Introduction to Metrology 1.1 Introduction Metrology is the science of pure measurement. The science of metrology had been applied to engineering to a limited extent before the first world war. However, considerable progress has been made in the application of scientific principles to the dimensional control of engineering products. In addition accurate control of standards of measurement was an important function of every precision engineering industry. Metrology is concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of measurements and their standards. lt is also concerned with the methods, execution and estimation of accuracy of measurements, the measuring instruments and the inspectors. Dynamic metrology refers to a group of techniques for measuring small variations of a continuous nature. A legal metrology deals with the units of measurement, methods of measurement and the measuring instruments, in relation to the statutory technical and legal requirements. Long ago Lord Kelvin made the following classic statement concerning metrology. "When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it; and when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind, It may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thought advanced to the stage of a science." /Potinition and Concept of Metrology: Metrology is a science of measurement. Metrology may be divided depending upon the quantity under consideration into: Metrology of length, metrology of time etc. Depending upon the field of application - industrial metrology and Medical metrology etc. Engineering metrology is restricted to the measurement of length, angles and other quantities which expressed in linear or angular terms. In a border sense metrology is not limited to length and angle measurement but also concerned with numerous problems theoretical as well as practical related with measurement such as 1. Units of measurement and their standards 2. Methods of measurement based on agreed units and standards. 3, Errors of measurement. 4, Measuring instruments and devices. 5, Accuracy of measuring instruments and their care. 6, Industrial inspection.2 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology 7. Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of all kinds. The related applications and the principal flelds of metrology are as follows: Establishing units_of measurement and their standards such as their establishment, reproduction, conservation, dissemination and quality assurance, Measurements, methods, execution and estimation of their accuracy. Measuring instruments - properties examined from the point mof view of their intended purpose. Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of all kinds. ies of Inspection: 1. To ensure that the part material or a component conforms to the established standard dimensional control as per specification. 2, To meet the interchangeability of manufacture. en angcotety_of manula 3. It helps in the process of quality contral. 4. It helps in mass production of assembled part. 5. It helps to assemble various parts produce al different station/place. 6. It provides the means of finding out shortcoming in manufacture. 14 Objectives of Metrology The basic objective of metrology is to determine whether a component has been manufactured to the required specification. The advances in metrology have made possible the mass production of modern ultra-precise apparatus. Metrology is an essential part of the development oF technology. The basic objectives of metrology are as follows : nD 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) D To provide the required accuracy at minimum cost. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, and to ensure that components are witliin the specified dimensions. To determine the process capabilities. To asses the measurin: for their speci \strument capabilities and ensure that they are adequate measurements. ice the cost of inspection by effective and efficient utilization of available ies. To reduce_cost of rejections and rework by applying statistical quality control techniques. To standardize_measuring methods by proper inspection methods at the development stage itself.Introduction to Metrology 3 8) To maintain the accuracies of measurement.thraugh periodical calibration of the measuring instruments. 9) To prepare designs for gauges and special inspection fixtures. (44 introduction to Measurement Measurement means determination of anything that exists in some amount. If those things that exist are related to mechanical engineering, then the determination of such amounts are referred to as mechanical measurements. An engineer is not only interested in the measurement of physical variables but also concerned with their control. These two functions are closely related because one must be able to measure a variable such as temperature, or flow in order to control it. The accuracy of control is essentially dependent on the accuracy of measurement. Hence, a good knowledge of measurement techniques is necessary for the design of control systems. Definition of Measurement: Measurement is defined as the process or the act of obtaining a quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown magnitude Standard Unknown Process of comparison magntidue (Measurement) Fig. 1.1 Measuring Process 4.4 Requirements of Measurements If the result of measurement has to be meaningful, then the follow’ important conditions must be satisfied. g two 1) The standard used for comparison must be accurately known and commonly accepted. For example : A length cannot be simply said it is too long but it must_be said it is comparatively longer than some standard. 2) The procedure and the apparatus used for comparison must be commonly accepted and must be provable. 4.5 Significance of Measurement System 1) Measurement provides the fundamental basis for research and development Development is the final stage of the design procedure involving the measurement of various quantities pertaining to operation and performance of the device being developed. 2) Measurement is also a fundamental element of any control process, which requires the measured discrepancy between the actual and the desired performances.4 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology 3) Many operations require measurement for proper performance. For example : In modern central power stations, temperatures, pressures, vibrational amplitudes etc., are monitored by measurement to ensure proper performance. 4) Measurement is also a bais of commerce, because the cost of the Broducts are established on the basis of amounts of materials, power, expenditure of time A and labour, and other constraints. o /piethods of Measurement: Measurement is a comparison of a given quantity with one of its predetermined standard values opted as a unit. In precision measurements various methods of measurement are followed depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error. There are numerous ways in which a quantity can be meaured. Any method of measurement should be defined in such a detail and followed by such a standard practice that there is little scope for uncertainty. The nature of the procedure in some of the most common measurements is described below, Actual measurements may employ one or more combinations of the following. @ Direct method of measurement In this method the value of quantity is obtained directly by comparing the unknown with the standard. It involves, no mathematical calculations to arrive at the results, for example, measurement of length by a graduated scale. The method is not very accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness in making judgement. (i) __ Indirect method of measurement In this method several parameters (to which the quantity to be measured is linked with) are measured directly and then the value is determined by mathematical relationship. For example, measurement of density by measuring mass and geometrical dimensions. Gii) Fundamental method of measurement Also known as the absolute method of measurement, it is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the quantity. For example, measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the definition of that quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by direct measurement of the qua linked with the definition of the quantity to be measured. (iv) Comparison method of measurement This method involves comparison with either a known value of the same quantity or another quantity which is function of the quantity to be measured. Ex. comparators. (v) Substitution method of measurement In this method, the quantity to be measured is measured by direct comparison on an indicating device by replacing the measuring quantity with some other known quantity which produces same effect on the indicating device, For example, determination of mass by Borda method.Introduction to Metrology 5 (vi) Transposition method of measurement This is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value of the quantity to be measured is first balanced by an initial known value A of the same quantity; next the value of the quantity to be measured is put in the place of that known value and is balanced again by a second known value B. When the balance indicating device gives the same indication in both cases, the value of the quantity to be measured in VAB. For example, determination of a mass by means of a balance and known weights, using the Gauss double weighing method. (vil) Differential or comparison method of measurement © ‘This method involves measuring the difference between the given quantity and a known master of near about the same value. For example, determination of diameter with master cylinder on a comparator. (vili) Coincidence method of measurement In this differential method of measurement the very small difference between the given quantity and the reference is determined by the observation of the coincidence of scale marks. For example, measurement on vernier caliper. (ix) Null method of measurement In this method the quantity to be measured is compared with a known source and the difference between these two is made zero (x) Deflection method of measurement In this method, the value of the quantity is directly indicated by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale. (x1) Interpolation method of measurement In this method, the given quantity is compared with two or more known value of near about same value ensuring at least one smaller and one bigger than the quantity to be measured and the readings interpolated, (xii) Extrapolation method of measurement In this method, the given quantity is compared with two or more known smaller values and extrapolating the reading. (xill) Complimentary method of measurement. This is the method of measurement by comparison in which the value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the same quantity so adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to predetermined comparison value. For example, determination of th evolume of a solid by liquid displacement. (xiv) Composite method of measurement It involves the comparison of the actual contour of a component to be checked with its contours in maximum and minimum tolerable limits. This method provides for the checking of the cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the component which are controlled through a combined tolerance. This method is most reliable to ensure inter-changeability and is usually effected through the use of composite “Go” gauges, for example, checking of the thread of a nut with a screw plug “GO” gauge. err6 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology _ (xv) Element method la this method, the several related dimensions are gauged individually, Le , each component element is checked separately. For example, in the case of tread the pitch diameter, pitch and flank angle are checked separately and then the virtual pitch diameter is calculated. It may be noted that value of virlual itch diarneter depends on th edeviations of the above thread elements. The functioning of thread depends on vilual pitch diameter lying within the specified tolerable limits. In case of composite method, all the three elements need not be checked separately and is thus useful for checking the product parts. Element method is used for checking tools and for detecting the causes of rejects in the product, (xvi) Contact and contactless methods of measurements In contact methods of measurements, the measuring tip of the instrument actually touches the surface to be measured. In such cases, arrangements for constant contact pressure should be provided in order to prevent errors due tu excess contact pressure. In contactless method of measurements, No contact is required. Such instruments include tool-maker's microscope and projection comparator, etc.For every method of measurement a detailed definition of the equipment to be used, a sequential list of operationsto be performed, the surrounding environmental conditions and descriptions of all factors influencing accuracy of measurement at the required level must be prepared and followed 4 Z Measuring Instrument Measuring Instruments are measuring devices that transform the related or measured quantity into an indication or information. These instruments indicate either directly the value of the measured quantity or its equalil to a known measure of the same quantity. (e.g. equal arm balance, or null detecting galvanometer). it may also indicate the value of th esmall difference between the measured quantity and the measure having a value very near to it (comparator). Measuring instruments usually utilise a measuring sequence in which the measured quantity is transformed into a quantity perceplible to the observer (length, angle, sound, luminous contrast). Measuring instruments may be used in conjunction with separate material measures (e.g. balances using standard masses to compare unknown mass), or they may contain internal parts to reproduce the unit (like graduated rules, a precesion thread, etc.) ldssification of Measuring Instruments: According to the functions of the measuring (1) Length measuring instruments. (2) Angle measuring instruments. (3) Instruments for determining the quality of surface finish. (4) Instruments for checking the deviations from geometrical forms. ‘According to the accuracy of measurement in the measuring instruments. They are classified as: (1) Most accurate instruments e.g., light-interforence instruments (2) Less accurate instruments such as tool room microscopes, comparators struments. They are classified as optimeters etc. (3) More less accurate instruments e.g., vernier calipers and mules with verier scales, dial indicators. aIntroduction to Metrology 7 According to the precision of measurement. They are classified as (1) Precision measuring instruments. (2) Non-precision measuring instruments. lection of Measuring Instruments: ‘The function of measuring instruments is to transform the measurable quantity in to required information, Its important characteristics during the selection of an instrument are its measuring range, accuracy and precision. Usually accuracy is poor at the lower end of scale which should be avoided. In such a situation, where accurate measurement is required throughout full range, two instruments with different ranges may be used, one for lower range and other for full range. The precision of instrument is very important feature since it should give a repeatable reading which is possible with precise instrument. If an instrument is precise then accuracy can be taken care of by proper calibration of the instrument. Resolution or sensitivity is an important aspect for selecting instruments as it represents a smailest change in the measured quantity which produces a perceptible movement of the pointer which has a calibrated scale. Systems of Measurement Linear measurements are basically comparisons of a given dimension with a particular standard of length. Different standard systems of measurements are discussed below: + The English system: It is also known as British Standard. The systern makes use of yard as the standard system of measurement. + The Metric system: In metric system the meter replaces the yard (of English system). The metric system is essentially decimal, all multiples and submultiples of the basic units being related by the factor of 10. As decimeter, centimeter, millimeter, micrometer and so on. « The International System of Units (SI): Earlier CGS (centimeter, gram, second) system was in use of specific work. The MKS (meter, kg, sec.) system followed it. This MKS sstem is very convenient to use and to handle rational, coherent, comprehensive systems at ease. ‘The main features of SI are that the meter and kilogram supersede the centimeter and gram of the old system. The Newton, unit of force, is independent of the earth's gravitation and g need no longer be introduced in equations. The joule (Newton X_meter) is the unit of energy, and of power, the joule per second (watt). Units such as meter, kilogram, second and ampere is of maximum interest of engineers. 1.6 The Generalized Measuring System Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a generalized system consisting of three phases or stages Stage I - A detector-transducing or sensor stage. Stage Il - An intermediate modifying stage, or signal conditioning stage Stage III - A terminating or read-out stage. The block diagram of the generalised measuring system is as shown in fig 1.2:A 8 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology ‘on Atay power Calibration source (na aways clay pever seat 4 Asian input] Detector | an Iverndiate | analogous toa] peso, | tances | taeptiae Lantos eae en Suge Signal Suge | driving (oralegoos Sanat ‘inp Lt Convoter Fig. 1.2 Block Diagram of Generalized Measuring System Each stage consists of a component or group of components known as basic elements which perform the required function in the measurement. These basic elements are recognised by their functioning but not by their construction, Table 1.1 outlines the significance of each of these stages. Table 1.1: Basic elements of measuring system Stage I-Detector Transducer Stage Il-Intermediate Modifying Stage Ill-Terminating Senses only the desired input and provides analogous output. Types and Examples Mechanical spindle, spring-mass, elastic devices such as Bourdon tube, proving ring, etc. Hydraulic-pneumatic : Buoyant-float, orifice, venturi, vane, propeller Optical : Photographic film, photoelectric cell Electrical : Contactor, resistance, capacitance, piezoelectric crystal, thermocouple, etc. Modifies transduced signal into a form usable by final stage. Usually increases amplitude and/or power Types and Examples Mechanical : Gearing, Cranks, links, cams, etc, Hydraulic pneumatic : Piping, valves, dash-pots, etc. Optical : Mirrors, lenses, optical filters, light levers, optical fibers. Electrical : Amplifying systems, matching devices, filters, telemetering systems etec., Provides an indication or recording in a form that can be evaluated by an unaided human sense or by a controller ‘Types and Examples Indicators (a) Displacement types moving pointer and scale, moving scale and index, light beam and scale, CRO, liquid column ete. (b) Digital types : Direct alphanumeric read out (©) Recorders : Digital Printing, inked pen and chart, light beam and Photographic film, direct photography, magnetic recording (d) Controllers : All typesIntroduction to Metrology 9 1.6.1 Stage-I - Detector-Transducer Stage The important function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the input signal. At the same time, it should be insensitive to every other possible input signals. For example if it is a pressure signal, it should be insensitive to acceleration, Unfortunately it is very rare to find a detecting device which is completely selective. 1.6.2, Stage-lI - intermediate Modifying Stage The purpose of the second stage of the generalized measurement system is to modify the transduced information so that it is acceptable to the third, or terminating stage. The important function of this stage is to increase either amplitude or power of the signal, or both, to the level required to drive the final terminating devices. In addition it is designed for proper matching characteristics between first and second and between second and third stages. Also it performs selective filtering, integration, differentiating etc,, as may be required. 1.6.3. Stage-Ill - Terminating Stage The third stage provides the information required in a form which can be understood by the human senses or a controller. An example of the generalized measurement system is a simple bourdon-tube pressure guage shown in the Fig. 1.3. In this case the bourdon tube is the detector-transducer stage because it converts the pressure signal into a mechanical displacement of the tube. The intermediate stage consists of the gearing arrangement, which amplifies the displacement of the end of the tube so that a relatively small displacement at the end point produces a greater revolution of the center gear. The final in dicator stage consists of a pointer and the scale arrangement, which, photograph 1: when calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication sectional view through of the pressure signal acting on the bourdon tube. Bourdon tube Fig. 6.4 shows the corresponding block diagram of the _ pressure gauge generalized measurement system for the Bourdon-tube pressure gauge. uly L,_7 Seale . Terminating Gearing stage (intermediate Pointer modifying Stage) Bourdon tube (Detector transducer stage) f Pressure input Fig. 1.3 Bourdon-tube Pressure Gauge as Generalized Measurement System10 Mechanical Measurements and Metro"’o™ Pointer Mechanical | Pointer ia Disacnen | Nts and = e sa = a t System Fig. 1.4 Block Diagram of Generalized Measurement SY for Bourdon-tube Pressure Gauge 1.7 Definitions and Basic Concepts 1.7.1 Readability of an Instrument z ‘ strument m This term indicates the closeness with which the scale of the in: ent may be read. : ; For example : An instrument with 30 cm scale would have a higher readability than an instrument with 15 cm scale. 1.7.2: Least Count It is the smallest difference between two indications that can be detected on the instrument scale. 1.7.3. Range Il represents the highest possible value that can be measured by an instrument or it is the difference between the largest and the smallest results of measurement. 1.7.4 Sensitivity The sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the linear movement of the pointer on the instrument to the change in the measured variable causing this motion, For example : A 1 mv recorder might have a 10 cm scale length. Its sens be 10 cm/my, assuming that the measurement was linear all across the scale, The static sensitivity of an instrument can be defined as the slope of the calibration curve as shown in Fig. 1.5. ly would 1 44, Sensitivity = Ade _ change of output signal Ag, — “hange oF input signal Input, q; Fig. 1.5Introduction to Metrology 11 The sensitivity of an instrument should be high and the instrument should not have a range greatly exceeding the value to be measured. However, some margin should be kept for any accidental overloads. 1.7.5 Hysteresis An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is @ difference in readings depending on whether the value of the measured quantity is approached from higher value or from a lower value as shown in Fig. 6.6. Hysteresis arises because ‘of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic deformation or thermal effects. A system free from hysteresis will produce the same reading irrespective of whether oe reading has been achieved by increasing from a lesser value or decreasing from a higher value. Maximum output hysteresis Maximum input hysteresis ‘ Fig. 1.6 Typical Hysteresis Curve 4.7.6 True Value or Actual Value (V,) It is the actual magnitude of the input signal. Evaluation of this quantity may be approximated but never truly determiSned. The true value may be defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values, when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero. 4.7.7 Indicated value (V) The magnitude of the input signal indicated by a measuring instrument is known as indicated value. 1.7.8 Correction It is the revision applied to the indicated value which improves the worthiness of the result, Such revision may be in the form of either an additive factor or a multiplier or both. Static correction is the difference between the true value and indicated value of the quantityie, = C= V7 4.7.9 Result (V,) Obtained by making all known corrections to the indicated value. V,=AV,+B where A and B are multiplying and additive corrections, respectively12 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology .7.10 Discrepancy ; . ‘ The difference between two indicated values or results determined from a supposedly fixed true value. 4.7.11 Error The difference betwee! as Error. nthe true value (V,) and the result (V,) is known Error = (V,- V,) / ‘The accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its error. yaa Accuracy | 7” ‘The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of the reading from a known input. In otherwords, accuracy is the closeness with which the readings of an instrument approaches the true values of the quantities measured. Accuracy may be expressed in percentage, based on either actual scale reading or full scale reading as follows : Percentage accuracy (based on actual scale) = ¢—“s. x 100 Percentage accuracy (based on full scale) = V, > maximum or minimum result value V, > Actual value V, - Full scale reading For example : A 100 kPa pressure gauge having an accuracy of 1 percent would be ie within + 1 kpa over the entire range of the gauge. Z ORAS Precision The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given accuracy. (or) It is the degree of agreement between repeated results. Precision refers to the repeatability of measuring process, i.e., the closeness with which the measurement of the same physical quantity agree with one another. As an example to differentiate between precision and accuracy, consider the measurement of a known voltage of 100 volts with a certain meter. Five readings are taken, and the indicated values are 104, 103, 105, 103 and 105 volts. From these values the accuracy of an instrument is 104 103 105 105 -100 = aI x 100 =5% 18 520+5 mean = 104 x 100Introduction to Metrology 13 While precision is + 1% since the maximum deviation from the mean reading of 104 volts is only 1 volt. It may be noted that the instrument could be calibrated so that it could be used to dependably measure voltages within + 1 volt. From this itis clear that accuracy can be improved up but not beyond the precision of the Instrument by calibration. 44 Resolution or Discrimination Resolution is defined as the smallest increment of input signal that a measuring system is capable of displaying. 1.7.15 Threshold If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero, there will be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument. ‘Thus resolution defines the smallest measurable input change while threshold defines the smallest measurable input. ‘Threshold is measured when the input is varied from zero while the resolution is measured when the input is varied from any arbitrary non-zero value. Ww 1.7.16 Repeatability Itis defined as the ability of a measuring system to reproduce output readings when the same input is applied to it consecutively, under the same conditions, and in the same direction. { If an instrument is used to measure the same input many times and at different time intervals, the output obtained Output may be scattered. This scatter tropythe ideal characteristics is called repeatability error as shown in the fig. 1.7. b Repeatability is the only characteristic error which hp cannot be calibrated out of the measuring system. Thus, repeatability becomes the limiting factor in the calibration Fig. 1.7. Repeatability Error process, thereby limiting the overall measurement accuracy. 1.7.17 Reproducibility This is a very important requirement in the instruments particularly where exact quality of control is desired. It is defined as the degree of closeness with which the same value of a variable may be measured at different times. Reproducibility is affected due to several factors such as the drift in the calibration of a thermocouple at high temperature due to contamination. Periodic checking and maintenance of instruments are generally done to obtain reproducibility. Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift 1.7.18 Callbration Every measuring system must be provable, that is, it must prove its ability to measure reliably. The procedure adopted for this is called calibration. When the system being prepared to measure quantities, known values of the input quantities are fed to the system and the corresponding outputs are measured. A graph relating the output with input Is plotted and is known as calibration graph. -=Repeatabily(ft 14 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology icular instrument with either (i accuracy than the instrument j, ‘A flowmeter may be calibratey e, another flow meter of known nt. The third method may easily then recording the time takes, Calibration procedures involves comparison ofa patti a primary standard (ii) a secondary standard with a higher be calibrated or (iii) a known input source. For example. by comparing it with a standard flow me-purement devic accuracy, or by direct calibration with a pritiary measureme! be achieved by weighing a quantity of liquid in a tank and for the liquid to flow through the meter. 1.7.19 Linearity One of the best characteristics of an instrument or a measuring system is linearity ie, the output is linearly proportional to the input. The output of a measuring system may be linear or non-linear. As long as the output is repeatable, it can be calibrated, but for a non. linear system the construction of calibration curve becomes tedious, cumbersome and time consuming. For a linear system a single, two or three point calibration is sufficient. Thus a high degree of linearity, or minimising of linearity error is very important characteristic of any measuring system. Linearity is defined as the maximum deviation in the output of measuring system from a specified straight line applied to a plot of data points on a curve of measured values versus input values. Since. several lines can be used as linearity references, it is essential to clearly define the exact nature of reference straight line before comparing the linearity. Following are some of the common reference lines : (a) Terminal line : It is drawn from the origin to data point at full scale output. (b) End-point line + It is drawn between the end points of the data, usually without regard to the origin. (©) _ Best fit line : It is the line midway between the two closest parallel straight lines that enclose all the data points. (d) Least square line : It is the line for Rien the sum of the squares of the deviations of the data points from the line or curve being fit is minimised. This is the most favoured line and is truly best-fit in the sense that it comes as close as possible to each data point on a plot of output versus input The least square line for a measuring system is found from the following equation. The slope “m” of the least square line for the data is given by xiv x, = measured input value n= Number of data y, = measured output value With the help of this slope “m”, the maximum deviation of tineari least: square line is found by the relation. rity from the I % Linearity = Yémax = 7 x) , ™ Xtal range ner rr eensIntroduction to Metrology 15 Wherey4, = output value at a point of maximum deviation from the best fit straight line. ‘mx, = point on best fit straight line corresponding to maximum deviation point. 1.7.20 Loading Effect ‘The introduction of any measuring instrument into a measured medium always results in extraction of some energy from the medium, thereby changing the value of the measured quantity from its undisturbed state and thus making perfect measurements theoretically impossible. This effect is known as loading effect. For better measurements the loading effect of an instrument must be as small as possible. The loading effect occurs not only in the first stage, but throughout the entire chain of measuring elements. In electrical measuring systems, the loading of the signal source is exclusively a function of the detector, while the intermediate modifying devices and output indicators or recorders receives most of the energy necessary for their functioning from the sources other than the signal source. The loading effects are due to impedances of the various elements connected in a system. 4.7.21 System Response Response of the system means its faithfulness to purpose. It may be defined as an evaluation of the ability of a-system to transmit and present all the relevant information contained in the input signal and to exclude all others If the input information is in the form of square wave, then we would expect a square wave on the output side. Similarly, if we feed a complex wave having different phase relationships among the harmonic components we should get the output signal with the same phase relationships among the components. If a system behaves in this way we say that it is having good system response. The most important factor in the performance of a measuring system is that the full effect of an input signal is not immediately shown at the Output but is almost inevitably subject to some lag or delay in response. This is a delay between cause and effect due to the natural inertia of the system and is known as measurement lag. If a force is applied to the frictionless mass (shown in figure 1.8 ) so as to produce an acceleration ‘a’ to the right, then the magnitude of the force is ‘Ma’, where 'M is the mass The force on the mass acts in the direction (i.e., to the right) in which the mass is required to accelerate. <— Inertia Force ‘Ma’ Acceleration ‘a! —» Applied force F f= Ma—| Mors Fig. 1.8 Inertia Force on Accelerating Mass ‘The mass however applies an inertia force, also of magnitude ‘Ma’, which is acting in the direction opposite to that of the acceleration of the mass. The effect of inertia is therefore to oppose any change taking place in the system, In a measuring system therefore the output must overcome the natural inertia of the system which results in a time lag between input and output. If an abrupt or step change in the measured quantity takes place then a delay occurs in the output response as shown in the figure 1.9.time Fig. 1.9 Response to a Step Input showing Measurement Lag The rise time is defined as the time taken for a system to change from 5% to 95% of its final value in the initial part of the curve. The rise time is a measure of the speed of response of a measuring system and a system with short rise time is required. The settling time is defined as the time taken for the index of an instrument to attain, and remain within, a specified deviation (typically 2%) from its desired value, after an abrupt change in the measured quantity as illustrated in the figure 1.10. Input Step input Specified Output devaition setting_,| ™™ — time Fig. 1.10 Output Response to a Step Input showing Settling Time But in practice no system has good response over an unlimited number of components For this purpose system response is studied under the following headings. 1.7.22. Amplitude Response A system is said to have good amplitude response if it treats jitudes uniformly (i.e.,) if an input amplitude of 5 units is indicated as 20 unis onthe amet output side then when the input amplitude is increased to 10 units then we should get 40 units on the output side. In practice, however no system is having good amplitude response over an unlimited range of amplitudes. Fig. 1.11 shows the amplitude response characteristics for a three stage amplifier used for strain measurement. It is seen from the curve that the amplifier is having good amplitude response upto an input voltage of 107 volts. S " 1o* 107 10? 40" Input votage fe. mt Amplitude Response Characterist¢ an Amplifier used for Strain Measuremet!Introduction to Metrology 17 1.7.23 Frequency Response A system is said to have good frequency response when it treats all input frequencies with equal faithfullness. For example if an input amplitude of 5 units at 60 cycles/sec is indicated as 10 units on the output side, then irrespective of the change in input frequency, the output amplitude should not change as long as the input amplitude does not change. In practice, no system is having good frequency response over an unlimited range of frequency. ‘There is a lower limit and an upper limit for every measuring system beyond which the system cannot have good frequency response. Fig. 1.12 shows the frequency response characteristics for a 3 stage amplifier used for strain measurement. It is seen from the curve that the system is having good frequency response between 5 cycles per second (cps) and 30,000 cps. 3000 Gain | 2000 1000 0 10 100-1000 10,000 —> Frequency, cps Fig. 1.12 Frequency Response Curve for a 3 Stage Amplifier used for Strain Measurement. 1.7.24 Phase Response Amplitude response and frequency response are important for all types of input signals whether they are simple or complex. The phase response is however important only for complex waves. Time is required for the passage of a signal through a measuring system and a phase difference between the input signal and output signal is inevitable if the input wave is simple like a sine wave even if the signal under goes a phase shift of 360° through the system, still the measurements of amplitudes from the output signal are not affected because the shape of the cycle is repetitive and does not change between the limits of the cycle, But if the input signal is complex with different phase relationships among its components then each component will undergo a different phase distortion as it passes through the system and output signal may be totally distorted having no resemblance to the input signal. Measurements made from such a distorted signal will give incorrect values Distortion cannot be avoided but can be minimised by using special circuits known as phase distortion circuits. Fig. 1.13 shows the distortion of a complex wave as it passes through & system.= 18 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology 400: 3004 Strain t 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 —+ Harmonic angle, degrees Fig. 1.13 Effect of Poor Phase Response on the Recording of Strain Line Relation 1.7.25 Delay or the Rise Time This is another form of frequency response when a system is subjected to a pulse type of input. Sudden change of input cannot be sensed, instantaneously by the system, it requires some time before which it can indicate the change in the input signal. This delay is indicated by Df as shown in Fig. 1.14 which can be reduced by improving the measuring system, Bul, cannot be totally avoided. A complete study of the response of a system requires knowledge about all the 4-lypes of responses. Input System input signal Fig. 1.14 Response of a Typical System to a Pulse. At is the Delay oF Rise Time, YP® Input.Introduction to Metrology 19 Errors in Measuring Instruments Error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value, 1.8.1. Assembly Errors These errors are due to the following : (a) Displaced scale, (ie.,) incorrect fitting of the scale zero with respect to. the actual zero position of the pointer. {b) Non-uniform division of the scale. (c) Bent or distorted pointer. Errors of this type can be easily discovered and rectified as they remain constant with time. 1.8.2. Environmental Errors These errors are much more trouble some than assembly errors as they change with time in an unpredictable manner. These are introduced when using an instrument in different conditions than in which it was assembled and calibrated. The different conditions of use can be temperature, humidity, altitude etc. These errors can be eliminated or reduced by, taking the following precautions: (a) Using the instrument in controlled conditions of pressure, temperature and humidity in which it was originally assembled and calibrated. (b) If above condition is not possible then deviations in local conditions must be measured and suitable corrections to the instrument readings must be applied. (c) Automatic compensation using sophisticated devices for such deviations is also possible and usually applied. (d) Altogether new calibrations may be made in the new conditions. 1.8.3 Random Errors These errors vary in an unpredictable manner and it is very difficult to list out all the sources of errors in this class. The most common causes are : (a) Friction in instrument movement, (b) Backlash in the movement, (c) Hysteresis in elastic members, (d) Mechanical vibration, (e) Finite dimensions of the pointer and scale divisions, (f) Parallax errors between pointer and scale. The beauty of this errors is that they being random try to cancel each other. Some of these errors can be minimised, for example hysteresis effect depends an elastic qualities of material and the designer is expected to be fully conversant with the behaviour of the materials. The effect of external vibrations can be minimised by using shock absorbing mountings. Friction in the instrument is however unavoidable. 5 RR mapper 9g ROT NN ET LL ILLITE Ct CLT I IE20 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology roper usage of measuring apparatus. This type i SNe blunder. Any technique however, sophisticated scale to measure the length and bre for comitted nth and breadth meas jed dependant errors. size and incorrect ‘may introduce bull in errors resulting from incorrect design, ce. Such errors may be caused by ive geating or linkages of wrong proportions ete. Erors of regard to b ing constant 1.9 Classification of Errors Errors are classified as follows : 1. Systematic or Fixed errors 8) Calibration errors. es of consistently recurring human Q_Enors of technique. @ Uncorrected loading errors ©) Limits of system resolution. Random or Ac Errors stemming from environmental va B) Certian types of human err mediately indicate the input signal ied to it but takes some time which is called response time, ‘The measuring instrument may go consequent aging. Hence, Errors in Observation and tnterpr Measurement of a physical quant varies fom make mistakes in observing the same person it may vary with his physical and men ‘of both systematic or random depending on the con Iman errors may De the measurement.EEE ''S5s, a i 1.12. Standards of Length wth standards, ternational Prototype = | [rese=a] P/ Bron a copastion Ae ecu tet Sen 4 L6§) anterntrsnnnn Fig. 1.16 Imperial Standard Yard24 Mevhanical Meamuresnents a ved then exact copies ‘The purpose of keepit the neutfal axis remai accidental damage. Im order to minimise slight the supports must be placed such t of the bar are mutually pa Produces st ‘he most uniform known at the fg. 1 ton was obtained when the 13.1 Advantages of usin define Primary Standards Length does not changes. 2) It can be reproduced eas This primary 4) Weanbe used where n -» No. of supports, L - length of ba. For a simply supported beam, the expression becomes 1 Bxtaasme SB 5) Wavelength standard can be reproduced cons place26 Mechanical Measurements and Mettology 113.2 Metro as of Today isbased on the speed of of ages, terete In 1983 the tion of this accuracy. Examples and pra ‘and measures steel rule can be read to about * 0.2 mm of true dimension, is now defined avelled Dy 2 i.easy to use over a wide range of measurements. 299792458. second. This is oa a 5 a6 Wot SUbjeCTe To wear although significant wear on ing ends results in “undersizing™. i 4) scale does not tin datum which would allow easy scale alignment with the axis of measorem@ht, Ts agai TEsUNs ir understzing. re subjected to-parllax fle, which isa sovice of both poslve and reading errs 6) Scales are not convenient for close tolerancé length measuremepls.except in njcsnace are oF international protoype me here should be one, and only one material stanc called primary standard and is preserye dards a aca aeaoena eeeinet | 4:36 End Stan ergewrg Te sed on stare ena Re psciet puiceameie 20 years solely for comparison with secondary standards, mas renegare cena ‘conjuction with microscopes. datum because their measur ed on a daturi-sufTace. © depends on “ft ] 8 IU any lena shops. They ee ns. They ar aso made rds and are het a5 relerence for companion ne dary ‘working standards ‘materials. They are used for general sy Sometimes standards are also classed a standards (used by inspectors) i standards (used by operators) 345 Line Standards ists of two_ microscopes ‘An end’ standard, about 85% inch in length Two 12 ch blocks are then wrung to wadara”- Line stan standards. Ext Measoring sale :re o - 28 Mechamcal Meamuremente and Mev war rt tom So Weteomy 29 th of 36 ach erat bas, +arduLsd, [ee +0, ee TT TT] (=e t a 236 bch End bar being catbrated Fig. 1.19 Taking the average 12inch block 1 22 (orbrced) =L+™ ~t) 2 2 Combining eqns (1) and (2) 3) end bar was obtained and proceeding le (Thtee 12 inch bats) of a yard can succes patons of he 12 eee ed, Ie OFeSHrG 1s ban 28 +, (FeeeE ra HHasdnweg ih elminated Taking mean. 1+ (a+b +¢4¢) a354 2d 2 4 ted thatthe emror V2 inch Blocks bar is wrung to a surface plate and two S00 mm form a basic length of one met inch block is compared with ‘metre bar as shown in the Fig 1 ‘otand tie deviation D, was Fock 15 wrung and again itis Gshich isto be calibrated) and the deviation D, was noted, red with 36 inch end barit to eterrne 3 1.19 Numerical Problems Problems ‘calibrated matte ere bag hs ae acta sgh of VM Ai! mm Wm ts be esd uy bththe 2 and = thy ‘The above procedire can be us as treating ay cher numberof ena ant 0 = 2b thy or Wy =Lehen Cateatea bar (1) fe Tran 000 rn 0 ~@ oN by = LAL = Ma, 1008 toes ~ 0.0002 - 9.0004 2 2 Ly = 499.9998 mm From eqn(2) ty = lg =X = 09.99985 + 0.0004 L4 = $00.00025 mm22 Mechanical Measurenven A, Band C ate by by and Le From ean) ‘T= te Bum Fig. 1.23 We know that L+X) =L, +L, tle +p But Ly =Lg+X> Le = 44% Ip = ba-Xi LX = by Hy) + (Lg HG) + ba X0) LX = Aly +2 4X9—Ke OF Ady LX Xp Xa 4X = 998,092 «0.0003 = 0.0002 ~ 0.000 + 0.001 Ay = 99.509, Ty = 249. 99975 ma And bg =La+Xq =249.90075 + 0.0002 Ty = 249.99995 am34 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology Sinan = by = 29.07 + 000 | eI { LAM why + (by 4) + (Lg 8) # (Ly =X) [He = 250, 00015 mm te LAN =A Lg tay + 8X a LyX = 0.0001 fo = ta~ Ky = 289.9975 and 4 Ly = LX ~ Xp ~ XX = 498,990 mn 5A, B, Cand D each having abasic length 12 7 ed eng ram basic length The 500 mm bar has an actual engi Ty = 124.99975 aim that Further Ly = ty + = 12499975 + 0.0001 Ly = Ly + 0.0001 me he = Ly + 0.0005 mm [Ea S121 9085 ee] by = by ~ 0.0002 mm he = Ly + Xy = 124.90075 + 0.0005, ANd Lg thy the oly = L+0.0008 mm. — ace ee iM Las tay Le and Lp From Fig. 1.10 Leman, But 15 = 1000.0015 mm 14, = 1000.0025 mmm let yek, n= -% Total36 Mechanical Measurements and Metology \ax=oms vi = 0.0005 1 | Zz i z z g hig a8 ra ly Ana 90 4A. Alas ns 2x 4 7 or 100.0025 = A+(asn)ot x Fd standard wing (+) «1000.05 ~ 4 2 10 ors 0.05 100.02 rm End st 1 (ed) = 100.0025 + yo x 00.05 + 0 ans 420.1 Basle Forms of 6 1003 mm Following are the tee Linear Moasuroment 1.20 Slip Gauges (Johannson Gauges) or Gay, ‘They are rectangular blocks. ‘ge Blocks wide, as shown in Fig. 1.26 and section of 30 mm long and end standards in These ga ‘ensure that the wrung stocks do noSh Mechanical Mearaerents and Met 1202 Major Requirements for Slip Ga438® Sop gauges ar used to prove end anda of PCS, ‘evil sap anda 105, MAT, MSO, M33 and M27. ° ° 0 4 1 Total 11240 Mechanical Measurements and Meto}08) 1.12.6 Manufacture of Slip Gauges as a stn gauges developed DY Nat gels by rein operations crease hardness and. Wear Tesistance, I Physical Laboraton, eed in he a ind coked slowly al each slag, Eight gauges of one size ave then mounted oma special 1yPe or ee otek ‘and spot gfourid on each face. A preliminary lapping operation is also alt which make aie gauges parle to aout 0002 mm and within abou 0.002 mm ot sie ‘The final lapping process is carted out on & chuck, on Which the 8(@). When the g, * = tI} @ rs) Fig: 128 Arrangement of sip gauges on lapping chuck, Further lapping produces vey hi en! sags Then al he ee sage ne eo an size between equal to thelt 130" ang Care of slip gauges Gonoral care |. Protect such a 2. Keep the lip gauges in a suitable case in which there is a separate compartment for ‘each gauge and keep the case closed when not in use. 43, Protect the gauges and their case from dust and dirt 4. Gauges should not be magnetized otherwise they will alrract metallic dust. Preparation before use 1, Remove protective coating applied to it with petrol. 2, Clean gauges to be used with chamols leather or soft linen cloth even if they are temporarily returned to the case uncoated. the actual use, the fingering of lapped faces should be avoided. ig should be as minimum as possible to avoid transfer of heat from hand to togethe should be 10m before doing any held above the open case when being wrung together. The lb be selected and the case then closed. ener Ts working surfaces on surface plate etc, should be avoided, indard procedure as already explained should be followed. 9.1 during wringing process any sign of , ty sign of roughness or scratching i fel the process Of wringing shouldbe stopped and faces examined for burns or state Care after use 1. Gauges should not be left wrung together for an unnecessary length of time. 2. Immediately after u not be used as this may aerate he Jelly sed the air bubbles so formed may cause rusting of the faces. ae$2 weeny vase nt aso 3 Calibration - D in the laboratory of inspect ‘shor Soe ee eee SEY eee mono Msrksnop and inspection grade gauges ar caibrated by ditect Comparison win ‘Ssutration grade gauges in a comparsion. St ages conser in iowa te Tse nce, © Serving and centie point (i Holders ana Gi) Base ray, | ‘These are made from sultable ste! free from defects and hardened uniormiy, minirnurn hardness of 800 HV. Measuring Jaws. Measuring Jaws are always supplied in pairs. These are of two types: Type A and ‘TypeB. Type A jaws are used——netmatanatentateaenneneianidionttonesiinesaananee $4 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology Se aan et 120.7 Numerical Problems on Building of Slip Gauges Problem £ Bulld 58.975 mm usiog M112 set of gauges. Solution : * Always stant with the "Here itis 0.008 mm and for this 1.005 mm sip gauge is selected 58.975 ~ 1.005 = 57.970 mm, he subsequent decimal places ie, select 1.47 mm slip gauge 7.970 ~ 1.AT = $6.500 mm, ip guages should be selected Le., we cannot select 1.07 since Hand the next gauge would be It mm. pivce each step), For 56.500 mm choose 6.5 00 mm piece and finaly $0,000 mm piece. Thus, we have + 147+ 1.005 = 58.973 mm 50.000 + 6.500 Probem 25 Lat the slips to be wru ing together to produce an over Using two protection slips ‘of 2.500 mm size, Show the a limension of 92.357 mm ‘auges combination. Solution : Original dimension = 92357 Hes# Two protector spe of 2500 mm each = — s009 7357 3 decimal place + mm 1007 86.350 Mand 24 decimal places i 85.000 To beng 0 whole number 25, 50.075 1g 000 75.000 Combination = 2 protector sips of 2500+ 1.007 4 of slip gauges * Combination = 2.500 + 1.007 + 1.350 + 10.000 ¢ 75.000 + 2.5000 25 1007 135 190 Te * a 250 OUT] L] 1.350 + 10.000 + 75.000 mm, Inwracuction to Metrorogy 4S ae slips of 2.5 mm De ego 54 ng MIE ey 2 a Gr se Two sted spe 128 mmeach = 7 : 30.4875, 4” decimal place + Imm = 10005 3" decimal place + Imm 28 4800 = 14800 2 and 1* decimal place Round off Problom 4 4 dimension of $8.975 mm with the help of s Tor the pi Steps] Pleces 0.001 Grade on oa ous 0.1646 Mechanical Measurements and Metrology i RR Mensurements and Mevotegy Noramal size | ~Grade (0) | ~Grade a0 O18 300 020 a0 02 700 oa 800 026 800 028 1000 030 dimension, ‘om M-A5 set the required dimension can be set as follows : Original dimension 3" decimal place + 1 mm Determine the set you will prefer and the range ofthe Sotut 2° decimal place + Imm decimal place + Imm, To round off “sane combination = 5000 + S000 + 1300 + L070 + 1.005 = s.r mm Sum of enors = = (020+ 0.1 +01 +01 +01) = £06 um = £ 0.0006 mm Therefore range of dimension = 58.975 + 0.0006 = 58.9756 to 58.9744 mm From M112 set the requived dimension canbe seta ews ‘dimension = 88.975 3" decimal place + mm 1.005 57.970 2 and Ist decimal places =lar0 56.500 To round off 6500 50000 * Combination = 50.000 + 6500 + 1470+ L005 = store mm Introduction to Metrolo Sum of errors = + (1.0 +05 +05 + 05) = £25um = = 0.0025 mm Ronge of dimension = $8,975 = 0.0025 = 589775 to 58.9725 mm for Ma5 (Grade 0) set is less as compared to ‘The sllp gauge set M38 consists of the following : ‘Steps (mm) | Pieces | (VTU. Feb. 2003) 8 decimal place + 1 mm. 2% decimal place + Imm 1 decimal place + Imm, To rounding off 20.000 Combination is 20.000 + 6.000 + 1.800 + 1.070 + 1.005 = 29.875 mm48 Mechanical Measurements and Mewology A Mechanical Measurements and Mewology (W) 18.09 on Original dimension 15.09 4 109 2° decimal place + Imm = ners To round off 0 10.00 3" decimal place + 1 mm 0.00 + 4.00 + 1.09 = 15.09 mm. = Combination 24 decimal place + | mm (101.345 mm ‘dimensional ro1s4s To round off 7 place + Imm =1.005, 100.340 2° decimal place + mm dimension 6.208 1 decimal place + Imm 3 decimal place + 1 mm =1.008 7, To round off 200 30.000 1 decimal place + 1 mm 1.200 * Combination 1s 90,000 + 8.000 + 1.300 + 1.040 + 1.005 = 101.545 mm 66.000 To round off 16.000 50.000 of slip gauges, bulld the following dimensions, % Combination = $0.0 + 16.0 + 1.2 = 1.008 (TV. Jan. 2005) ene stip gauge set contains the following 52.496 3" decimal place + 1 mm [Rene [Siem re] : 005 =] 11.009 | ooo |g Lol-4ag 001 05-245 os 49 + Combination = 50.0 + 1.49 + 1.006 250-1000 | 250 4 2 and 1" decimal places + 1 mm 30.00050 Mechanical Measurements and Metology Angular Measurements 1.22. Introduction sabe lade Bade amp be formed and it ish 360 pat ea pate ‘measurement is generally concerned withthe measurement A of individual angles on gauges, lools as we elections truments and methods used forthe measurement of angles on the compon Protractor : (Universal bovel protractor) Wis a ‘angle upon the work and any type of angle can “These 12 divisions occupy the same space as 28 degrees on the main scale. Therefore, each division of the verner Is equal 10 avation on the man on the vee Sale we ain scale gai ations malted by § cs mune ade othe number f egoes end between he zeros he main ele and the verner scale. Photograph: Bevel Protracie,,52 Mechanical Measurements and Mewolosy SE Neston Measurements and Mev) 1.24 Optical Bevel Protractor ‘A recent development ofthe veriet bevel protractor is an optical bevel prota shown in the Fig. 1.35, 1.25.1 Prineiple of Sine-bar ‘The sine bar Is designed basically for the precise setting out of. r setice pe (reusr gatspae Fig. 1.85 Schematic of In this Instrument, a circular glass whole 360° is fited Inside the main circular help of a microscope. The adjustable blade is 0 the microscope. With the help of microscope I 1.25 Sine Bar cisely any angle by ‘AB and: marking off the length of auges of the requires inthe Fig. Then the angle Sine bars are made from high carbor steels which can be hardened, ground and ‘1 » D » a 1.25.3 Use of Sine Bar (Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given angle Fla: 1.38 Simple orm of Sine bay ] Fle. 1.38 Use of Sine Bar to Measure known Angles orcrn enero oe were Te 139 Use ot Se Agi 30 wae see vs wip ae est ome foun vee Coe M sxsatam ated ‘iran ip 0 Ne A genes ty woecontests ! tbe sine bar rollers | progressively more significant. In general its preferable not to use the sine bat for generating |] angles larger than 45*if high accuracy i required. 1.26 Sine Centre wee Bo mga Re 1 cme cance DEO Tae reacnessig berween te angus wild i whic Hay be proscar a be up suze conbisato A oF te Se rotees 1) can be cemined by cBeretatng te eatin sn 9 =~ | fa Hosea} » 28] fe case ce 2 d0=me 22) rms aT) From si sqmation & can be wen tnt the effect of ero secog tbe ies Dero Se et of errors in eee She gig De ee a ee mig comtiatin 0 wa ca j si58 Mechanical Measurements and Mettl0a) Fig. 143 Angle Gauge |{80 Mechanical Measurements and Mett08Y Example 3) 57°34 9" (V-1.Used2002) 4 Minutes 27+ Fraction of 0. ‘minutes82 Mechanicat Measurements and Metrl03Y Ray = ayia (@ Combination of two rays in phase CBee ee 3) Combination of wo rays antiphased @ Ray = mylene ther typeof clinometes theres no split level and hence a bubble, but dy inte fine bal bearings. The ‘equal then the waves on these pat "ECU at point O. At some point Mh64 Mechanical Measurements and MetrolosY bright band canbe sen. At another poston G ithe path diference HEL an odd numb ef hattwavelength, then the ray from J and titre to ease dark band orn rk fringes in this case are straight because the surface is at and ine of const tisplacement of ial flat from the ‘The rate of separation of the lower sutface of the flat and the depends on the angle (6) of the air wedge Fig. 1.33 Method for Producing Interference Bands _. Fatt Principle of o; HHerometry apprieg y, L a } Flatness Testing) whe ed in certain methods of fine me at is used. This isa disc of to within few hundredths For example as shown in the Fig. 1.55 if the | ‘wavelength 2 sure lass or quar The change in se Opicatas 300.98 "e between bands, the accuracy fof measurement may approach 0.02 jn, 2 Interference Patterns 's which can be obtained with an optical Nat on shown in the Fig. 4.23 F154 Prince of Operon of Opt! enti 514i panty eect rectors bu te pa Dep neta’ at B along BC they can be brought together by ann ince is an even nu merase ce wunbe oral at and if this dista{66 Mechanical Measurements and Metol08 perature changes are more apparent when usi ted rapidly by handling and hence requires longer time inthe same plane at a distance from O. Obviously 5 > Focal length of the lens land will be brought to focus at oo=x=20F and () represent fat surfaces. The differences in spac different inclinations of the optical flat to. thi The patter at fringes Ee surface, while Fig (h) shows Pressure will indicate which ofthe two is the m over a vee block, al at is 9 ceuar pi 5 cm in diameter or more. aa Panicle of d Mat measurements. Even a Photograph 18: Autocollimator Mat is placed over it can rest |es — cal Measurements Jo Mestviogy 68 oy (TU Mater zon) (ru Fen 20H)