INTRODUCTORY

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

INTRODUCTORY
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
DAVID REEPING
AND
KENNETH REID

Introductory Engineering Mathematics

Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2017.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any otherexcept for
brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission of
the publisher.
First published in 2017 by
Momentum Press, LLC
222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.momentumpress.net
ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-909-8 (print)
ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-910-4 (e-book)
Momentum Press General Engineering and K-12 Engineering Education
Collection
DOI: 10.5643/9781606509104
Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Ltd.
Chennai, India
First edition: 2017
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America

ABSTRACT
This text serves as a concise introduction to the ocean of information collectively known as Engineering Mathematics. Admittedly, compiling
everything into a short book that is useful to any audience is an impossible
task; therefore, we picked a few main ideas holding up the mathematics
within the engineering curriculum instead of stuffing all of the details into
such a small package. Our strategy in writing this text was to address conceptual understanding as often as possible; the informal meet and greets
with common mathematical objects are intended to provide an intuitive
basis for the formalized study within an engineering or mathematics
course.
The intent is to present mathematics as a useful tool within engineering without becoming too bogged down with formalities; therefore, we do
not provide rigorous proofs of major theorems. Similarly, we will refer to
a particular field for additional information if desired whenever a topic is
beyond the scope of the text.
We do assume a level of mathematical maturity that amounts to high
school Algebra. Whether you are a math or science instructor tasked to
teach an engineering class, a high school student looking into engineering,
or an engineering student already, we hope you are able to walk away
from this text with tangible outcomesmaybe even a refined perspective
on the subject.

KEYWORDS
calculus, first year engineering, graphing, problem solving, systems

CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES

IX

LIST OF TABLES

XV

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1

XVII

MOTIVATION FOR ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

1.1

Abstraction in Engineering

1.2

Engineering Systems as a Starting Point

SOLVING COMMON ENGINEERING PROBLEMS

2.1

Choice of Coordinate Systems

2.1.1

2.2

Rectangular Coordinates

10

2.1.1.1

11

Moving to a Third Dimension

2.1.2

Polar Coordinates

14

2.1.3

Vectors

17

2.1.3.1

Vector Addition and Subtraction

23

2.1.3.2

Vector Multiplication

23

2.1.4

Manipulating Space

29

2.1.5

Complex Numbers

32

Graphical RelationshipsAngles

36

2.2.1

Useful Angle Theorems

37

2.2.2

Ideas in Trigonometry

43

2.2.2.1

52

Laws of Sines and Cosines

viii CONTENTS

EMPLOYING FUNCTIONS

55

3.1

Relations to Functions

55

3.1.1

Composition

60

3.1.2

Inverse Functions

64

3.2

Fitting Data

69

3.3

Locating Roots of a Function

75

3.3.1
3.4
4

Functional Behavior

76
83

USING CALCULUS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS

95

4.1

Differential Calculus

95

4.2

Integral Calculus

111

INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

121

5.1

Classifications

121

5.2

Common Manipulations

137

5.3

Special Inputs

144

5.3.1

Heaviside Unit Stepthe Step Function

144

5.3.2

Diracs Delta Function: The Impulse Function

149

5.4

Locating Roots Within a Tolerance,

or Getting Close Enough

Inputs in Terms of an Infinite Series

152

5.4.1

Power Series

154

5.4.2

Fourier Series

157

ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

165

6.1

165

INDEX

A Summary and Where to Go from Here

167

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1

Representing a weight by a dot or point

Figure 1.2

Abstracting a cantilever beam with a weight

Figure 1.3

Can all of these actions be described using the

same mathematics?

Figure 1.4

A black-box diagram of a system

Figure 1.5

Idealizing a phone as a system

Figure 1.6

Simple spring and mass system

Figure 2.1

Rectangular coordinates

10

Figure 2.2

Screenshot of AutoCAD sketch

12

Figure 2.3

A 3-D coordinate system

12

Figure 2.4

Beam supported by cables

13

Figure 2.5

Finding the end of the beam, E

13

Figure 2.6

Demonstration of polar coordinates

14

Figure 2.7

Friction on a tire

15

Figure 2.8

Point F at 131

16

Figure 2.9

Visualizing the tensile test

19

Figure 2.10

Acceleration vector A

19

Figure 2.11

Position vectors pointing out the end points of A

20

Figure 2.12

Visualizing the scenario

25

Figure 2.13

Example of a position vector and a force

27

Figure 2.14

Outlet pipe with force F

27

Figure 2.15

Graphical interpretation of the cross product

28

Figure 2.16

Where do I place my coordinate system?

30

Figure 2.17

Two-block system

30

x LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.18

Reorientation of the coordinate system

31

Figure 2.19

A simple pendulum and possible choices for the

origin

31

Figure 2.20

Alternating current

32

Figure 2.21

Attempting to relate i to the real line

33

Figure 2.22

Purely real versus purely imaginary

34

Figure 2.23

The complex plane

34

Figure 2.24

Impedances in series

36

Figure 2.25

Visualizing the radian

37

Figure 2.26

Angle classifications

39

Figure 2.27

Example of a truss

40

Figure 2.28

Complementary and supplementary angles

40

Figure 2.29

Intersection of two lines

40

Figure 2.30

Corresponding angles

41

Figure 2.31

Angle relationships with parallel lines cut by a

transversal

42

Figure 2.32

Constructing the line segment AC

43

Figure 2.33

Angle sum of a triangle

44

Figure 2.34

The unit circle

46

Figure 2.35

Plot of the angle, , versus the length of x for one

rotation

46

Figure 2.36

Plot of the cosine curve on a wider interval

47

Figure 2.37

Plot of the sine curve

47

Figure 2.38

The cosine curve scaled for a triangle with a

hypotenuse of r

48

Figure 2.39

Demonstrating the Pythagorean Theorem for

trigonometry

49

Figure 2.40

Triangle used to define the Laws of Sines and

Cosines

53

Figure 2.41

Area of nature preserve from Example 2.23

53

Figure 3.1

Visualizing a function

55

Figure 3.2

When f (x) is NOT a functionone input yielding

two (or more) different answers

56

LIST OF FIGURES xi

Figure 3.3

Multiple inputs yielding the same output still

means f (x) is a function

56

Figure 3.4

Drawing out the function using arrows

57

Figure 3.5

Realizing the mapping is not a function

58

Figure 3.6

Function f with input of 1 gives an output of 0

59

Figure 3.7

Domain and range of f ( x ) = 9 x 2

60

Figure 3.8

Embedding information into a picture

Plot of w (t )

61

Figure 3.9

63

Figure 3.10

Sliding a metal rod along metal rails in the

presence of a magnetic field

64

Figure 3.11

Intuitive behavior of an inverse function

64

Figure 3.12

Graphical relationship between f and f

Figure 3.13

2
Graph of f ( x ) = x and its inverse

( x) =

67
68

Figure 3.14

Demonstration of the horizontal line test

69

Figure 3.15

A data set

69

Figure 3.16

Interpolation versus extrapolation

70

Figure 3.17

Plot of linear fit from Example 3.8

73

Figure 3.18

Graph of f ( x ) = x + x 1 near the root

77

Figure 3.19

Noticing the change in sign around the root

78

Figure 3.20

Table and plot of approximations from the

bisection method

79

Figure 3.21

First three approximations of x *

80

Figure 3.22

Graph of e x

81

Figure 3.23

Continuous functions

84

Figure 3.24

Discontinuous functions

84

Figure 3.25

The graph of f ( x ) =

Figure 3.26

Limit approaching 1 from both sides

86

Figure 3.27

Disagreeing limits

88

Figure 3.28

The function f ( x ) = e and its end behavior

+4

sin ( x )

85

90

xii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.29

A simple pendulum

91

Figure 3.30

92

Figure 3.31

The small-angle approximation

Comparison of f ( x ) and g ( x )

93

Figure 4.1

Plot of the cars distance over 6 s

95

Figure 4.2

Meaning of velocity, the slope at t = 4

96

Figure 4.3

Mass and spring system

102

Figure 4.4

Position function of the mass, f ( t ) = sin(t )

102

Figure 4.5

Cantilever beam rigidly attached to a wall

105

Figure 4.6

Plot of the voltage across the capacitor

107

Figure 4.7

Fluid flow through a wind turbine

108

Figure 4.8

Finding minimums and maximums using the

derivative

110

Figure 4.9

Verifying the point at x = 1 / 3 is a maximum

110

Figure 4.10

The physical meaning of integration

determining position using velocity

112

Figure 4.11

Estimating the area under the curve

112

Figure 4.12

Physical meaning of expected value

119

Figure 5.1

A more detailed black-box diagram

121

Figure 5.2

Signal on the screen of an EKG

122

Figure 5.3

Idealizing EKG as deterministic

123

Figure 5.4

A periodic signal

124

Figure 5.5

The signal f ( t ) = 3sin(5t + )

125

Figure 5.6

Time as a variable

127

Figure 5.7

An everlasting signal

127

Figure 5.8

A causal signal

128

Figure 5.9

An anticausal signal

128

Figure 5.10

A noncausal signal

129
t

10

Figure 5.11

The signal f ( t ) = e

Figure 5.12

An even signal

134

Figure 5.13

An odd signal

134

Figure 5.14

Plot of e

for positive time

129

135

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

Figure 5.15

Integral of an odd function over a symmetric

interval

135

Figure 5.16

Moving a function/signal without changing its

shape

137

Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19

2
The function f ( t ) = t

138

The shifted functions (original curve is gray and

dotted)
2
Delaying f ( t ) = t (original curve is gray and

138
139

dotted)
Figure 5.20

Scaling f ( t ) = sin(t ) vertically by 3 (original

140

curve is gray and dotted)

Figure 5.21

Scaling f ( t ) = sin(t ) horizontally by 3 (original

141

curve is gray and dotted)

Figure 5.22

A causal signal and its time reversal (original

curve is gray and dotted)

141

Figure 5.23

A causal signal flipped over the x-axis

142

Figure 5.24

A signal lasting only 4 seconds

142

Figure 5.25

Intended periodic signal, y ( t )

144

Figure 5.26

The Heaviside Unit Step Function

145

Figure 5.27

A 12-volt battery and a switch

146

Figure 5.28

Graphical subtraction

148

Figure 5.29

The windowed signal, y ( t )

148

Figure 5.30

The impulse function

149

Figure 5.31

The shifted impulse functions

150

Figure 5.32

The flipped impulse function

151

Figure 5.33

The impulse function shifting through the other

signal

152

Figure 5.34

Pairing numbers in the sum

from 1 to 100

153

Figure 5.35

The n versus Sn curve for

n=0 2

155

xiv LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.36

The n versus Sn curve for

155

n=0

1
1 x

157

Figure 5.37

Eight-term approximation (dotted) of

Figure 5.38

The standard square wave

157

Figure 5.39

Adding the first sinusoid

158

Figure 5.40

Adding the next two terms

158

Figure 5.41

Using seven terms to approximate the square

wave

159

Figure 5.42

One period of the sine wave with the signum

function

160

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1

Summary of angle types

39

Table 2.2

43

Table 2.3

Summary of angle types

Special values of sin( ) and cos( )

50

Table 3.1

Domain and range of a simple function

57

Table 3.2

A function with more inputs and outputs

57

Table 3.3

One last possible function

58

Table 3.4

Experimentally measured current for different

voltages

71

Table 3.5

Calculating the necessary parameters for leastsquares fitting

72

Table of predicted current versus the measured

current

73

Table 3.7

Calculating the residuals

74

Table 3.8

Values of the parameter and its associated

value of x

83

Table 3.9

Approaching the value of x = 0

86

Table 3.10

Approaching the value x = 4

88

Table 3.11

Approaching positive infinity

89

Table 3.12

Approaching negative infinity

90

Table 4.1

Common functions and their derivatives

103

Table 4.2

Derivative rules

104

Table 4.3

Table of similar functions and their derivatives

113

Table 4.4

LIATE Rule

117

Table 3.6

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to extend our thanks to our wonderful colleagues and
friends who reviewed this text and provided invaluable feedback: Kevin
Cordi, Tena Roepke, Marlena McGlothlin-Lester, Matthew Mullins,
Alexandra Seda, Natasha Smith, and Elizabeth Spingola.

CHAPTER 1

MOTIVATION FOR
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Whether we are standing outside in frigid temperatures the morning of the
shopping nightmare known as Black Friday or arching over our keyboards
ready to place a preorder, the goal is likely the same. A bold new technology has hit the market, and we have become ravenous for the chance to be
one of the first to own it. The store opens its doors to the public, only for
the display floor to be flooded by customers. After braving the crowd and
waiting patiently, the clerk slides the device across the counter into our
hands. Glancing over the package, the sexy tagline catches the eye, engineered to satisfy.
Clear across the world, a native of a country in dire poverty walks up
to a water purification system, with jug in hand. Parched, she turns the
handle to let the spigot release a gush of fresh water. After filling the jug
to the brim, the woman turns to see writing on the belly of the tank,
engineered for a better world.
These mottos appear to be common among a wide range of products,
even razor blades and shampoos. What do these companies mean by
engineered? Surely they are being dishonest, especially if we believe
engineering only involves copious amounts of math. Although advanced
products seemingly appear out of thin air, the underlying technical
achievements of products consumed by the public exist only through the
solving of engineering problems and basic research. Whether the product
appears on the shelf in a local electronics store, in cyberspace, or in the heart
of another countrys impoverished village, the concept does not change.
To clarify the ominous term, engineering, we will describe it as the
process of using scientific and mathematical principles to solve problems.
Definition 1.1: Engineering is the process of using the principles of
mathematics and science to solve problems.

2 INTRODUCTORY ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

As engineers, we are attempting to meet the needs of a client. The

term client is a broad term for the end user(s)the people who will be
using the product. In the definition, the words principles of mathematics
appear, hinting that math is one of our most powerful tools that we need to
use in order to reach our final design. If we cannot understand the basic
math needed to solve the classical engineering problems, there is little
hope in making any further advancements. Employing mathematical
methods may not be the primary activity during the development of a
product; however, analyzing the resulting designs performance and figuring out how to improve its functions will require applying theory. Therein
lies the tug-of-war between what we deem to be engineering design and
engineering analysis. The former, design, focuses on the creativity injected into the iterative steps taken to arrive at the final product, whereas the
latter, analysis, relishes in the use of mathematics and science to perform
the needed checks throughout the process. As this text focuses on the
analysis portion of engineering, we need to understand what we mean by
an engineering problem and how can we solve them.

1.1 ABSTRACTION IN ENGINEERING

The solving of physical problems in engineering is deeply rooted in the
mathematical discoveries of the past few centuries. An obvious example is
the development of calculus in order to solve and model dynamic problems (i.e., situations with moving objects). Other results are subtler, like
the connection between so-called imaginary numbers and alternating
current in a circuit. When considering complex situations, it is rarely helpful to dive in headfirst. Instead, we often attempt to derive meaning and
assign relationships between thingsthis is the core of abstraction.
Definition 1.2: Abstraction is the process of extracting the essence of a
mathematical concept or physical situation by removing any dependence
on real-world constraints (when appropriate).
With respect to engineering, the idea of abstraction enables us to
detach the problem from realityin a senseby keeping everything
important and developing a viable solution. Abstraction occurs more frequently than we realize. Consider the analysis of a bridge; we can certainly
build a bridge any way we please within the appropriate regulations, but
we need to make sure it can bear the load of the traffic passing over it.
Since we do not have a physical bridge to embed sensors throughout,

MOTIVATION FOR ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 3

collect measurements, and officially green-light the design, other methods

are needed. We could implement our existing knowledge of physics and
draw a free-body diagram (FBD), which we tend to draw frequently when
solving a problem. Think of an FBD as an abstraction of a physical situation that acts as a rough working sketch. The lack of visual clutter allows
us to analyze different quantities acting on an objectlike the loads on the
bridgewithout overloading our senses.
FBDs enable us to ignore the finer details of an object or structure and
focus only on the properties of interest to us. To create an FBD, we isolate
the object we want to analyze by representing it as a dot (many things in
engineering can be represented by a dot or a pointsee Figure 1.1) or a
basic outline of the figure if the dimensions are important, while keeping
necessary forces, velocities, and so on.

Figure 1.1. Representing a weight by a dot or point

Example 1.1: Cantilever Beam and a WeightIn Figure 1.2, we have

an abstraction of a cantilever beam (a beam that is rigidly attached to a
support, like a wall, at one end) with a crate hanging from the unattached
end. Our problem is determining the tension in the rope. The beam is not
necessarily important because we are concerned with the rope and the
crate, meaning we ignore the beam and represent the crate as a single
point. Now, how can we think of the weight mathematically? Since the
force due to the gravity is pulling the crate down, we can draw the weight
of the crate as a downward arrow to preserve the direction and call it W.
As long as this crate does not move, the tension in the rope is going to pull
in the opposite direction in order to support the box; therefore, we can
draw an arrow pointing upward and call it T. In this case, that is all we
need!

4 INTRODUCTORY ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Figure 1.2. Abstracting a cantilever beam with a weight

Drawing the picture is half the battle; we need to use mathematics in

order to find the solution to our problem, what is the tension in the rope?
Using the idea that nothing in the picture is moving, the rope should have
a tension equal to weight of the crateotherwise, the crate would move
either down (if too little force was acting to hold it up) or up (if too much
force was applied, causing lift). Therefore, T = W .
***
The problem in Example 1.1 is a simple scenario from statics, and the
answer may be intuitive to most; of course, not all engineering problems
are this simplistic.
Definition 1.3: Statics is the branch of mechanics where the systems to be
analyzed are in equilibrium; in other words, the systems and objects are
not moving.
In this text, we will examine methods to solve problems like Example
1.1along with more difficult scenariosin a general section that we
will call solving engineering problems.
Another abstraction we are concerned with is the mathematical
modeling of various objects and interactions. In other words, how can we
describe physical phenomena using the language of mathematics?
Definition 1.4: A mathematical model is a description of a process or
system in the language of mathematics.
In addition to modeling objects, which can be done to an extent with
FBDs and other techniques, actions like forces or disturbances are also
important to describe mathematically. For instance, how do we model a
strike of lightningan instantaneous flash? How can we describe a hammer hitting a naila sudden impact that lasts a fraction of a second? What
about a simple, quick, isolated knock on a table (Figure 1.3)?

MOTIVATION FOR ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 5

Figure 1.3. Can all of these actions be described using the same
mathematics?

Through abstraction, we can extrapolate that each of these actions

share the concept of an instantaneous event of disruption to an otherwise
stable situation; thus, we can deduce a single mathematical object can
describe these ideas in a general sense (later on, we will define and
explore this object, the Dirac delta function). For the purposes of this text,
we will frame the content with respect to one of the most important
abstractions in engineering, systems.
Definition 1.5: A system is a collection of parts that work together to
form a whole.

1.2 ENGINEERING SYSTEMS AS A STARTING

POINT
An engineering system can be simplistic or obscenely complex, but a
straightforward method exists for reducing unwieldy systems down to
easy-to-interpret diagrams. We often represent a system using a black-box
diagram, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Definition 1.6: A black-box diagram is an abstraction of a process/
system in terms of inputs and outputs without knowing the internal workings of the process/system.
The system could be anything: a circuit, a series of gears, or an entire
automobile; regardless of the context, we can still represent any system as
a black-box diagram.

6 INTRODUCTORY ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Figure 1.4. A black-box diagram of a system

In the picture, we labeled only three objects: the input, the system
itself, and the output. Copious amounts of engineering problems can be
understood in this sense; however, the helpfulness of this viewpoint
depends on the problem itself.
Example 1.2: A Phone as a SystemWe can imagine a system more
practically by thinking of the process of making a phone call. First, consider the black box as the phoneour system. Now, we need to interact
with this phone somehow in order to make a call, and this often involves
typing in a phone numberthis is our input. Once we enter the phone
number and press the call button, the result is making a callour output.
This interaction is summarized in Figure 1.5.
***

Figure 1.5. Idealizing a phone as a system

Example 1.3: The Spring and MassOne of the simplest situations we

can describe using the idea of a system in engineering is the spring and
mass. In this scenario, a block is attached to a spring, which is then fixed
to a wallthe entire apparatus is the system (Figure 1.6). Now, what is
the input? Commonly, the input is an applied force on the block setting it
into motion, like pulling the block away from the wall. The motion of the
mass is considered the output of the system.
***
The systems approach to solving engineering problems can be split into three guiding questions serving to split this text into digestible pieces.
Our goal is to abstract problems in engineering in order to find the solutions, make predictions, and validate our design choices. With this in
mind, we need to answer the following questions:

MOTIVATION FOR ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 7

Figure 1.6. Simple spring and mass system

Question 1: How do we solve basic problems in engineering?

Question 2: How can we describe the inputs and outputs of a system
mathematically?
Question 3: How can engineering systems be modeled mathematically
in order to complement the inputs and outputs?
Naturally, attempting to take a streamlined path through the content is
nearly impossible due to the interconnected nature of mathematics; therefore, we will attempt to split the content as cleanly as possible. We will
begin with general methods used to solve problems in engineering, which
will then spill over into describing inputs and outputs. Finally, we will
bring the content to a bold finale where modeling engineering systems
will be briefly discussed.

INDEX
A
Abstraction, 24, 33
Acute angle, 39
Alternating current, 32
Angle or phase, 35
Angle sum of triangle, 44
Angles, 3654
and trigonometry, 4254
theorems, 3742
types, 43
Antiderivative, integral calculus,
113115
B
Bisection method, 77
Black-box diagram, 57
C
Cantilever beam and weight, 34
Cartesian vector form, 2223
Chain rule, 107108
Circumference, 38
Coefficient of determination
(CoD), 72
Complementary angles, 40
Complex conjugate, 35
Complex numbers, 3234
arithmetic of, with circuits, 3536
Composition, function, 6064
Continuity, function, 83
Coordinate system, 936
angle or phase, 35
Cartesian vector form, 2223

complex numbers, 3234

complex plane, 34
cross product, 2629
defined, 10
dot product, 2426
imaginary unit, 33
manipulating space, 2932
modulus or magnitude, 3435
normal, 26
ordered pair, 1011
origin, 11
polar coordinates, 1417
position vectors, 1921
real plane, 11
rectangular coordinates, 10
reorientation of, 3031
scalars, 18
simple product, 2324
third dimension and, 1113
unit vector, 2122
vectors, 1718
addition and subtraction, 23
multiplication, 23
Corresponding angles, 41
Cos ( ), special values of, 50
Cosine curve, 47
Cross product, 2629
area, to find, 2829
D
Data set, function, 6975
Definite integral, integral calculus,
113

168 INDEX

Degree, 37
Dependent variable, 71
Derivative, 98
rules, 104
Determining, function, 5759
Differential calculus, 95111
chain rule, 107108
derivative, 98
rules, 104
general power rule, 99
higher order derivatives, 100101
optimization, process of, 108111
position function
complicated, 101104
derivative of, 99100
product rule, 104106
quotient rule, 106107
tangent line, 96
Dimensional analysis, 38
Diracs delta function, 148150
Displacement, 96
Distance formula, 49
Domain, function, 56, 5960
Dot product, 2426
E
Electromagnetics, 63
End behavior, function, 89
Engineering
abstraction in, 24
black-box diagram, 57
definition, 12
mathematical model, 45
statics, 4
system, 5
Equilateral triangle, 45
Even and odd functions, inputs
and outputs, 133, 136137
F
Finite sums, inputs and outputs,
153
Flip, inputs and outputs

delay in, 146147

Flipping a function, inputs and
outputs, 141142
Forcing a function, inputs and
outputs, 142144
Fourier series, 157163
square wave, finding, 157163
Friction (on a Tire), 1415
Function
behavior, 8394
composition, 6064
continuity, 83
data set, 6975
defined, 55
dependent variable, 71
determining, 5759
domain, 56, 5960
evaluation, 59
independent variable, 71
indeterminate or undefined, 85
inverse, 6468
limit, 84
one-to-one, 68
range, 56, 5960
relation, 56
residual, 74
tolerance, 79
visualizing, 55
Fundamental theorem, integral
calculus, 114
G
General power rule, 99
Graphical relationships
angles, 3654
types, 43
degree, 37
equilateral triangle, 45
isosceles triangle, 45
radian, 3742
right triangle, 45
Scalene triangle, 4445
sines and cosines, laws of, 4446

INDEX 169

trigonometry, ideas in, 4252

unit circle, 4649
H
Heaviside unit step function,
144145
Higher order derivatives, 100101
I
Imaginary part, 33
Imaginary unit, 33
Impulse function, inputs and
outputs, 148150
sampling property, 151152
Independent variable, 71
Indeterminate or undefined,
function, 85
Infinite series, 152163
Initial phase, 126
Inputs and outputs, 121163
classifications, 121137
common manipulations, 137144
moving (t) using, 150151
Diracs delta function, 148150
even and odd functions, 133,
136137
finite sums, 153
flip
delay in, 146147
of a switch, 145146
flipping a function, 141142
forcing a function, 142144
Fourier series, 157163
square wave, finding, 157163
graphical subtraction, 148
heaviside unit step function,
144145
impulse function, 148150
sampling property, 151152
infinite series, in terms of,
152163
left and right, moving a function,
139140

power series, 154157

pulse, 147
scaling a function
horizontally, 141
vertically, 140
signal, 121
amplitude, 125
angular frequency, 125127
anticausal, 128
causal, 128
deterministic, 122
energy, 129131
even, 133134
everlasting, 127128
noncausal, 129
nondeterministic, 122
odd, 134136
periodic, 123
power, 133
sinusoidal, 124
special inputs, 144152
transformation, 137
translation, 138
up and down, moving a function,
138139
windowing a function,
148
Integral calculus, 111119
antiderivative, 113115
by parts, 118119
definite integral, 113
fundamental theorem, 114
LIATE rule, 117
simple substitution, 115118
Inverse, function, 6468
Isosceles triangle, 45
K
Kilonewtons, 18
L
LIATE rule, 117
Limit, function, 84

170 INDEX

M
Manipulating space, coordinate
system and, 2932
Mathematical model, 45
Modulus or magnitude, 3435
Moment, 26
Motional electromotive force
(emf), 63
N
Normal, coordinate system, 26
Normalizing the vector
real plane, 11
O
Obtuse angle, 38
One-to-one, function, 68
Optimization, process of, 108111
Ordered pair, 1011
Origin, 11
P
Phase. see angle or phase
Phone (as system), 6
Polar coordinates, 1417
Position function
complicated, 101104
derivative of, 99100
Position vectors, 1921
Power series, inputs and outputs,
154157
Product rule, 104106
Pulse, inputs and outputs, 147
Purely imaginary number, 33
Purely real number, 33
Pythagorean Theorem, 16
for sine and cosine, 4951
Q
Quotient rule, 106107
R
Radian, 3742

Range, 56, 5960

Range, function, 56, 5960
Real part, 33
Real plane, 11
Rectangular coordinates,
10, 16
Reflex angle, 39
Residual, function, 74
Right triangle, 45
Roots of function, 7583
S
Scalars, 18
Scalene, 44
Scalene triangle, 4445
Signal, inputs and outputs, 121
amplitude, 125
angular frequency, 125127
causal, 128
deterministic, 122
energy, 129131
even, 133134
everlasting, 127128
noncausal, 129
nondeterministic, 122
odd, 134136
periodic, 123
power, 133
sinusoidal, 124
Simple product, 2324
Simple spring and mass system,
67
Simple substitution, integral
calculus, 115118
Sine ( ), special values of, 50
Sine curve, 47
Sines and cosines, laws of,
4446
Small-angle approximation, 92
Special inputs, 144152
Statics, 4
Supplementary angles, 40
System, engineering, 5, 165

INDEX 171

T
Tangent line, 96
Tensile test, 18
Third dimension and coordinate
system, 1113
Tolerance, function, 79
Transformation, inputs and
outputs, 137
Translation, inputs and outputs, 138
Trigonometry, 4252

Unit vector, 2122

Up and down, moving a function,
138139

U
Unit circle, 4649

W
Windowing a function, 148

V
Vectors, 1718
addition and subtraction, 23
multiplication, 23
Versors, 22
Vertical angles, 41

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