UNIT I CRYSTAL PHYSICS

Subject Code : UPH1176

Learning Objectives

On completion of these topics students will be able to :

Explain nature of Crystalline and non-crystalline solids

Explain the Types of Crystal system
Explain the Lattice
Understand the concept of Unit cell
Explain the Bravais Lattice
Explain the Miller indices
 IMPORTANCE OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The study of crystal geometry helps to understand the

behaviour of solids and their

mechanical,

electrical,

magnetic

optical

Metallurgical properties
Basing on the arrangement of atoms or molecules Solids are classified
into two categories

i) Crystalline Solids: The solids in which atoms or molecules are

arranged in a regular and orderly manner in three dimensional
pattern, are called Crystalline Solids.
These solids have directional properties and called anisotropic
substances Ex: i) Metalic: Gold, Silver, Aluminium
ii) Non-Metalic: Diamond, Silicon, Nacl

ii) Amorphous Solids: The atoms or molecules are arranged in an

irregular manner, i.e there is no lattice structure. These solids have no
directional properties and are called isotropic substances.
Ex: Glass, Plastic, rubber, etc amorphous silicon dioxide
Classification of Solids
From the crystal structure point of view, the solid-state materials are
broadly classified as
(i) Crystalline materials and (ii) Non-crystalline or Amorphous materials

Solids

Non-Crystalline
Crystalline
or Amorphous
Crystalline Materials
The materials in which the atoms are arranged in a systematic pattern
(regular pattern) are known as crystalline materials.
 The crystalline solids are made up of either metallic crystals or non-
metallic crystals.
Example
Metallic crystals
Copper, silver, aluminium, tungsten, etc.
Non – metallic crystals
Crystalline carbon, germanium, silicon, crystallized polymers, etc.
Amorphous Materials
The materials in which atoms are arranged in an irregular (random) fashion
are known as amorphous materials or non-crystalline materials. Amorphous means
without form.

LATTICE

It is as an array of points in space in which the environment about each

point is the same i.e., every point has surroundings identical to that of every other
point in the array.
 The collection of points in two dimensions is shown in fig.
It is found in fig. that the environment about any two points is same.
Hence, it is a space lattice.

Lattice points
The points in a space lattice are called lattice points.
Basis
The crystal structure is obtained by adding a unit assembly of atoms to each
lattice point. This unit assembly is called as basis.
A space lattice combines with a basis gives a crystal structures
i.e, Space lattice + Basis -> Crystal structure

UNIT CELL

It is defined as the smallest geometric figure which is repeated to derive the

actual crystal structure.
The unit cell fully represents the characteristics of the entire crystal.
Lattice parameters of a unit cell
A unit cell is constructed if the distance between two neighbouring lattice
points along three directions and angles between them are known.
The distance between two neighbouring lattice points is nothing but the
edges of the unit cell. The lengths OA, OB, OC in three axes OX, OY and OZ are the
axial lengths or intercepts.

In fig, the axial lengths OA = a, OB = b and OC = c are known as intercepts a, b

and c along three axes.
The angles between three intercepts (α,  and ) are called interfacial angles.
Both intercepts and interfacial angles are the lattice parameters of the unit
cell. They determine the actual shape and size of the unit cell.
Crystal systems
There are ‘7’ types of crystal system.
1. Cubic system

i.e., a = b = c and  = β =  = 90o

2. Tetragonal system

i.e., a = b  c and  = β =  = 90o

3. Orthorhombic system

i.e., a  b  c and  =  =  = 90o

4. Monoclinic system

i.e., a  b  c and  =  = 90o;   90o

5. Triclinic system
In this system, three axial lengths of unit cell are not equal and all the axes
are inclined obliquely to each other.

i.e., a  b  c and       90o

6. Rhombohedral system (Trigonal)

i.e., a = b = c and  =  =   90o
7. Hexagonal system

i.e., a = b  c and  =  = 90o;  = 120o

BRAVAIS LATTICE
Bravais introduced the concept of space lattice. He showed that there are
only 14 ways of arranging points in space such that the environment looks same
from each point.
Hence, there are only 14 types of space lattices which can be possibly
developed from out of ‘7’ crystal systems.
These 14 types of space lattices are known as Bravais lattices.
 TABLE
BRAVAIS LATTICES

S.No. Crystal systems Number of possible types

Simple and Body-centred and
1. Cubic 3
Face centred
2. Tetragonal 2 Simple and Body-centred
Simple, Base-centred, Body-
3. Orthorhombic 4
centred and Face-centred
4. Monoclinic 2 Simple and Base-centred

5. Triclinic 1 Simple

6. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) 1 Simple

7. Hexagonal 1 Simple

Total 14
1. Cubic lattice

Au, Cu, NaCl

SC lattice BCC lattice FCC lattice

2. Tetragonal lattice

Tio2, SnO2,
NiSo4

Simple tetragonal lattice Body-centred tetragonal lattice

3. Orthorhombic lattice KNO3,BaSo4

Simple orthorhombic Base-centred Body-centred Face-centred

4. Monoclinic lattice

CaSo4.2H2O,
FeSo4,
Na2So4

Simple Monoclinic lattice Base-centred monoclinic lattice

5. Triclinic lattice
CaSo4.5H2O,

K2Cr2O7

Simple triclinic lattice

6. Rhombohedral lattice

As, Sb, Bi

Simple rhombohedral lattice

7. Hexagonal lattice

SiO2, Zn, Mg, Cd

Simple hexagonal lattice

 Miller indices
Miller introduced a system to designate a
plane in a crystal. He introduced a set of
three numbers to specify a plane in a crystal.
This set of three numbers is known as Miller
Indices of the concerned plane.
Miller indices were introduced in 1839 by the British mineralogist William Hallowes
Miller.

Miller indices form a notation system in crystallography for planes in crystal (Bravais)
lattices.

Miller indices, group of three numbers that indicates the orientation of a plane in
a crystal.

If each atom in the crystal is represented by a point and these points are connected
by lines, the resulting lattice may be divided into a number of identical blocks, or unit
cells; the intersecting edges of one of the unit cells defines a set of crystallographic
axes, and the Miller indices are determined by the intersection of the plane with
these axes
LATTICE PLANE
 Procedure for finding Miller Indices
Step 1: Determine the intercepts of the plane along the axes X,Y and
Z in terms of the lattice constants a,b and c.

Step 2: Determine the reciprocals of these numbers.

Step 3: Find the least common denominator (lcd) and multiply each by
this lcd.

Step 4:The result is written in paranthesis. This is called the `Miller

Indices’ of the plane in the form (h k l).

This is called the `Miller Indices’ of the plane in the form

(h k l).
Important Features of Miller Indices

i. If a plane is parallel to any one of the crystallographic axis, then

its intercept will be infinity. Hence the miller indices for that
particular axis is zero.

ii. The plane passing through the origin has non zero intercepts.

iii. All equally spaced parallel planes have the same Miller indices.

iv. If a plane cuts the axis on the negative side of the origin, then
the
corresponding Miller indices will be negative.

v. If (hkl) is the Miller indices of a crystal plane then the intercepts

made by the plane with the crystallographic axis are given as a/h,
b/k, c/l where a, b and c are the primitives.
•For example, if the x, y, and z intercepts are 2, 1, and 3, the Miller indices are
calculated as:

•Take reciprocals: 1/2, 1/1, 1/3

•Clear fractions (multiply by 6): 3, 6, 2
•Reduce to lowest terms (already there)
Thus, the Miller indices are (3 6 2).
 Summary
On completion of these topics students have learned that:

• Crystals have directional properties and are anisotropic substances

• The regular arrangement of the space positions of the atoms in a crystal is called

• space lattice.

• A crystal structure is developed by the combination of space lattice and basis.

• A unit cell is defined as the volume of a solid from which the entire crystal can be constructed by translational repetition in

three dimensions.

• intercepts on the crystallographic axes a, b and c which define the dimension of a unit cell and the interfacial angles , and are

the basic lattice parameters.

There are seven crystal systems which can form fourteen Bravais lattices in the three dimensions.

• Miller Indices are the convention used to label lattice planes. This mathematical description allows us to define accurately,

planes within a crystal, and quantitatively analyze many problems in materials science.