal Force
In circular motion we experience that a force is acting on
us in opposite to the direction of centripetal force called Inertia of Rest
centrifugal force. This is an apparent force or imaginary  When a bus or train at rest starts, to move suddenly,
force and also called a pseudo force. the passangers sitting in it jerk in backward direction
due to their inertia of rest.
Applications of centripetal and centrifugal forces  The dust particles come out from a carpet when it is
 Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required beaten with a stick due to their inertia of rest.
centripetal force. To take a safe turn cyclist slower  A passenger jumping out from a rapidly moving bus
down his speed and moves on a path of larger radius. or train is advised to jump in forward direction and
 Roads are banked at turns to provide required run forward for a short mile due to inertia of rest.
centripetal force for taking a turn. Inertia of Motion
 For taking turn on a curved road, the frictional force When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the
is acting between the tyres of the vehicle and the road passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction due to
acts as centripetal force. inertia of motion
  Friction is necessary for walking, to apply brakes in
Momentum vehicles, for holding nuts and bolts in a machinery etc.
The momentum of a moving body is equal to the product  Friction can be decreases by polishing the surfaces by
of its mass and its velocity. using lubricants or by using ball bearings.
 Tyres are made of synthetic rubber because its
Conservation of Linear Momentum coefficient or friction with road is larger and therefore,
The linear momentum of a system of particles remains large force of friction acts on it, which stops sliding at
conserved if the external force acting on the system is zero. turns.
 Rocket propulsion and engine of jet aeroplane works  The tyres are threading which also increases the
on principle of conservation of linear momentum. In friction between the tyres and the road.
rocket, ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps  When pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction
in accelerating the rocket upward. on rear wheel is in forward direction and on front
wheel is in the backward direction.
Newton‘s Second Law Loses due to Friction
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly  Too much Loss of Energy in machines and then
proportional to the force applied on it and change in ultimately the machines are damaged.
momentum takes place in the direction of applied force.
Machine–Lever
It is a simple machine in which a straight or inclined rod is
made to turn or rotate at a point freely or independently.
Newton‘s Third Law There are three points related to lever namely load, effort
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and fulcrum.
and both act on two interacting objects.
 Load The weight carried by the lever is called load.
Rocket is propelled by the principle of Newton‘s third law
 Effort To operate lever, the force applied externally is
of motion.
called effort.
 Fulcrum The fixed point about which the rod of lever
Impulse
moves independently is called fulcrum.
 A large force which acts on a body for a very short
interval of time and produces a large change in its
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
momentum is called an impulsive force.
Periodic Motion
 Its unit is newton-second.
 A motion which repeats itself identically after a fixed
 A fielder lowers its hand when catching a cricket ball interval of time, is called a periodic motion.
because by lowering his hands, he increases the time
For example
of contact for stopping the ball and therefore fielder
- Motion of arms of a clock, orbital motion of the earth
has to apply lesser force to stop the ball. The ball will
around the sun, motion of a simple pendulum etc.
also exert lesser force on the hands of the fielder and Oscillatory Motion
the fielder will not get hurt.
 A periodic motion taking place to and fro or back and
 Wagons of a train are provided with the buffers to forth about a fixed point, is called oscillatory motion.
increase the time of impact during jerks and therefore, For example
decreases the damage. The vehicles like scooter, car, - Motion of a simple pendulum.
bus, truck etc. are provided with shockers. - Motion of a loaded spring etc.
 If a particle oscillates with its own natural frequency
Friction
without help of any external periodic force. The
Friction is a force which opposes the relative motion of the
oscillation is then called damped oscillation.
two bodies when one body actually moves or tries to move
 When a body oscillates with the help of an external
over the surface of another body.
periodic force with a frequency different from natural
The cause of friction is the strong atomic or molecular
frequency of the body, then oscillation is called forced
forces of attraction acting on the two surfaces at the point
oscillation.
of actual contact.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
 An oscillatory motion of constant amplitude and of
Uses of Friction
single frequency under a restoring force whose
 A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element that uses
magnitude is proportional to the displacement and
balls to maintain the separation between the bearing
always acts towards mean position, is called Simple
races. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce
Harmonic Motion.
rotational friction and to support loads (weight).
Characteristics of SHM Waves are broadly of two types:
When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean 1. Mechanical Wave
position: 2. Non-mechanical wave
1. No force acts on the particle.
2. Acceleration of the particle is zero. Mechanical Wave: The waves which required material
3. Velocity is maximum. medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation are
4. Kinetic energy is maximum. called mechanical wave or elastic wave. Mechanical waves
5. Potential energy is zero. are of two types.
When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, 1. Longitudinal wave: If the particles of the medium
then: vibrate in the direction of propagation of wave, the wave
1. Acceleration of the particle is maximum. is called longitudinal wave.
2. Restoring force acting on particle is maximum. 2. Transverse Wave: If the particles of the medium vibrate
3. Velocity of particle is zero. perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave, the
4. Kinetic energy of particle is zero. wave is called transverse wave.
5. Potential energy is maximum. Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of
water are examples of transverse waves.
Simple Pendulum
 A heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support Non-mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves: The
by means of an elastic inextensible string, is called a waves which do not require medium for their propagation
simple pendulum. i.e. which can propagate even through the vacuum are
 Time period of a simple pendulum is given by called non mechanical wave.
Light, heat are the examples of non-mechanical wave. In
√
fact all the electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical.
 The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.
length is 84.6 min. The time period of a second‘s The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is m
pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the earth is nearly 100 to m.
cm.
 Acceleration due to gravity decreases with altitude Properties of electromagnetic waves
(height) and therefore time period of a pendulum 1. They are neutral (uncharged).
clock will increase and clock becomes slow. 2. They propagate as transverse wave.
 If the bob of a simple pendulum is suspended from a 3. They propagate with the velocity of light.
metallic wire, then the length of the pendulum 4. They contains energy and momentum.
increases with increase in temperature and therefore 5. Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.
its time period also increases. Following waves are not electromagnetic
 A girl is swinging over a swing. If she stands up over 1. Cathode rays
the swing, then the effective length of the swing 2. Canal rays
decreases and therefore, the time period of oscillations 3. α rays
decreases. 4. β rays
 A pendulum clock cannot be used in a space-ship. 5. Sound wave
Damped Harmonic Motion 6. Ultrasonic wave
 When there is friction or any other force acting within
an oscillating system, the amplitudes of the oscillation Some Important Electromagnetic Waves & their discoverer
decreases over time to this damping force. This is γ-Rays Henry Becqueral
called damped harmonic motion. X-Rays W. Rontgen
Resonant Oscillations Ultra-violet rays Ritter
 When a body oscillates with its own natural frequency Visible radiation Newton
(V0) with the help of an external periodic force also Infra-red rays Hershel
called forced harmonic motion. And if the frequency Short radio waves or Hertzian Waves Heinrich Hertz
(v) provided by the external agent is equal to the Long Radio Waves Marconi
natural frequency of the body, the oscillations of the
body are called resonant oscillations. Note: Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range m
to m are called microwaves.
Wave
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy from
one place to the other without the transport of matter.
Amplitude: Amplitude is defined as the maximum  When sound waves originated by a vibrating source,
displacent of the vibrating particle on either side from the they spread in the medium and if the medium is
equilibrium position. homogeneous, this leads to bending of sound waves
around the edges. Which is known as diffraction.
Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between any two  The sound waves diffracted broadly and one can
nearest particle of the medium, vibrating in the same easily hears the voice of the another person.
phase. It is denoted by the Greek letter lambda. (λ) Musical Scale
In transverse wave distance between two consecutive  In theory of music, a musical scale is a set of musical
crests or troughs and in longitudinal wave, distance notes by the frequencies of which are in simple ratios
between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions is to one another. Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni is one such
equal to wavelength. scale called the diatonic scale. The frequencies of these
Velocity of wave = frequency × wavelength. notes are: sa (256), re (288), go (320), ma (341.3), pa
(384), dha (426.7) and ni (480). The next note denoted
Sound by sa has a frequency 512, twice that of sa. The interval
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves and sa-sa is called an octave (8).
require medium for their propagation. It cannot propagate Noise Reduction in Recording Media
through vacuum. when propagated speed and wavelength  Five types of noise reduction system exists in
changes but frequency remains constant. It is of three recording media as discussed below
types: - Dolby A noise reduction system, intended for use in
Infrasonic waves – (0 to 20,000 Hz) professional recording studios. It provided about 10
Audible waves – (20 to 20,000 Hz) dB of broadband noise reduction.
Ultrasonic waves – (>20,000 Hz) - Dolby B was developed to achieve about 9 dB noise
reduction primarily for cassettes. It was much simpler
Properties of Sound Wave than Dolby A and therefore less expensive to
Reflection implement in consumer products.
 The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard - Dolby C provides about 15 dB noise reduction.
surface, is called reflection of sound. - Dolby SR (Spectral Recording) system is much more
 The laws of reflection of light are also obeyed during aggressive noise reduction approach than Dolby A.
reflection of sound. Dolby SR is much more expensive to implement than
 The working of megaphone, sound boards and ear Dolby B or C, but it is capable of providing upto 25 dB
trumpet is based on reflection of sound. noise reduction in the high frequency range.
 The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound - Dolby S is found on some Hi-Fi and semi-
waves, is called an echo. professional recording equipment. It is capable of 10
 The persistence of hearing on human ear is th of a dB of noise reduction at low frequencies and upto 24
second. dB of noise reduction at high frequencies.
 The minimum distance from a sound reflecting surface Doppler‘s Effect
to hear an echo is nearly is nearly 17 m. The apparent change in the frequency of source due to
 Sound proof rooms are made of two layers of walls relative motion between the source and observer is
having vacuum between them. called Doppler‘s effect.
Applications of Doppler‘s Effect
 Reverberation arises due to multiple reflection of
The measurement of Doppler shift (based on
sound.
Doppler‘s effect) has been used
 While designing an auditorium for speech or musical
 By police to check over speeding of vehicles.
concerts, one has to take proper care for the absorption
 At airports to guide the aircraft.
and reflection of sound.
 To study heart and blood flow in different parts of
 Time taken by reverberant sound to decrease its
the body.
intensity by a factor of 106 is called reverberation time.
 By astrophysicist to measure the velocities of
Refraction planets and stars.
 When a sound wave move from one mechanical
medium to another mechanical medium, it shows SONAR
deviation from the original path of the incident wave.  SONAR stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging.
The phenomenon is called refraction. It is due to It is used to measure the depth of a sea, to locate the
difference is speed of sound in media. enemy submarines and shipwrecks.
Diffraction  The transmitter of a sonar produces pulses of
ultrasonic sound waves of frequency of about 50000
 Hz. The reflected sound waves are received by the • The temperature at which the three phases of water
receiver. remains at equilibrium is called triple point of water
Human Ear (273.16 K)
 We are able to hear with the help of an extremely
sensitive organ of our body called the ear. There are Thermometers
three parts of human ear • The instruments used to measure temperature of a body
- The outer ear is called pinna. It collects the sound is called thermometer.
from the surroundings. The middle ear transmits the Thermometers are of following three types
amplified pressure variations received from the sound 1. Clinical thermometer It is used to measure human body
wave to the inner ear. temperatures and ranges from 96° F to 110°F or 35°C to
 In the inner ear, the pressure variations are turned into 43°C.
electrical signals by the cochlea. These electrical 2. Electronic thermometer Basic components of an
signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve and electronic thermometer are thermistors or thermoresistors.
the brain interpret them as sound. Range of electronic thermometer is –40° to 450°F.
3. Other thermometers These include constant volume gas
HEAT thermometer, platinum resistance thermometer etc.
Heat  Clinical thermometer measures temperature in degree
• Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation fahrenheit (°F).
of warmth. Its SI unit is joule and other unit calorie (1 cal =  In thermometer, mercury is commonly used through a
4.2 Joule) . wide range from –30°C to 300°C.
• The transfer of heat is always from hotter to colder body.  Thermometer was developed by Galileo who found
that the gases expand on heating.
Temperature
• Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of a Thermal Expansion
body.  The expansion of a body caused by heat is known as
• The heat flows from one body to another due to the thermal expansion.
difference in their body temperature.
Thermal Expansion of Solids
Scale of Temperature Thermal expansion of solids is of three types
• To measure the temperature of a body following 1. Expansion in length on heating, is called linear
temperature scales are used. expansion. The increase in length of a rod of unit length of
— Celsius scale of temperature freezing point is 0°C a substance due to increase in its temperature by 1°C is
Boiling point of water is 100°C called the coefficient of linear expansion of the substance
— Fahrenheit scale of temperature ice point or freezing of of that rod. It is represented by α.
water = 32° F
Boiling point of water = 212° F
— Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature ice point of — Its unit is °C–1.
water = 273° K
Boiling point of water = 373° K 2. Expansion in area on heating, is called superficial
— Reaumur scale of temperature ice point of water is 0° R, expansion. Coefficient of superficial expansion is given as
Boiling point of water = 80°R
— Rankine scale of temperature ice point /freezing point
of water — Its unit is °C–1.
= 491.67°R Boiling point of water
= 671.641° R 3. Expansion in volume on heating, is called volume
expansion or cubical expansion.
Relation between Different Scales of Temperature Coefficient of volume or cubical expansion is given as
Different scales of temperature are related as follows:

— Its unit is °C-1

K =273+ °C
• At temperature – 40°C = – 40°F, Clesius scale is equal to Relation between Coefficients of Expansions
Fahrenheit • Coefficients of thermal expansions are related as
β = 2α and γ = 3α
and α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3
 • Heat energy given or taken to change the temperature
• In laying a railway line, a small gap is left in between of a body is given by
two iron rails otherwise railway line will become curved Q = ms∆θ
on heating in summer. where, m = mass of the body
• Telephone wires are not tighten on poles because in and ∆θ = change in temperature.
winter, wires get contract and can break. • The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 mole of a gas by 1°C is called molar specific heat.
Thermal Expansion of Liquids
• In liquids, only expansion in volume takes place on Latent Heat
heating. • The heat energy absorbed or released at constant
temperature per unit mass for change of state, is called
Expansion of liquid is of two types: latent heat.
• When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on • It is denoted by L and its SI unit is cal/g or kcal/kg.
heating, is not taken into account, then observed • Heat energy absorbed or released during change of
expansion is called apparent expansion of liquids. state is given by
• When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on Q = mL
heating, is also taken into account, then observed where, m = mass of the substance.
expansion is called real expansion of liquids. • Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g.
• Latent heat of vaporisation of steam is 536 cal/g.
where, and , are coefficients of real and apparent
expansion of liquids and = coefficient of cubical Thermodynamics
expansion of the container. • The branch of physics which deals with the study of
relation of heat energy with different types of energy
Anomalous Expansion of Water is called thermodynamics.
When temperature of water is increased from 0°C, then its
volume decreases up to 4°C, becomes minimum at 4° C Zeroth Law
and then increases. This behavior of water expansion • Zeroth law of thermodynamics tells about thermal
around 4°C is called, anomalous expansion of water. equilibrium.

Thermal Expansion of Gases

There are two types of coefficient of expansion in gases
— At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit
volume per degree celsius, is called volume coefficient
( ).
— At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit,
pressure per degree celsius, is called pressure coefficient
( ).

Calorimetry
• Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
g of water by 1°C is called 1 calorie.
• Calorimetry states that heat lost by hotter body equals
the heat gained by colder body.

Specific Heat
• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of unit mass (m) of a substance through 1°C, is called
its specific heat (s). First Law
• It is denoted by s and its unit is ‗cal/g°C or • As per first law about energy, heat given to a
Joule/g°/C. substance is equal to sum of change in internal energy
• The specific heat of water is 4200 J/kg1/°C or 1000 and work done.
cal/ g1/° C–, which is high compared with most other Second Law
substances. Therefore, water is used as coolant in • In second law work can be converted into heat and
radiator in vehicle and hot water is used for the vice-versa but conversion is not possible with 100%
fermentation. efficience.
• It is impossible for a machine operating in a cyclic • Transmission of heat in solids takes place mainly
process to convert heat completely into work, it is through conduction.
kelvin‘s statement. • Metals are good conductors of heat.
• Heat by itself can not transfer from a colder to a hotter • Wood, cotton, wool, glass are bad conductors of heat,
body. It is clausius statement. Refrigerator is based on dry air is also a bad conductor of heat.
this statement. • Woollen clothes do not allow the heat of our body to
• Heat engine is a device which converts heat into escape and therefore we feel warm.
mechanical work. Internal combustion and external • On a cold night two thin blankets give more warmth
combustion heat engine are two types of heat engine. than a single thick blanket because the layer of air
• Car engine uses coolant added with water to reduce between the two blankets works as a better insulator.
harmful effects like corrosion, rusting etc. Such as ethylene • Refrigerators and ice-boxes have double walls having
glycol, polossium dichromate etc, thermocol between them which minimise heat gain by
• Carnot‘s theorem tells about maximum efficiency of conduction.
heat engine. It refers to carnot cycle. Convection
• Entropy measures the molecular disorder of a system • The mode of transmission of heat in fluids (liquids and
and is a thermodynamic function depending only on the gases) due to actual movement of the particles, is
temperature of the system. called convection.
• Evaporation is a process in which molecules escape • In liquids and gases, heat is transmitted by convection.
slowly from the surface of a liquid. • When a liquid in a vessel is heated at the bottom, the
• For a given liquid the rate of evaporation demands on liquid at bottom gets heated and expands.
the temperature and area of evaporating surface. • Due to its lower density, hot liquid rises and its place
• Refrigerator is a device used for cooling things by the is taken by cold liquid from above. Convection
evaporation and compression of a volatile liquid currents are set up in the liquid until the temperature
inside a copper coil. of the whole liquid becomes same.
• The cooling unit in a refrigerator is fitted near the top
Humidity as cold air move downward and keeps cool the whole
• The presence of moisture in the atmosphere, is called interior.
humidity. • Radiator in a motor car works on the principle of
• The amount of water vapour present in the unit convection.
volume of atmosphere, is called absolute humidity.
• The relative humidity of air at a given temperature is Newton‘s Law of Cooling
the ratio of mass of water vapour present in a certain The rate of loss of heat from a body is directly
volume of air to the mass of water vapour required to proportional to the difference in temperatures of the body
saturate the same volume of air at the same and its surroundings.
temperature, multiplied by 100. If we take hot water and fresh water and put it in a
• Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer. refrigerator, then rate of cooling of hot water will be faster
• Relative humidity of about 50% is considered than the fresh tap-water.
comfortable at temperature 22° – 25° C. • Sea Breeze During day time, the seashore warms up
• If the relative humidity is very low in air, then lips much faster than sea water. Hot air over the seashore
become dry and cracks appear in them. rises and cooler air from sea water moves towards
• If relative humidity is very high in air then the sweat seashore to take its place resulting in a sea breeze.
from our body does not evaporate readily and • Land Breeze At night, land cools faster than sea water.
therefore we feel uncomfortable. Now hot air over sea water rises and cooler air from
• Air conditioning provides comfortable conditions by land moves towards sea to take its place and resulting
regulating temperature and humidity. in a land breeze.
• Cloudy night are warmer than clear night because
Transmission of Heat clouds reflect the radiations emitted by the earth at
• Heat can be transferred from one place to another by night and keep it warm.
process of transmission.
 There are three methods of transmission of heat. Radiation
• The process of heat transmission in the form of
Conduction electromagnetic waves, is called radiation.
• The mode of transmission of heat in solids from higher • Radiation does not require any medium for
temperature part to lower temperature part without propagation and it propagates without heating the
actual movement of the particles, is called conduction. intervening medium.
Black Body The property of a body by virtue of which it regain its
• A body that absorbs all the radiation incident on it is original configuration after the removal of deforming
called perfectly black body. force, is called elasticity.
• Ratio of heat absorbed (radiation) to total incident Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost perfectly elastic
radiation for a body is called absorptive power (a) of bodies.
body. It has no unit.
• Amount of heat radiation per unit area of the surface Plasticity
at a given temperature is called emissive power of the The property of a body by virtue of which it does not
surface. regain its original configuration after the removal of
 Its unit is J/m2 – s. deforming force, is called plasticity.
• The ratio of emissive power and absorptive power of a
body is always same. It is equal to emissive power of a Strain
black body. This is known as Kirchhoff‘s law. The fraction I change in configuration i.e. length, volume
• White colour is a bad absorbers and good reflectors of and shape, is called strain. Strain has no unit.
heat radiations while black colour is good absorbers On the basis of change in configuration, strain is of three
and bad reflectors of heat. Therefore, clothes of light types
colours give better feeling in summer and clothes of - Longitudinal strain =
dark colours give better feeling in winter.
- Volume strain =
Stefan‘s Law - Shearing strain = θ
• It states that ―The amount of heat energy (E) radiated Stress
per second by unit area of perfectly black body is The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross-
directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute section of a deformed body, is called stress.
temperature (T) of the body.‖ Stress is of two types
E ∝ T4 - Normal stress
• Good absorbers are good emitters and poor absorbers - Tangential stress
are poor emitters. The maximum deforming force upto which a body retains
its property of elasticity is called the limit of elasticity of
MATTER the material body.
The minimum stress required to break a wire is called
Matter breaking stress.
Matter is considered as any thing which has weight and The torque required to produce a given twist in a hollow
occupy space. cylinder is greater than that required to produce the same
It exist in three states: Solid, liquid and gas. twist in a solid cylinder. Therefore, hollow shaft is
In solid, molecules vibrate about fixed positions. stronger than a solid shaft.
In liquid, molecules also vibrate but simultaneously they Springs are made of steel, not of copper as Young's
move freely throughout the material. In gas, the molecules modulus of elasticity of steel is more than that of copper.
are much farther apart than in solids and liquids and move
at high velocities. Elastic Limit
It is the limit of stress and strain upto which a wire
Interatomic Forces remains elastic.
The electrostatic force of interaction acting between the
two or more atoms is called interatomic forces. Plastic Behaviour
The range of interatomic forces is equal to the order of If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the strain
atomic size, i.e. m. increases much more rapidly. If the stretching force is
A force which changes the configuration of a body, is removed, the wire does not comes back to its natural
called a deforming force. length.

Solid Fracture Point

It is that, state of matter which has definite shape and If the deformation is increased further the plastic
definite volume. In this state molecules are very closely behaviour, the wire breaks at a point known as fracture
packed. point.

Properties of Solids Ductile and Brittle Materials

Elasticity If large deformation takes place between the elastic limit
and the fracture point, the material is called ductile.
If the wire breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed, it is Archimedes Principle
called brittle. When a body is partially or completely immersed in a
quid, it loses some of its weight. The loss in weight is
Elastic Fatigue equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its submerged part of the body.
behaviour becomes less elastic under the action of
repeated alternating deforming force. Due to elastic Law of Floatation
fatigue, the bridges becomes less elastic after a use of long A body will float in a liquid if weight of the body is equal
time and therefore are declared unsafe. weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the
body.
Fluid In floating condition, the centre of gravity (g) and the
A substance which begins to flow under an external force centre of buoyancy (B) of the floating body must lie on the
is called a fluid. Liquids and gases are fluids. same straight line.
Ice and large icebergs float on water surface as its density
Fluid Density (0.92 g/cm3) is lesser than the density of water.
The ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its When a piece of ice floats on water, its ( ) part
density. (i.e. mass present in its unit volume). It is a scalar
submerged in water and (1/12) th part is outside the
quantity having SI unit kg/ .
water.
The density of water is 1000 kg/ .
In sea water, (8/ 9) th part of icebergs is submerged and
The density of water is maximum at 4°C.
(1/9) th part is outside the water during floating.
Hydrometer It is an instrument used to measure density
It is easier to swim in sea water than in a river as density
or relative density of liquid. Its working is based on law of
of sea water is greater than the density of river water. In
floatation.
sea water, buoyant force is greater than that in river water.
The density of human body is less than the density of
Fluid Pressure
water but the density of human head is greater than the
Thrust (the normal force) exerted by a liquid per unit area
density of water. Therefore, during swimming a person
of the surface in contact at rest, is called fluid pressure.
displaces the liquid with hands and legs and total weight
Fluid pressure (p) =
of displaced liquid becomes equal to the weight of the
Its unit is or Pascal (Pa). body.

Atmospheric Pressure Surface Tension

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called The property of a liquid by virtue of which it tries to
atmospheric pressure. minimise its free surface area is called surface tension.
Aneroid barometer is used to measure atmospheric The minimum surface area of a given amount of liquid is
pressure and height of a place. for spherical shape. Therefore, rain drops are spherical.
Other units of atmospheric pressure are torr and bar.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension
Pascal‘s Law Temperature The surface tension of a liquid decreases
The pressure exerted anywhere at a point of confined fluid with increase in temperature.
is transmitted equally and undiminished, in all directions Soluble Impurities If the impurities are less soluble in
throughout the liquid. liquid, then its surface tension decreases. If impurities are
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press hydraulic brakes works on highly soluble in liquid, then its surface tension increases.
the basis of Pascal‘s law.
Applications of Surface Tension
Buoyancy Surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical
When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid, temperature.
an upward force acts on it, which is called buoyant force When soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl etc., are mixed in
or upthrust and this property of fluids is called buoyancy. water then its surface tension decreases.
Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced When salt is added in water, its surface tension increases.
by the submerged part of the body. When oil spreads over the surface of water, its surface
The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the liquid tension decreases.
displaced by the submerged part of the body, which is  When kerosene oil is sprinkled on water, its surface
called ‗centre of buoyancy‘. tension decreases. As a result, the larva of mosquitoes
floating on the surface of water die due to sinking.
 Warm soup is tasty because at high temperature its Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
surface tension is low and consequently the soup With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids decreases
spreads on all parts of the tongue. and that for gases increases.
 Antiseptics like dettol have low surface tension and Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its coefficient of
therefore it reaches in the tiny cracks of the wound viscosity. Its SI unit is decapoise (kg/ms) or pascal second.
and cleans the germs and bacteria. It is generally denoted by η.
 The surface tension of soap solution in water is less
than the surface tension of pure water. Therefore, soap Stoke‘s Law
solution cleans greasy strains of clothes better than According to this law, the viscous force depends upon the
pure water. coefficient of viscosity, velocity of the moving object and
its size.
Capillarity
The phenomenon of rising or falling of liquid column in a Terminal Velocity
capillary tube (glass tube of very fine bore) is called When a small spherical body falls through a long liquid
capillarity. column its velocity increases gradually but later on it
Illustrations of capillarity becomes constant, called terminal velocity.
1. A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the pores The radius of spherical rain drops is very small therefore
of the blotting paper serve as capillary tubes. their terminal velocity is also small, with which they strike
2. The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary the earth‘s surface. When a liquid flow through a pipe, its
action of threads in the wick. speed i maximum near axis and minimum near the walls
3. The root hairs of plants draws water from the soil of the pipe.
through capillary action.
4. To prevent loss of water due to capillary action, the Equation of Continuity
soil is loosened and split into pieces by the farmers. When a non-viscous liquid flows through a pipe of non-
5. If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial uniform cross-sectional area in stream-lined flow, (i.e.
satellite, water rises up to other end of tube because of velocity at every point in the fluid remains constant) then
its zero apparent weight, how long the tube may be. at each section of the tube, the product of area of cross-
6. Action of towel in soaking up water from the body is section of the pipe and velocity of liquid remains constant,
due to capillary action of cotton in the towel. i.e. A × v = constant.
7. Melted wax, in a candle rises up to wick by capillary Therefore speed (v) of fluid flow becomes faster in
action. narrower pipe.

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces Bernoulli‘s Theorem

The intermolecular force of attraction acting between the If a non-viscous and incompressible liquid is flowing in
molecules of same substance is called cohesive force. stream-lined flow then total energy, i.e., sum of pressure
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting between the energy, kinetic energy and potential energy, per unit
molecules of water, mercury etc. volume of the liquid remains constant.
The intermolecular force of attraction acting between the Venturi tube and aspirator pump works on Bernoulli‘s
molecules of different substance is called adhesive force. theorem.
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting between the According to Bernoulli's theorem, with increase in velocity
molecules of paper and gum, paper and ink, etc. of quid its pressure decreases and vice-versa.
During storms or cyclones, the roofs of the huts or tinned
Viscous force: The force which opposes the relative roofs blown off because wind blows with very high speed
motion between different layers of liquid or gases is called over the top of the roof and therefore pressure of air
viscous force. decreases. Due to the pressure difference of air above and
Viscosity: Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue of below the roof, a lifting force acts on the roof. If it is
which it opposes the relative motion between its different sufficient to balance the weight of the roof it start to fly off.
layers. Magnus Effect : Motion of a Spinning Ball
Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases both. When swing bowlers deliver the ball, the ball changes its
The viscosity of a liquid is due to cohesive force between plane of motion in air.
its molecules.
The viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion of its molecules LIGHT
from one layer to other layer. REFLECTION OF LIGHT (Law of Reflection)
Viscosity of gases is much less than that of liquids. There is (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
no viscosity in solids.
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of the sunlight at a point generated heat. This caused the
of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane paper to burn.

Spherical Mirrors & their Uses REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
Uses of concave mirrors
Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search- The prism has probably split the incident white light into a
lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful parallel band of colours. the sequence of coloursVIBGYOR . The
beams of light. splitting of light into its component colours is called
They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger dispersion.
image of the face. The dentists use concave mirrors to see
large images of the teeth of patients. Different colours of light bend through different angles
Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to with respect to the incident ray, as they pass through a
produce heat in solar furnaces. prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the
most. Thus the rays of each colour emerge along different
Uses of convex mirrors paths and thus become distinct.It is the band of distinct
Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) colours that we see in a spectrum.
mirrors in vehicles, enabling the driver to see traffic
behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. They always give A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after
an erect, though diminished, image. Also, they have a a rain shower (Fig. 11.7). It is caused by dispersion of
wider field of view as they are curved outwards. Thus, sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere.
convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that
than would be possible with a plane mirror. of the Sun. The water droplets act like small prisms. They
refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it
REFRACTION OF LIGHT internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out of
when a thick glass slab is placed over some printed matter, the raindrop Due to the dispersion of light and internal
the letters appear raised when viewed through the glass reflection, different colours reach the observer‘s eye.
slab the bottom of a tank or a pond containing water
appears to be raised seen a pencil partly immersed in ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
water in a glass tumbler. It appears to be displaced at the The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air
interface of air and water further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the
A lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be cooler air above it, and has a refractive index slightly less
bigger than its actual size, when viewed from the sides. than that of the cooler air.Since the physical conditions of
the refracting medium (air) are not stationary, the
The following are the laws of refraction of light. apparent position of the object, as seen through the hot air,
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to fluctuate. This wavering is thus an effect of atmospheric
the interface of two transparent media at the point of refraction (refraction of light by the earth‘s atmosphere) .
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of Twinkling of stars
angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of
colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also starlight.
known as Snell‘s law of refraction. The starlight, on entering the earth‘s atmosphere,
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the
then, earth. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of
Sin i/Sin r = constant gradually changing refractive index. Since the atmosphere
bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position
The one with the larger refractive index is optically denser of the star is slightly different from its actual position. As
medium than the other. The other medium of lower the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on
refractive index is optically rarer. The speed of light is varying slightly, thestarlight entering the eye flickers – the
higher in a rarer medium than a denser medium star sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time,
The light from the Sun constitutes parallel rays of light. fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
These rays were converged by the lens at the sharp bright
spot formed on the paper. In fact, the bright spot you got Advance sunrise and delayed sunset
on the paper is a real image of the Sun. The concentration The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual
sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset
because of atmospheric refraction. The time difference Coulomb‘s law:-
between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 • The electrostatic force of interaction acting between
minutes. two stationary point charges is directly proportional to
the product of magnitude of charges and inversely
SCATTERING OF LIGHT proportional to the square of the distance between
The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep sea, the them.
reddening of the sun at sunrise and the sunset. F=(Kqa-qb)/r2

Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue? Electric Field

The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater • The space in the surrounding of any charge in which
than blue light. Thus, when sunlight passes through the its influence can be experience by other charge, is
atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the blue colour called electric field.
(shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red. The
scattered blue light enters our eyes. If the earth had no • Electric field intensity (E) at any point is defined as
atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering. the electrostatic force (F) acting per unit positive test
Then, the sky would have looked dark. The sky appears charge (q) at the point.
dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as •
scattering is not prominent at such heights.
• Its unit is newton/coulomb.
• Therefore, electric field intensity is inversely
Total Internal Reflection
proportional to the square of the distance r from the
a)mirage – Desert e.g.
point charge.
Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive index
than the cooler air. On hot summer days, the air near the
Electric Field Lines
ground becomes hotter than the air at higher levels noticed
• An electric field line is an imaginary line, so that its
that while moving in a bus or a car during a hot summer
tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric
day, a distant patch of road, especially on a highway,
field vector at that point.
appears to be wet. This is also due to mirage.
• Two lines can never intersect. Electric field lines
b) Diamonds - Their brilliance is mainly due to the total
always begin on a positive charge and end on a
internal reflection of light inside them.
negative charge and do not start or stop in mid-space.
c) Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total
internal reflection.Light undergoes repeated total internal Electric Potential
reflections along the length of the fibre there is no • Electric potential at a point in an electric field is equal
appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal. to the work done per unit charge in carrying a test
charge from infinity to that point. Its unit is
Tyndall Effect joule/coulomb.
The earth‘s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of
• Electric potential, V = .
minute particles like smoke, tiny water droplets,
suspended particles of dust and molecules of air.When a • Potential difference is that physical quantity which
beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the decides the direction of flow of charge between two
beam becomes visible. points in electric field.
• Positive charge always tends to move from higher
when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room potential towards lower potential.
through a small hole. Tyndall effect can also be observed
when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest. Electric Dipole and Capacitor
• An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the point charges separated by a very small distance.
scattering particles. Very fine particles scatter mainly blue • Electric dipole moment of the dipole is product of
light while particles of larger size scatter light of longer charge and the separation between the charges.
wavelengths. • A capacitor or condenser is a device over which a
large amount of charge can be stored without
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY changing its dimensions.
Electricity — Flow of Electrons is called Electricity • The capacitance of a conductor is equal to the ratio of
• The electricity produced by friction between two the charge (q) given to the conductor to change in its
appropriate bodies, is called static electricity, it is also potential (V) is given by C =
called frictional electricity.
• Its unit is coulomb/volt or farad. Farad (F) is a large • In series combination, equal current flows through
unit of capacitance. Its practical unit is microfarad each resistors but Voltage vauies
( ). • If resistances are connected in parallel, then
• their equivalent resistance is given by
•
Type of Materials
• In parallel combination, potential difference across
• Conductors are those type of materials which have
each resistor remains same but current varies.
number of free electrons to conduct the electricity. The
metals are good conductors of electricity.
Ohm‘s law
• Insulators are that type of materials which do not
• It states that if physical conditions of any conductor
have the free electrons in its volume and hence, it does
such as temperature, pressure etc., remain unchanged,
not conduct the electricity at all.
then electric current (l) flowing through it is directly
• Semiconductor is that type of materials which do not
proportional to the potential difference (V) applied
have free electrons at the normal temperature, but has
across its ends, i.e.,
the free electrons at the increased temperature and
• I ∝ V or V = IR
hence, behaves like a conductor. The materials such as
• where, R is the electrical resistance of the conductor.
silicon, germanium etc., are the semiconductor.
Electric Cell
Electric Current
• An electric cell is a device which converts chemical
• An electric current whose magnitude and direction do
energy into electrical energy.
not change with time is called direct current, and
• Electric cell are of two types
whose magnitude changes continuously and direction
• —Primary cell cannot be charged. Voltaic, Daniell and
changes periodically is called alternating current.
Leclanche cells are primary cells.
• Inverter is a device which converts DC to AC.
• —Secondary cell can be charged again and again.
• In solid conductors, electric current flows due to flow
Acid and alkali accumulators are secondary cells.
of electrons, in liquids due to flow of ions as well as
• Working of electric cells is based on chemical effect of
electrons and in semiconductors due to flow of
electric current.
electrons and holes.
• Its S.I. unit is Ampere
Emf of a Cell
• The work done by the cell to bring a (+)ve charge from
Resistance
its own terminal to the other is known as its emf
 Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers
(electromotive force). Electromotive force is work but
to the flow of electric current.
not a force.
 It is represented by R.
 Its S.I. unit is ohm.
Joule‘s Law of Heating
• Current can produce three effects: heating effect,
Conductance
magnetic effect and chemical effect.
• Conductance and conductivity is the reciprocal of
• Heat is produced in conductor in time t is given by
resistance and the resistivity of the material
respectively. The SI unit of conductance is i.e.,
mho and to that of conductivity is . • This is known as Joule‘s law of heating.
Resistivity
• Electric bulb, electric kettle, heater etc., devices work
• Resistivity of a material depends on the temperature
on the basis of heating effect of electric current.
and nature of the material depends on temperature
• To protect the domestic appliances from sudden
and nature of the material. It is independent of
change in electricity, fuses are used. It is made of tin,
dimensions of the conductor, i.e., length, area of cross-
lead, alloy (63% + 37%).
section etc.
• It should have high resistance and low melting point
• Resistivity of metals increases with increase in
always connected in series.
temperature.
Electric power
Combination of Resistances
• The electrical energy produced or consumed per unit
• It resistance and are connected in series, then
time is called electric power.
their equivalent resistance is given by
• Electric power, P = VI =
• 1 kWh = 3.6 × J
 • Magnetic poles exist in pairs If a magnet is cut into
Chemical Effect of Electric Current two equal parts transverse to its length, then N and S-
• When an electric current is passed through an acidic or poles of the magnet do not get separated.
basic solution, it decomposes into its positive and
negative ions. The positive ions collect at negative Magnetic Field
electrode (cathode) and the negative ions collect at • The space in the surrounding of a magnet or a current
positive electrode (anode). carrying conductor in which its magnetic effect can be
• This phenomenon is called electrolysis. It is chemical experienced, is called magnetic field.
effect of current. The process of coating of a base metal • Magnetic lines of force is an imaginary line drawn in
with a layer of more expensive metal, is called magnetic field at which a magnetic North pole will
electroplating. move, if it is free to do so.
• A tangent drawn at any point of an magnetic line of
Domestic Electrification force represents the direction of magnetic field at that
• From the distribution, the two terminals are supplied point.
to the houses named as live and neutral (neutral is • The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to the
earthed at local substation). The third terminal is total number of magnetic lines of force passing
introduced as the earth for the safety in the building. through that surface normally. Its unit is weber.

Lightning Appliance Earth‘s Magnetism

• The electric discharge occurring between two charged • The earth has its own magnetic field. The pole near the
clouds or between a charged cloud and earth can geographic North of the earth is called the magnetic
damage the houses or buildings. To protect this North pole. Similarly, the pole near the geographic
lightning conductors are used. South pole is called the magnetic South pole.
• The Earth's magnetic field diverts charged particle
Magnetism coming from space towards its poles and saves living
• Magnet beings from being severely harmed.
• A magnet is a material which can attract iron objects. • Magnetic compass A magnetic needle which always
• A natural magnet is an ore of iron ( ) called direct in North-South (N-S) direction.
magnetite or lodestone.
• A magnet which is prepared artificially, is called an Magnetic storm
artificial magnet. • Local disturbances in the earth‘s magnetic field which
• A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself into can damage telecommunication which are probably
North-South direction. Like magnetic poles repel and caused by lump of charged particles emanating from
unlike magnetic poles attract each other. the sun is known as magnetic storm.
• A current-carrying coil containing a soft iron core, is
called an electromagnet. Example: In the Arctic Circle, they are known as aurora
• An electromagnet is utilised in electric bell, telegraph borealis or the northern lights, while in the Antarctic Circle
receiver, telephone diaphragm, transformer, dynamo they are called aurora australis or the southern lights.
etc. Moving Coil Galvanometer
• Permanent magnets are made of steel and temporary • A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect the
magnet or electromagnets are made of soft iron presence of current and the direction of current in any
because steel cannot magnetised easily but when it is circuit.
magnetised one time, cannot be demagnetised easily.
The soft iron can be magnetised or demagnetised Ammeter and Voltmeter
easily. • An ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric
current. It is always connected in series. The resistance
Properties of Magnet of an ideal ammeter is zero.
• Attractive property A magnet can attract small pieces • A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by
of magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt, nickel connecting a low resistance in parallel.
etc. The attraction is maximum at poles. Unlike poles • A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential
attract and like poles repel. difference between two points in an electric circuit.
• Directive property A magnet, when suspended freely, • The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity. It is
aligns itself approximately along geographical N-S always connected in parallel.
line. • A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a high resistance in series.
• A small resistance connected in parallel with the load Lenz‘s Law
resistance to reduce amount of electric current through • The direction of induced emf or induced current is
resistor is called shunt. always in such a way that it opposes the cause due to
which it is produced.
Magnetic Substances
• There are three types of magnetic substances Eddy Current
Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic. • If a piece of metal is placed in a varying magnetic field
• Paramagnetic Substances or rotated with high speed in a uniform magnetic
• Those substances which are feebly magnetised in the field, then induced current set up in the piece is like
direction of magnetic field when placed in strong whirlpool of air, called eddy current, also known as
magnetic field, are called paramagnetic substances. foucault‘s current.
• For examples—Aluminium, platinum, chromium,
manganese, solutions of salts of iron, nickel, oxygen Uses
etc. • Eddy currents are used in dead beat galvanometer,
• These substances are attracted towards strong induction furnaces, induction motor, speedometers of
magnetic field in a non-uniform magnetic field. automobiles etc.
• The magnetism of these substances decreases with • Eddy currents are used in diathermy for deep heat
increase in temperature. treatment of the human body.

Diamagnetic Substances Self and Mutual Induction

• Those substances which are feebly magnetised in the • The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a
opposite direction of magnetic field when placed in circuit due to change in current flowing in its own, is
strong magnetic field are called diamagnetic called self induction.
substances. • The unit of self induction is Henry (H).
• For examples— Gold, silver, zinc, copper, mercury, • The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a
water, alcohol, air, hydrogen etc. circuit due to change in magnetic flux in its
• These substances are attracted towards weak magnetic neighbouring circuit, is called mutual induction.
field in a non-uniform magnetic field. • Its unit is Henry (H).
• The magnetism produced in these substances does not
change with increase or decrease in temperature. Alternating Current
• An electric current whose magnitude and direction
Ferromagnetic Substances changes continuously is called alternating current.
• Those substances which are strongly magnetised in • The frequency of alternating current in India is 50 Hz.
the direction of magnetic field when placed in it, are
called ferromagnetic substances. Mean or average value of AC is zero for one complete
• For examples —Iron, nickel, cobalt etc. cycle.
• The magnetism produced in these substances • Root mean square value of AC is given by
decreases with increase in temperature and at a •
√
particular temperature, called Curie temperature. • An AC ammeter and AC voltmeter read root mean
• At the Curie temperature, a paramagnetic substance square value of alternating current and alternating
becomes diamagnetic. voltage respectively.
• Curie temperature for iron is 770°C and for nickel is
358°C. AC Generator or Dynamo
• It is a device which Inverts mechanical energy into
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) alternating current.
• Whenever the magnetic flux linked with an electric • Its working is based on electromagnetic induction.
circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit. This
phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction. DC Motor
• It is a device which converts electrical energy into
Faraday‘s Laws of EMI mechanical energy.
• Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit • Its working is based on the fact that when a current
changes, an induced emf is produced in it. carrying coil is placed in uniform magnetic field, a
• The induced emf loses as long as the change in torque acts on it.
magnetic flux continues.
Transformer
• It is a device which can change a low voltage current The coolant transfers heat produced during fission to a
into a high voltage current and vice-versa. working fluid which in turn may produce steam. The
• Its working is based on mutual induction. steam drives turbines and generates electricity.

Step-up Transformer Control rods- (cadmium,Boron)

• It converts a low voltage current into a high voltage The reactor can be shut down by means of rods (made of,
current. for example, cadmium,Boron) that have high absorption of
• The main energy losses in a transformer are given capacity of neutrons.cadmium and boron can absorb
below neutrons to form the corresponding isotopes, which are
• —Iron loss —Flux loss not radioactive.
• —Hysteresis loss —Humming loss (ohmic loss)
Shield - The whole assembly is shielded with heavy steel
Step–down Transformer or concrete to check harmful radiation from coming out.
• It converts a high voltage current into a low voltage
current. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

NUCLEAR REACTOR Work, Energy and Power

Work
A nuclear reactor is a device that contains and controls Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule and CGS unit
sustained nuclear chain reactions.In nuclear reactors, the is erg. 1 joule = erg.
nuclear fission is controlled by controlling the number of Work done by a force is zero when
neutrons released during the fission.The energy liberated -Body is not displace actually, i.e. s = 0
in a controlled manner is used to produce steam, which -Body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of force
can run turbines and produce electricity. i.e. θ = 90°.

Fuel - (uranium 235 , Plutonium-239 ) Work done by a variable force

The fissionable material is used in the reactor along with a If we throw a ball upward, work done against gravity is
small neutron source.The solid fuel is made into rods and given by, W = mgh
is called fuel rods. where, m = mass of the body,
g = acceleration due to gravity and
Role of extra neutron - h = height through which the ball is raised.
These neutrons in turn can initiate fission processes,
producing still more neutrons, and so on. This starts a The centripetal force acts on a body perpendicular to the
chain reaction. Slow neutrons (thermal neutrons) are much direction of motion. Therefore, work done by or against
more likely to cause fission in than fast neutrons. centripetal force in circular motion is zero.
Fast neutrons liberated in fission would escape instead of If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving on a
causing another fission reaction. horizontal platform, then work done by force of gravity is
If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to explosive zero as displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
energy output, as in a nuclear bomb or Atom bomb. Each force of gravity.
time an atom splits, it releases large amounts of energy in
the form of heat. Energy
Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. It is a scalar
Moderators -(water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite) quantity and its SI unit is joule.
Light nuclei called moderators are provided along with Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa with
the fissionable nuclei for slowing down fast neutrons. the help of some mechanical device.
There are two types of Mechanical Energy, which are as
Core - The core of the reactor is the site of nuclearfission. It follows
contains the fuel elements in suitably fabricated form.
Kinetic Energy
Reflector-The core is surrounded by a reflector to reduce The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is
leakage. The energy (heat) released in fission is called its kinetic energy.
continuously removed by a suitable coolant. Kinetic energy of the body of mass m moving with
velocity v is given by K =
Coolant - (water, heavy-water, liquid sodium,
helium,Liquid oxygen)
Potential Energy relatively strong forces on each other. For a collision,
The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its physical contact of two bodies is not necessary.
position or configuration is called its potential-energy.
Gravitational potential energy, U = mgh A collision in which momentum of the system as well as
kinetic energy of the system remains conserved, is called
Einstein‘s Mass-Energy Relation an elastic collision. In an elastic collision, all involved
According to this relation, the mass can be transformed forces are conservative forces.
into energy and vice-versa.
When ∆m mass is disappeared, then produced energy A collision in which only momentum remains conserved
E= ∆ but kinetic energy of the system does not remain
where, c = speed of light in vacuum. conserved, is called an inelastic collision.

Conservative and Non-conservative forces If after collision two colliding bodies gets sticked with
Conservative forces are non-dissipative forces like each other and moves with a common velocity, then
gravitational force, electrostatic force etc. collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
For the conservative forces, work done during a round trip In perfectly inelastic collision, the loss of kinetic energy
is always zero. during collision do not recover at all and two bodies stick
Non-conservative forces are dissipative in nature like together after collision.
frictional force, viscous force etc.
Gravitation
Law of Conservation of Energy Each and every massive body attracts each other by virtue
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, only one of their masses. This phenomenon is called gravitation.
type of energy can be transformed into other form of
energy. Newton‘s Law of Gravitation
Only for conservative forces, (total mechanical energy) The gravitational force acting between two point objects is
initially = (total mechanical energy) finally directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
Some Equipments used to Transform Energy between them.
S. Equipment Energy Transformed Gravitational force (F) =
1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into where, G is universal gravitational constant.
electrical energy Its value is 6.67 × – .
2. Candle Chemical energy into light and Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative
heat energy. force.
3. Microphone Sound energy into electrical Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth
energy. The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling body
4. Loud Speaker Electrical energy into sound due to the earth‘s gravitational pull, is called acceleration
energy. due to gravity, g =
5. Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical where, M = mass of the earth, R = radius of the earth.
energy. The value of g changes slightly from place to place but its
6. Tube light Electrical energy into light value near the earth‘s surface is 9.8 .
energy. Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature. It is
7. Electric Bulb Electrical energy into light and times smaller than electrostatic force and times
heat energy. smaller than nuclear force.
8. Battery Chemical energy into electrical
energy. Factors Affecting Acceleration due to Gravity
Shape of Earth Earth is not completely spherical its radius
9. Electric motor Electrical energy into
at equator is approximately 42 km greater than its radius
mechanical energy.
at poles.
10. Sitar Mechanical energy into sound
The value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at
energy.
equator.
There is no effect of rotation of the earth at poles and
Collision maximum at equator.
Collision between two or more particles is the interaction Effect of Altitude Therefore, g decreases with altitude.
for a very short interval of time in which they apply
Effect of Depth g decreases with depth and becomes zero Weather monitoring which is predicted on the basis of
at centre of the earth. information about moisture present in air, atmospheric
pressure etc, obtained through a polar satellite.
Mass and Weight We are able to see a live telecast of cricket world cup
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in match or other programme with the help of a
it. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is kg. communication satellite which is a geostationary satellite.
Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance. Launching vehicles – PSLV & GSLV
Mass of a body does not change from place to place and
remains constant. Time Period of a Satellite
The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one
towards the centre of the earth. Weight of a body (w) = mg revolution.
The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the
If satellite is near the earth's surface, then T = 2π√ 84.6
whole weight of the body appears to act.
The centre of gravity of a body can be inside the material min.
of the body or outside it. Escape Velocity
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton (N). It is Escape velocity: Escape velocity is that minimum velocity
measured by a spring balance. with which a body should be projected from the surface of
Weight of a body is not constant, it changes from place to earth so as it goes out of gravitational field of earth and
place. never return to earth.

Weight of a Body in a Lift Escape velocity is independent of the mass, shape and size
When lift is rest or in uniform motion The weight of the body and its direction of projection.
recorded in spring balance (i.e. apparent weight) is equal Escape velocity is also called second cosmic velocity.
to the real weight of the body w = mg. For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s.
When lift is accelerating upward The weight recorded in For moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.
spring balance is greater than then real weight of the body
w‘ = m(g + a) Orbital Velocity
When lift is accelerating downward The weight recorded Orbital velocity of a satellite √ and escape velocity
in spring balance is smaller than the real weight of the √ where R = Radius of earth. i.e. √ i.e.
body w‘ = m(g – a). escape velocity is √ times the orbital velocity.
When lift is falling freely under gravity The apparent
There if the orbital velocity of a satellite is increased to √
weight of the body
times (increased by 41%), the satellite will leave the orbit
w' = m (g – g) (∵ a = g)
and escape.
w‘ = 0
Therefore, body will experiences weightlessness.
Weight of a Body at the Moon
As mass and radius of moon is lesser than the earth, so the
force of gravity at the moon is also less than that of the
earth. It‘s value at the moon‘s surface is .
Satellite
A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is
called a satellite. Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
The satellite may be artificial. Artificial satellites are of two
types.

Geostationary Satellites
It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which is
also called Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit. The
time period of these satellites is 24 hour.

Polar Satellites
These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at
a height of approximately 800 km.
 Question
1. The distance from Earth to the sun is 3.Which type of waves is used to
measured in __________. penetrate hard objects at hospitals and
(A) Light years Airports
(B) Astronomical unit. (A) Sound waves
(C) Kelvin (B) X-Ray
(D) Joule (C) Electromagnetic
A. D (D) Mechanics
B. A A. (A)
C. B B. (B)
D. C C. (D)
Ans. C D. (C)
Sol. Ans. B
* The distance between Earth and Sun is Sol.
measured in Astronomical Unit. * X rays are used to penetrate hard
* An Astronomical unit is average objects at hospitals and Airports.
distance between Earth and the Sun, * X-rays are electromagnetic radiations
which is about 93 million miles or 150 having wavelength ranging from 0.01 to
million kilometres. 10 nanometers. They are discovered by
* It is used to determine distance Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895.
between space bodies and it also play * Hard X-rays can traverse relatively
vital role in definition of another unit of thick objects without being much
astronomical length, the Parsec. absorbed or scattered due to their high
* 1 Astronomical Unit = 4.8 millionths of penetration power.
a parsec = 15.8 millionths of a light * Hard X-rays are widely used to image
year. the inside of objects, e.g, in medical
radiography and airport security.
2.What is mass per unit volume?
(A) Force (B) Work 4.Knife is an example for-
(C) Density (D) Pressure (A) Lever (B) Wedge
A. A (C) Inclined plane (D) Pulley
B. C A. (B)
C. B B. (C)
D. D C. (A)
Ans. B D. (D)
Sol. Ans. A
* Mass per unit volume is known as Sol.
Density. * A wedge is a triangular tool. A knife
* The density of a material varies with can be a example of a wedge.
temperature and pressure. This variation * Wedge has wide applications such as
is typically small for solids and liquids to separate two objects or portions of an
but much greater for gases. object, lift up an object, or hold an
* The reciprocal of the density of a object in place.
substance is occasionally called its * Axe is fine example of a wedge. Other
specific volume. examples of wedges are found in drill
* Work is defined as energy transferred bits, which produce circular holes in
when a force moves an object through a solids.
distance. * Dividing the height of the wedge by
* Power is defined as rate of doing work the wedge's width gives the mechanical
or the amount of energy transferred per advantage of a wedge.
unit time.
5.Freely suspended magnet always stays
in the direction?
(A) East West
 (B) North South waves as the source and observer move
(C) East North towards/away from each other. To know
(D) West South this, a star is comes to us or goes too
A. (C) far away is hence a example to be
B. (A) known by Doppler effect.
C. (B)
D. (D) 7.The theory behind stars twinkling is
Ans. C that _______.
Sol. (A) The refractive index of the different
● The freely magnet always stays in layers of earth’s atmosphere changes
North South direction. The shape of the continuously, consequently the position
Earth's magnetic field resembles that of of the star’s image changes with time.
a bar magnet of length. (B) The intensity of light emitted by
● The South Pole of the Earth's magnet them changes with time
is in the geographical North because it (C) The light from the star is scattered
attracts the North Pole of the suspended by the dust particles and air molecules in
magnet and vice versa. the earth’s atmosphere
● The axis of Earth's magnet or the (D) The distance of the stars from the
magnetic pole and the geographical axis earth changes with time
or geographical pole does no coincide. A. (D)
● In other words a freely suspended B. (C)
magnet does not show exact C. (B)
geographical South and North it only D. (A)
shows magnetic north and south poles. Ans. D
Sol.
6.Study the following statements and • The refractive index of the different
choose right option. layers of earth’s atmosphere changes
(i) To know this, a star is comes to us continuously, consequently the position
or goes too far away. of the star’s image changes with time.
(ii) To know about the drawbacks of • This is the theory behind the twinkling
internal parts of storerooms of oil and of stars.
minerals • When starlight enters our atmosphere
(A) (i) and (ii) are applications of it is affected by winds in the atmosphere
resonance principle. and by areas with different temperatures
(B) (i) is from Doppler effect and (ii) is and densities. This causes the light from
from Reverberation principle the star to twinkle when seen from the
(C) (i) is reverberation principle and (ii) ground.
is Doppler effect.
(D) (i) and (ii) both are Doppler effect. 8.While watching 3D movies at the
A. (B) theatre, we have to wear special glasses
B. (D) because _________.
C. (A) (A) The glasses allow our left and right
D. (C) eyes to see different images
Ans. A (B) 3-D movies special colors which
Sol. cannot be sensed by the human eye
* Reverberation Principle- A (C) 3-D movies are brighter than
reverberation, or reverb, is created ordinary movies and can hurt our eyes if
when a sound or signal is reflected seen directly.
causing numerous reflections to build up (D) The glasses allow both the eyes to
and then decay as the sound is absorbed see similar images
by the surfaces of objects in the space. A. (D)
* Doppler effect is an increase/decrease B. (A)
in the frequency of sound, light, or other C. (C)
D. (B) 11.What will be the effect of a moving
Ans. B lift on a person’s mass?
Sol. (A) It will increase
• In 3D movies, two images are (B) It will decrease
projected simultaneously on the screen. (C) It will remain constant
One image is horizontally polarised and (D) It may increase or decrease
the other is vertically polarised. That is A. (A)
why, without 3D glasses, the image is B. (D)
blurred. C. (B)
• The 3D spectacles that we use D. (C)
essentially have two types of polaroid Ans. D
glasses, horizontally polarised for, say, Sol.
the right eye and vertically polarised for * The mass of a person is constant and
the left eye. does not depend upon the movement of
lift.
9.Spacecraft needs a speed of over ____ * But apparent weight of a person can
to escape Earth’s gravity. increase or decrease depends upon the
(A) 40,000 km/hr. (B) 40,270 km/hr. acceleration or deacceleration of lift.
(C) 42,326 km/hr. (D) 41,721 km/hr. * The apparent weight of man can be
A. (B) easily calculated based on newton’s laws
B. (A) of motion.
C. (C)
D. (D) 12.Which of the following is not an
Ans. A electrical conductor?
Sol. (A) Porcelain (B) Aluminium
● A Spacecraft needs a speed of over (C) Tungsten (D) Nickel
40,270 km/hr to escape Earth’s gravity. A. (D)
● The escape velocity is the minimum B. (A)
speed needed for a free, non-propelled C. (B)
object to escape from the gravitational D. (B)
influence of a massive body. Ans. B
● The escape velocity from Earth is Sol.
about 11.186 km/s (40,270 km/hr) at * Aluminium, Tungsten and Nickel are
the surface. good electricity conductors while
Porcelain is not.
10.If two plane mirrors are kept at an * Porcelain is a ceramic material, it is
angle of 120o to each other, then how tough, translucent and an electricity
many images will be formed? insulator.
(A) 3 (B) 4 * Properties associated with porcelain
(C) 2 (D) 6 include low permeability and elasticity;
A. (C) considerable strength, hardness,
B. (B) toughness etc.
C. (D)
D. (A) 13.Infra-red rays are
Ans. A (A) Longitudinal waves
Sol. (B) Transverse waves
No. of images = 360/x-1 (C) Mechanical waves
Hence, (D) Electromagnetic waves
= 360/120-1 A. (A)
= 3-1 B. (B)
= 2 images. C. (D)
D. (C)
Ans. C
Sol. is directly proportional to the voltage
* Infrared are Electromagnetic across the two points.
radiations, with long wavelengths than * It is stated as V=IR, hence if
visible light. resistance is doubled at same voltage,
* Most of the thermal radiation emitted the current became half as per ohm’s
by objects near room temperature is law.
infrared. These carry radiant energy and
behaves both like a wave and like its 16.Which of the following is true?
quantum particle, the photon. (A) Image formed at retina is inverted
* Infrared radiation was discovered in (B) Image formed at retina is twice of
1800 by astronomer Sir William original image
Herschel. (C) Image formed at retina is similar or
Original Image
14.What is an Electron? (D) Image formed at retina is small
(A) A subatomic particle with a net A. (D)
charge, that is neutral. B. (A)
(B) A subatomic particle with a net C. (B)
charge that is positive. D. (C)
(C) A subatomic particle with a net Ans. B
charge that is negative. Sol.
(D) A subatomic particle with a net * The image formed on the retina is
charge that is zero. inverted.
A. (C) * The image formed on the retina is
B. (B) real.
C. (A) * Our brain converts the electrochemical
D. (D) impulses from our eyes to create the
Ans. A visual representation of reality we
Sol. perceive. Or in other words the inverted
● The electron is a subatomic particle, image is erected by brain though
whose electric charge is negative one complex nervous functions.
elementary charge.
● Electrons belong to the first generation 17.Out of the following, which one does
of the lepton particle family. NOT have magnetic properties like a
● The electron has a mass that is permanent magnet?
approximately 1/1836 that of the (A) Nickel (B) Iron
proton. (C) Aluminium (D) Lodestone
A. (A)
15.If resistance of a circuit is doubled B. (B)
then to maintain the same voltage, flow C. (C)
of current in the circuit will D. (D)
(A) Increase by Half Ans. D
(B) Decrease by Half Sol.
(C) Remain constant ● A lodestone is a naturally occurring
(D) Becomes zero magnets of the mineral magnetite.
A. (B) Lodestone is one of only a very few
B. (C) minerals that is found naturally
C. (D) magnetized.
D. (A) ● Lodestone are made of magnetite
Ans. A (Fe3O4) with inclusions of maghemite
Sol. (cubic Fe2O3).
* Ohm's law states that the current ● Isaac Newton's signet ring reportedly
through a conductor between two points contained a lodestone which was capable
of lifting more than 200 times its own 20.Which of the following statements is
weight. wrong about Sir CV Raman?
(A) He was honoured with Bharat Ratna
18.The sub-atomic particles which show in 1954
property opposite to the general sub- (B) He won Nobel Prize in 1930
atomic particles, are called: (C) He was born in Tamil Nadu in 188
(A) Positrons (B) Antimatter (D) He was knighted in 1987
(C) Photons (D) Neutrinos A. (B)
A. (C) B. (C)
B. (A) C. (D)
C. (B) D. (A)
D. (D) Ans. C
Ans. B Sol.
Sol. ● Sir Cv Raman was awarded Bharat
● Positrons are also known as antimatter Ratan in 1954 by the Indian
or antiparticle. It has electric charge of government.
+1e and spin same as electron and also ● He was elected a Fellow of the Royal
same mass as electron. Society early in his career (1924) and
● Alternatively known as an anti- knighted in 1929.
electron, it has the same properties as ● In 1930 he won the Nobel Prize in
the electron with the exception of Physics.
electric charge. ● He was born in 1888 in Madras
● Stable in a vacuum, positrons quickly province of India.
react with the electrons of ordinary ● Hence statement D is incorrect.
matter by annihilation to produce
gamma radiation. 21.NuSTART space-based X-ray
telescope conducts deep survey for
19.Which Indian Researcher recently (A) Comets (B) Black holes
disputed Einstein’s mass-energy (C) Planets (D) Asteroids
equation E = mc2 as inadequate and A. (D)
valid only under certain conditions B. (A)
(A) Vasudevan Mukunth C. (B)
(B) Rajendra Pachauri D. (C)
(C) Ajay Sharma Ans. C
(D) Krishna Palem Sol.
A. (A) Solution
B. (C) • NuSTART space-based X-ray telescope
C. (D) conducts deep survey for Black holes.
D. (B) • The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope
Ans. B Array (NuSTART) is an Explorer mission.
Sol. • It allows astronomers to study the
● Ajay Sharma is an assistant director of universe in high energy X-rays.
education with the Himachal Pradesh • It was launched in June, 2012.
government. • NuSTART is the first focusing hard X-
● On January 10, 2016 the Indo-Asian ray telescope to orbit Earth.
News Service (IANS) published an article
in which Sharma claims Albert Einstein’s 22.Above which level of noise is a cause
famous equation E = mc2 is “illogical”. of hearing loss and damage?
● He stated that -Albert Einstein’s mass (A) Approx 80 Decibels
energy equation (E=mc2) is inadequate (B) Approx 130 Decibels
as it has not been completely studied (C) Approx 150 Decibles
and is only valid under special (D) Approx 180 Decibles
conditions. A. (A)
B. (C) distance that light travels in one year,
C. (D) which is 9.4607 × 1012 km.
D. (B)
Ans. B 25.Which process divides the light of sun
Sol. into its component colours?
● The range of human hearing is (A) Refraction (B) Reflection
generally considered to be 20 Hz to 20 (C) Retraction (D) Radiation
kHz, but it is far more sensitive to A. (A)
sounds between 1 kHz and 4 kHz. B. (D)
● In decibels human ear can sustain C. (C)
from 0db to around 130 dbs., which is D. (B)
further classified as Ans. A
● No risk range- 0-80 db Sol.
● Harmful Range- 80-90db ● Refraction is the phenomena of
● Dangerous Range- 90-115 travelling light from one medium to
● Irreversible Range- above 120 another. This phenomena is responsible
for the scattering of different colours of
23.Which of the following is a conductor light.
of electric charge? ● Reflection is a phenomena in which
(A) Glass (B) Paper light is reflected back from a surface.
(C) Copper (D) Water ● Radiation is a phenomena of radiating
A. (D) energy in form of radiations from
B. (A) nucleus of atom.
C. (B) ● Retraction is basically the action of
D. (C) drawing something back or back in.
Ans. D
Sol. 26.Pressure is measured in terms of-
● Generally all metals are good (A) Mass and density
conductor of heat and electricity, in this (B) Work done’
case Copper metal is good conductor of (C) Force and area
electric charge. (D) Force and distance
● Glass, Paper And water are not A. (C)
conductor of electric charge, water B. (B)
conducts electricity due to impurities C. (D)
present in it, Pure water with neutral Ph D. (A)
is basically a non conductor of electric Ans. A
charge. Sol.
● The flow of electric charge is regarded ● Pressure is defined as Force per Unit
as Electric Current. area.
● It’s SI unit is Pascal.
24.Astronomical leap year measures in- ● It is a scalar entity.
(A) Leap Year (B) Light year ● Units such as the centimetre of water
(C) Mega Kilometer (D) Nautical Mile and millimetre of mercury are used to
A. (C) express pressures in terms of the height
B. (B) of column of a particular fluid in a
C. (A) manometer.
D. (D)
Ans. B 27.If frequency of wave increases, its
Sol. wavelength
● Astronomical leap Year measures in (A) Increases
Light year. (B) Decreases
● A light Year is basically a unit of (C) Remains constant
astronomical distance equivalent to the (D) Becomes infinite
A. (A) ● Thermostats use different types of
B. (B) sensors to measure the temperature.
C. (C) ● Thermostats are used in any device or
D. (D) system that heats or cools to a setpoint
Ans. B temperature.
Sol.
* The frequency and wavelength of a 30.The pressure of cabin of a flying
wave are related. aeroplane at height is-
* When frequency increases more wave (A) Equal to outside
crests pass a fixed point each second, (B) Lower than outside
that means the wavelength shortens. (C) More than outside
* So, as frequency increases, (D) Normal atmospheric pressure at sea
wavelength decreases. level
* The opposite is also true—as A. (A)
frequency decreases, wavelength B. (C)
increases. C. (D)
D. (B)
28.Pressure is measured in terms of Ans. B
(A) Mass and Density Sol.
(B) Word done ● The pressure of cabin of a flying
(C) Force and Area aeroplane at height is more than
(D) Force and Distance outside.
A. (D) ● The cabin needs to be pressurized so
B. (B) that they can maintain a high enough
C. (C) oxygen level for everyone onboard to
D. (A) function.
Ans. C ● Otherwise shortage of oxygen will
Sol. occur which may lead to instant adverse
● Pressure is measured in terms of Force health effects on passengers.
and Area.
● The standard SI unit for pressure 31.Which of the following is true about
measurement is the Pascal (Pa) which is Glucometer?
equivalent to one Newton per square (A) It is medical instrument
meter (N/m2) or the KiloPascal (kPa) (B) It is non-medical instrument
where 1 kPa = 1000 Pa. (C) It is used to measure the oxygen
level in air
29.The instrument used to regulate (D) It is used to measure the nitrogen
temperature to a particular degree is level in air.
called A. (C)
(A) Thermostat B. (A)
(B) Thermometer C. (B)
(C) Pyrometer D. (D)
(D) Thermocouple Ans. B
A. (C) Sol.
B. (A) ● A glucose meter is a medical device for
C. (D) determining the approximate
D. (B) concentration of glucose in the blood.
Ans. B ● It is a key element of home blood
Sol. glucose monitoring(HBGM).
● The instrument used to regulate
temperature to a particular degree is 32.A spoon which seems tilted in water,
called Thermostats. is an example of
(A) Reflection (B) Refraction
 (C) Retention (D) Focus C. (B)
A. A D. (D)
B. B Ans. D
C. D Sol.
D. C ● In 1742 Anders Celsius proposed the
Ans. B Celsius temperature scale which bears
Sol. his name. The scale is used to measure
* A spoon which seems tilted in water, is the temperature in Celsius Units. He also
an example of Refraction. founded the Uppsala Astronomical
* Refraction refers to change in direction Observatory in 1741.
of a wave passing from one medium to ● Fahrenheit Scale and Kelvin Scales are
another due to different refractive other two major scales used to measure
indexes of mediums. temperature.
* Refraction follows Snell's law, which ● Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the
states that, for a given pair of media, Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the Celsius
the ratio of the sines of the angle of scale, and −459.67 °F on the Fahrenheit
incidence θ1 and angle of refraction θ2 scale. The SI unit of Temperature is
is equal to the ratio of phase velocities Kelvin not Celsius.
(v1 / v2) in the two media.
35.Match the following with true SI unit.
33.Which of the following branches of (A) P-a, Q-b, R-c, S-d
Physics related with the study of heat (B) P-a, Q-c, R-b, S-d
(A) Optics (C) P-d, Q-b, R-c, S-a
(B) Acoustics (D) P-d, Q-c, R-b, S-a
(C) Thermodynamics A. (C)
(D) Relativity B. (A)
A. (A) C. (B)
B. (C) D. (D)
C. (B) Ans. B
D. (D) Sol.
Ans. B * The SI unit of Angle is Radian
Sol. * The SI unit of Magnetic Induction is
● Acoustics- the branch of physics Weber
concerned with the properties of sound. * The SI unit of Magnetic Flux is Henry
● Optics-Optics is the branch of physics * The SI unit of Solid Angle is Steradian.
that studies the behaviour and
properties of light. 36.Optical Character Reader is an
● Thermodynamics- Thermodynamics is example of which type of device?
the branch of physics that deals with (A) Output device
heat and temperature, and their relation (B) Input device
to energy, work, radiation, and (C) Interface device
properties of matter. (D) Storage device
● Relativity is a concept of physics which A. (D)
is propounded by Einstein. B. (B)
C. (A)
34.Centigrade, which is unit of D. (C)
temperature is denoted on the name of: Ans. B
(A) Kelvin Sol.
(B) Jean-Pierre Christin * Optical Character Recognition is an
(C) Marten Stromer example of the Input device in which
(D) Anders Celsius images of typed, written or printed text
A. (C) converted into machine-encoded text.
B. (A)
* It is a major tool used in fields like ● When electricity passes through the
passport documents, invoices, wire, the metal becomes magnetic and
computerized receipts, business cards, creates a magnetic field.
mail, printouts of static-data etc. ● The coils of wire of the generators are
* Advanced systems of Optical Character conductors, and when the electrons in
Reader are capable of producing a high the wires are exposed to changing
degree of recognition accuracy for most magnetic fields, they move, creating an
fonts are now common, and with electric current in the wires.
support for a variety of digital image file
format inputs. 39.What is the unit of length used
informally to express astronomical
37.Which of the following is not a vector distances?
quantity? (A) Petameters
(A) Motion/impulse (B) Parsecs
(B) Gravitation of force (C) Light Years
(C) Electric flow (D) Hubble Length
(D) Displacement A. (D)
A. (B) B. (C)
B. (D) C. (A)
C. (C) D. (B)
D. (A) Ans. B
Ans. C Sol.
Sol. ● A light-year is a unit of length used
* A scalar is a quantity with magnitude informally to express astronomical
only, while A vector is a quantity with distances.
the magnitude as well as direction like ● It is approximately 10 trillion
displacement, force, impulse etc. kilometres (or about 6 trillion miles).
* Electric current has both direction and ● As defined by the International
magnitude, but it is not considered as Astronomical Union (IAU), a light-year is
vector because it does not follow the the distance that light travels in vacuum
vector law of addition. in one Julian year.
* Amphere is the unit to measure
electric current and it flows opposite to 40. Sound waves are ______ waves
the direction of flow of electrons. Metals (A) Pressure
are good conductor of electricity because (B) Longitudinal
it has free electrons available. (C) Electromagnetic
(D) Mechanical
38.The principle of changing magnetic A. (C)
field which produces an electric current B. (D)
in a wire is used in _______. C. (B)
(A) Electric bell D. (A)
(B) Electric generator Ans. C
(C) Electromagnets Sol.
(D) Magnetic compass ● Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
A. (A) ● Longitudinal waves are those waves
B. (B) which vibrate in the direction of
C. (C) propagation.
D. (D) ● The other main type of wave is the
Ans. B transverse wave, in which the
Sol. displacements of the medium are at
● The principle of changing magnetic right angles to the direction of
field which produces electric current in a propagation.
wire is used in Electric Generator.
41.Which of the following colour has the Ans. D
least wavelength? Sol.
(A) Green • Evaporation of a liquid takes away
(B) Blue heat.
(C) Red • As the rubbing alcohol evaporates it
(D) Violet absorbs heat and creates the cool
A. (A) feeling.
B. (B) • A refrigerator uses the evaporation of
C. (D) a liquid refrigerant to absorb heat from
D. (C) the food compartment.
Ans. C
Sol. 44.A moving body definitely possesses-
● The colours of the spectrum of white (A) Kinetic energy
light are violet, indigo, blue, green, (B) Potential energy
yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). (C) Mechanical energy
● Each colour is associated with a (D) Heat energy
different wavelength. A. (C)
● Walking from violet, indigo, blue, B. (B)
green, yellow, orange and red the C. (D)
wavelength of colours decreases. D. (A)
● The Red colour has maximum Ans. D
wavelength of 620-720 while Violet has Sol.
minimum of 400-440. ● Kinetic Energy- is possessed by a
moving body.
42.When the human body temperature ● Potential Energy- is possessed by
raises by about 5.4-8oF above the height or elevation of a body.
normal body temperature, the condition ● Mechanical Energy- is defined as
is known as ability to do work.
(A) Viral (B) Hypothermia ● Heat Energy- Possessed due to
(C) Pyretic (D) Hyperpyrexia movement of tiny particles caused by
A. (B) temperature.
B. (A)
C. (D) 45.‘Gallon’ is commonly used_______.
D. (C) A. To refer to speed.
Ans. C B. To refer to a container.
Sol. C. As a measure of volume
• Hyperpyrexia is another term for a D. To express containers in terms of
very high fever. barrel.
• When the human body temperature Ans. C
raises by about 5.4-8oF above the Sol. ‘Gallon’ is commonly used to
normal body temperature, the condition measure volume.
is known as Hyperpyrexia.
• Hyperpyrexia is considered to be a 46.How many millimeters make ten
medical emergency. kilometers?
A. 1010
43.Evaporation of a liquid to absorb heat B. 109
is the principle used by a C. 108
(A) Microwave oven (B) Refrigerator D. 107
(C) Geyser (D) Electric Kettle Ans. D
A. (C) Sol. 1 kilometer = 1000 meter
B. (D) 1 meter = 1000 millimeters
C. (A) Now, 1 kilometer = 1000000 millimeters
D. (B)
Hence, 10 kilometers = 10000000 Sol.
millimeters =107 ● The SI unit of Force is Newton.
● Force is defined as any interaction that
47.When a person can see only nearby can change the motion of an object. A
objects, the condition is called______. force can cause an object with mass to
A. Hypermetropia change it’s velocity or to gain
B. Astigmatism acceleration/ deceleration.
C. Myopia ● Newton gave three laws of motion
D. Retinopathy which gave relation between motion,
Ans. C speed, distance, force and mass of an
Sol. Myopia is a condition of the eye object.
where the light that comes in does not ● Kelvin is the SI unit of Temperature,
directly focus on the retina but in front Pascal is the unit of Pressure and Volt is
of it, causing the image that one sees the unit of potential difference.
when looking at a distant object to be
out of focus, but in focus when looking 50.Water droplets cause rainbow due to
at a close object. (A) Reflection of sunlight
(B) Refraction of sunlight
48.By the material, light can transmit (C) Reflection & refraction of sunlight
without any loss, known as (D) Diffusion of sunlight
(A) Translucent A. (D)
(B) Opaque B. (B)
(C) Transparent C. (A)
(D) Vitreous D. (C)
A. (B) Ans. D
B. (D) Sol.
C. (A) • Water droplets cause rainbow due to
D. (C) reflection & refraction of sunlight.
Ans. D • It takes the form of a multicoloured
Sol. circular arc.
● Transparent material allows light to • Rainbows caused by sunlight always
pass through it without being scattered appear in the section of sky directly
or without any loss or in other words the opposite the sun.
light follows Snell’s Law.
● Translucent material is that materials 51.The instrument used to measure the
which allows light to pass through but rotation speed of a shaft is called _____.
does not necessary follow Snell’s law. A. Speedometer
● Opaque materials are neither metallic B. Tachometer
nor transparent. For example – wood, C. Anemometer
stone etc. D. Chronometer
● Vitreous material is an amorphous Ans. B
solid material like glass. Sol. Tachometer is an instrument
measuring the rotation speed of a shaft
49.What is the SI unit of force? or disk, as in a motor or other machine.
(A) Kelvin • The device usually displays the
(B) Newton revolutions per minute (RPM) on a
(C) Pascal calibrated analogue dial, but digital
(D) Volt displays are increasingly common.
A. (C)
B. (D) 52.Blotting paper absorbs ink due to
C. (B) A. Coarse nature of paper
D. (A) B. Osmosis
Ans. C C. Capillary action
D. Siphoning D. 30 cm
Ans. C Ans. C
Sol. Blotting Paper absorbs ink due to Sol. Least distance of distinct vision is
capillary action. the minimum distance from the eye at
• Capillary action is solely based on the which an object appears to be distinct.
property of liquids which is surface • Least distance of distinct vision for
tension. normal eye is 25 cm.
• When the adhesion to the walls is
stronger than the cohesive forces 54.The pressure is usually measured by
between the liquid molecules, capillary _____.
action takes place. This causes an A. Mass & Density
upward force on the liquid at the ends. B. Work done
This ultimately results in a meniscus C. Force & Area
turning upward. D. Force & Distance
Ans. C
53.Least distance of distinct vision for Sol. Pressure is measured in term of
normal eye is_______. Force and Area.
A. 15 cm • It is defined as force per unit area.
B. 20 cm • Its unit is Pascal or Newton per square
C. 25 cm meter.