Unit-I

Engineering Physics-I
INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL PHYSICS
CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
SPACE LATTICE
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
LATTICE PARAMETERS
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
BRAVAIS LATTICES
INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL PHYSICS
 INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL PHYSICS

Matter exists in three states viz. solids, liquids and gases.

All these states are composed of atoms and molecules.

When we focus the solids, they are classified into many types based on
several properties like electrical, mechanical, magnetic, optical, thermal

etc.,.

The main reason for these different properties of solids is their crystal
structure.
 INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL PHYSICS

‘What is Crystal Physics?

Crystal Physics’ or ‘Crystallography’ is a

branch of physics that deals with the study of
all possible types of crystals and the physical
properties of crystalline solids by the
determination of their actual structure by using
X-rays, neutron beams and electron beams.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

SOLID MATERIALS

AMORPHOUS
CRYSTALLINE POLYCRYSTALLINE
(Non-crystalline)

Single Crystal

Crystal Structure 6
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Solids can broadly be classified into two types based on the

arrangement of units of matter.
The units of matter may be atoms, molecules or ions.
They are,
Crystalline solids and
Non-crystalline (or) Amorphous solids
 CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A substance is said to be crystalline when the arrangement of units of

matter is regular and periodic.

A crystalline material has directional properties and therefore called as

anisotropic substance.

A crystal has a sharp melting point.

It possesses a regular shape and if it is broken, all broken pieces have

the same regular shape.
 CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
A crystalline material can either be a single (mono) crystal or a
polycrystal.

A single crystal consists of only one crystal, whereas the

polycrystalline material consists of many crystals separated by
well-defined boundaries.

Examples
Metallic crystals – Cu, Ag, Al, Mg etc,
Non-metallic crystals – Carbon, Silicon, Germanium
 NON CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

In amorphous solids, the constituent particles t arranged in an

orderly manner. They are randomly distributed.

They do not have directional properties and so they are called as

`isotropic’ substances.

They have wide range of melting point and do not possess a

regular shape.
Examples: Glass, Plastics, Rubber etc.,
EXAMPLES OF CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS
 SINGLE CRYSTALS
 Single crystals have a periodic atomic structure across its
whole volume.
 At long range length scales, each atom is related to every
other equivalent atom in the structure by translational or
rotational symmetry

Single Pyrite
Crystal

Amorphous
Solid
Single Crystals
12
 POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Polycrystalline materials are made up of an aggregate of
many small single crystals (also called crystallites or grains).
 Polycrystalline materials have a high degree of order over
many atomic or molecular dimensions.
 Grains (domains) are separated by grain boundaries. The
atomic order can vary from one domain to the next.
 The grains are usually 100 nm - 100 microns in diameter.
 Polycrystals with grains less than 10 nm in diameter are
nanocrystalline

Polycrystalline
Pyrite form
(Grain)

13
ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT IN CRYSTALS

(a) mono (or) single

crystals
(b) polycrystalline solids
(c) amorphous solids
 CRYSTALS

It is a substance in which the constituent particles are arranged in

a systematic geometrical pattern.
 SPACE LATTICE

A lattice is a regular and periodic arrangement of points in three

dimension.

It is defined as an infinite array of points in three dimension in which

every point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the
array.

The Space lattice is otherwise called the Crystal lattice

TWO DIMENSIONAL SPACE LATTICE
 SPACE LATTICE

Consider the points P, Q and R.

Let us join the points P and Q by a straight line, and the point P and R
by another straight line.
The line PQ is taken as X-axis and the line PR is taken as Y-axis.
The distance between any two successive lattice points in the X-
direction is taken as `a’.
 SPACE LATTICE

Similarly, the distance between any two successive

lattice points along the Y-direction is taken as ‘b’.
Here a and b are said to be lattice translational
vectors. Consider a
square lattice in which a=b.
 SPACE LATTICE

Consider two sets of points A, B, C, D, E, F and A, B, C,

D, E, F.

In these two sets, the surrounding environment looks

symmetrical; i.e. the distances AB and AB, AC and AC, AD
and AD, AE and AE and AF and AF are equal.

Therefore, in the arrangement of points, if the surrounding

environment looks the same when the arrangement is viewed
from different lattice points, then that arrangement is said to be a
space lattice.
 BASIS

A crystal structure is formed by associating every lattice point with

an unit assembly of atoms or molecules identical in composition,
arrangement and orientation.

This unit assembly is called the `basis’.

When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all directions,

it gives the actual crystal structure.

The crystal structure is real, while the lattice is imaginary.

 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

+ =

Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure

 UNIT CELL

A unit cell is defined as a fundamental building block

of a crystal structure, which can generate the
complete crystal by repeating its own dimensions in
various directions.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES

Consider a unit cell consisting of three mutually

perpendicular edges OA, OB and OC as shown in
figure.
Draw parallel lines along the three edges.
These lines are taken as crystallographic axes and they
are denoted as X, Y and Z axes. Y
B

O A X
C

Z
 LATTICE PARAMETERS

Consider the unit cell as shown in figure.

Let OA, OB and OC are the intercepts made by the unit cell along
X, Y and Z axes respectively.
These intercepts are known as primitives. In crystallography the
intercepts OA, OB and OC are represented as a , b and c .
 LATTICE PARAMETERS

The angle between X and Y axes is represented as .

Similarly the angles between Y and Z and Z and X axes

are denoted by  and  respectively as shown in the
above figure. These angles ,  and  are called as
interaxial angles or interfacial angles.

To represent a lattice, the three interfacial angles and

their corresponding intercepts are essential. These six
parameters are said to be lattice parameters.
 PRIMITIVE CELL

It is the smallest unit cell in volume constructed by primitives. It

consists of only one full atom
A primitive cell is one, which has got the points or atoms only at the
corners of the unit cell.
If a unit cell consists of more than one atom, then it is not a primitive
cell.
Example for primitive cell :Simple Cubic unit cell
Examples for non-primitive cell: BCC and FCC unit cell.
 CRYSTALS SYSTEMS

A three dimensional space lattice is generated by repeated

translation of three translational vectors a, b and c.

Crystals are grouped under seven systems on the basis of the

shape of the unit cell.

The seven crystal systems are distinguished from one another

by their lattice parameters .
 CRYSTALS SYSTEMS

The seven systems are,

Cubic (isometric)
Tetragonal
Orthorhombic
Trigonal (rhombohedral)
Hexagonal
Monoclinic and
Triclinic
 CRYSTALS SYSTEMS

The space lattices formed by unit cells are marked by the

following symbols.
Primitive lattice: P  having lattice points only at the
corners of the unit cell.
Body centred lattice: I  having lattice points at
the corners as well as at the body centre of the unit
cell.
Face centred lattice :F  having lattice points at the
corners as well as at the face centres of the unit cell.
Base centred lattice: C  having lattice points at the
corners as well as at the top and bottom base
centres of the unit cell.
BRAVAIS LATTICE
Bravais in 1948 showed that 14 types of unit cells under seven crystal systems are
possible. They are commonly called as `Bravais lattice’.
14 Bravais Lattices divided into 7 Crystal Systems
A Symmetry based concept ‘Translation’ based concept

Crystal System Shape of UC Bravais Lattices

P I F C
1 Cubic Cube   
2 Tetragonal Square Prism (general height)  
3 Orthorhombic Rectangular Prism (general height)    
4 Hexagonal 120 Rhombic Prism 
5 Trigonal Parallopiped (Equilateral, Equiangular) 
6 Monoclinic Parallogramic Prism  
7 Triclinic Parallopiped (general) 

P Primitive
I Body Centred
F Face Centred
C Base- Centred
MILLER INDICES
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING MILLER INDICES
DETERMINATION OF MILLER INDICES
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES
CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS
SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES
[d-spacing]
 MILLER INDICES
The crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of an infinite set of
parallel equidistant planes passing through the lattice points which
are known as lattice planes.
In simple terms, the planes passing through lattice points are
called ‘lattice planes’.
For a given lattice, the lattice planes can be chosen in a different
number of ways.

DIFFERENT LATTICE PLANES

d
 MILLER INDICES

Miller indices is defined as the reciprocals of the intercepts

made by the plane on the three crystallographic axes which is
used to designate plane in the crystal.

Miller indices are set of three possible integers represented

as (h k l) which is used to designate plane in the crystal ,is
the reciprocal of the intercept made by the planes on the
crystallographic axes.
 MILLER INDICES
Procedure for finding Miller Indices
Step 1: Determine the intercepts of the plane along the axes
X,Y and Z in terms of the lattice constants a,b and c.
Step 2: Determine the reciprocals of these numbers.
Step 3: Find the least common denominator (lcd)
and multiply each by this lcd.
Step 4:The result is written in paranthesis. This is
called the `Miller Indices’ of the plane in
the form (h k l).

This is called the `Miller Indices’ of the plane in the form

(h k l).
 ILLUSTRATION PLANES IN A CRYSTAL

Plane ABC has intercepts of 2 units along X-axis, 3

units along Y-axis and 2 units along Z-axis.
DETERMINATION OF ‘MILLER INDICES’

Step 1:The intercepts are 2,3 and 2 on the three axes.

Step 2:The reciprocals are 1/2, 1/3 and 1/2.

Step 3:The least common denominator is ‘6’. Multiplying each

reciprocal by lcd, we get, 3,2 and 3.

Step 4:Hence Miller indices for the plane ABC is (3 2 3)

 MILLER INDICES

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

For the cubic crystal especially, the important features of Miller

indices are,

A plane which is parallel to any one of the co-ordinate axes

has an intercept of infinity (). Therefore the Miller index for
that axis is zero; i.e. for an intercept at infinity, the
corresponding index is zero.
 EXAMPLE

( 1 0 0 ) plane

Plane parallel to Y and Z axes

 EXAMPLE

In the above plane, the intercept along X axis is 1 unit.

The plane is parallel to Y and Z axes. So, the intercepts

along Y and Z axes are ‘’.

Now the intercepts are 1,  and .

The reciprocals of the intercepts are = 1/1, 1/ and 1/.

Therefore the Miller indices for the above plane is (1 0 0).

 MILLER INDICES

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

A plane passing through the origin is defined in terms of a

parallel plane having non zero intercepts.

All equally spaced parallel planes have same ‘Miller

indices’ i.e. The Miller indices do not only define a particular
plane but also a set of parallel planes. Thus the planes
whose intercepts are 1, 1,1; 2,2,2; -3,-3,-3 etc., are all
represented by the same set of Miller indices.
 MILLER INDICES

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

It is only the ratio of the indices which is important in this

notation. The (6 2 2) planes are the same as (3 1 1) planes.

If a plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin,

corresponding index is negative. It is represented by a bar,
like (1 0 0). i.e. Miller indices (1 0 0) indicates that the
plane has an intercept in the –ve X –axis.
MILLER INDICES OF SOME IMPORTANT PLANES
 PROBLEMS

Worked Example:
A certain crystal has lattice parameters of 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å on X,
Y, Z axes respectively. Determine the Miller indices of a plane
having intercepts of 2.12, 10 and 1.83 Å on the X, Y and Z axes.
Lattice parameters are = 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å
The intercepts of the given plane = 2.12, 10 and 1.83 Å
i.e. The intercepts are, 0.5, 1 and 0.5.
Step 1: The Intercepts are 1/2, 1 and 1/2.
Step 2: The reciprocals are 2, 1 and 2.
Step 3: The least common denominator is 2.
Step 4: Multiplying the lcd by each reciprocal we get, 4, 2 and 4.
Step 5: By writing them in parenthesis we get (4 2 4)

Therefore the Miller indices of the given plane is (4 2 4) or (2 1 2).

 PROBLEMS

Worked Example:
Calculate the miller indices for the plane with intercepts 2a,
- 3b and 4c the along the crystallographic axes.

The intercepts are 2, - 3 and 4

Step 1: The intercepts are 2, -3 and 4 along the 3 axes

1 1 1
Step 2: The reciprocals are , and
2 3 4
Step 3: The least common denominator is 12.

Multiplying each reciprocal by lcd, we get 6 -4 and 3

Step 4: Hence the Miller indices for the plane is  6 4 3

 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS

In crystal analysis, it is essential to indicate certain

directions inside the crystal.
A direction, in general may be represented in terms of
three axes with reference to the origin. In crystal
system, the line joining the origin and a lattice point
represents the direction of the lattice point.
 DESIRABLE FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

The relation between the interplanar distance and the

interatomic distance is given by,
a
d  for cubic crystal.
h 2  k 2  l2

If (h k l) is the Miller indices of a crystal plane then the

intercepts made by the plane with the crystallographic
axes are given as a b c
, and
h k l
where a, b and c are the primitives.
 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

Consider a cubic crystal of side ‘a’, and a plane ABC.

This plane belongs to a family of planes whose Miller indices are
(h k l) because Miller indices represent a set of planes.
Let ON =d, be the perpendicular distance of the plane A B C
from the origin.
SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES
 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

Let ’, ’ and ’ (different from the interfacial angles,  and )

be the angles between co-ordinate axes X,Y,Z and ON respectively.

The intercepts of the plane on the three axes are,

a a a
OA  , OB  and OC  (1)
h k l
 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

From the figure, we have,

d1 d1 d1
cos  
1
,cos 
1
and cos 
1 (2)
OA OB OC
From the property of direction of cosines,

cos2 1  cos21  cos2 1  1 (3)

 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

Using equation 1 in 2, we get,

d1h d1k d1l (4)

cos 
1
,cos 
1
, and cos 1

a a a
Substituting equation (4) in (3), we get,
2 2 2
 d1h   d1k   d1l 
 a    a   a   1
     
2 2 2 2 2 2
d h d k d l
1
2
 2 1
1 1
2
a a a
 2
d1
2
(h 2
 k 2
 l 2
) 1
a
a2

2
d1
(h 2  k 2  l2 )
a
d1  ON 
h 2  k 2  l2

a
d1 
h 2  k 2  l2
Now, let us consider the next parallel plane.

Let OM=d2 be the perpendicular distance of this

plane from the origin.

The intercepts of this plane along the three axes are

2a 2a 2a
OA  ,OB  ,OC  ,
1 1 1

h k l
2a
 OM  d 2 
h 2  k 2  l2
 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

• Therefore, the interplanar spacing between two

adjacent parallel planes of Miller indices (h k l ) is
given by, NM = OM – ON

i.e.Interplanar spacing

a
d   d2  d1  
(6)

h 2  k 2  l2
 PROBLEMS

Worked Example

The lattice constant for a unit cell of aluminum is 4.031Å

Calculate the interplanar space of (2 1 1) plane.

a = 4.031 Å
(h k l) = (2 1 1)
a 4.031  1010
Interplanar spacing d 
h 2  k 2  l2 22  12  12
 d = 1.6456 Å
 PROBLEMS

Worked Example:
Find the perpendicular distance between the two planes indicated by
the Miller indices (1 2 1) and (2 1 2) in a unit cell of a cubic lattice
with a lattice constant parameter ‘a’.
We know the perpendicular distance between the origin and the plane is (1 2 1)
a a a
d1   
h12  k12  l12 12  22  12 6

and the perpendicular distance between the origin and the plane (2 1 2),
a a a a
d2    
h 2
2 k 2
2  l 2
2 2 2
 1 2
 2 2
9 3
 PROBLEMS

The perpendicular distance between the planes (1 2 1) and (2 1 2) are,

a a 3a  6a a(3  6)
d = d1 – d2 =   
6 3 3 6 3 6

(or) d = 0.0749 a.
 Characteristics of unit cell
• Number of atoms per unit cell
• Coordination number
• Atomic radius
• Atomic Packing factor or Packing Density
• Number of atoms per unit cell: The number of
atoms present in the unit cell .
• Coordination number: The number of equidistant
nearest neighbouring atoms surrounding the
particular atom considered.
• Atomic Radius (r) : It is defined as half the distance
between the nearest neighbouring atoms in a crystal.
• Atomic Packing factor or Packing Density: It is the
ratio of the volume occupied by the atoms in an unit
cell (v) to the volume of the unit cell (V). It is also
called packing fraction or packing density.
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE
BODY CENTRED CUBIC STRUCTURE
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE
PROBLEMS
 Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

1 atom/unit cell
One atom per unit cell

1/8 x 8 = 1
 Atomic Packing Factor

• APF for a simple cubic

structure = 0.52 Volume of a
atoms atom
4
unit cell 1 p (0.5a)3
a 3
APF =
R=0.5a a3 Volume of unit cell
 Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
How is ‘a’ and ‘R’ related for an BCC?
[a= unit cell dimension, R = atomic radius].
All atoms are identical 2 atoms/unit cell

• Exhibited by Cr, Fe, Mo, Ta, W

•Close packed directions are cube diagonals.
• Coordination number = 8
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC
• APF for a body-centered
cubic structure = 0.68
Close-packed
direction - diagonal
4R
a=
3

R
a
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
• Exhibited by Al, Cu, Au, Ag, Ni, Pt
• Close packed directions are face diagonals.
• Coordination number = 12
• 4 atoms/unit cell

All atoms are identical

6 x (1/2 face) + 8 x 1/8 (corner) = 4 atoms/unit cell

 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE

The atoms in a FCC unit cell touches along

the face diagonal.

Each and every corner atom is shared by

eight adjacent unit cells.

Therefore each and every corner atom

contributes 1/8 of its part to one unit cell.

So the total number of atoms contributed by

the corner atoms is  1   8 = 1.
 
8
 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE

Two unit cells share each and every face centered

atom.

Therefore, the contribution of a face centered atom

to unit cell is 1/2.

So, the total number of atoms contributed by the

face centred atoms = 1/2  6 = 3.

The total number of atoms present in a FCC unit

cell = 1+3 = 4.
 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE

COORDINATION NUMBER
In its own plane it touches four face centered atoms.
The face centered atoms are its nearest neighbors.

In a plane, which lies just above this corner atom, it

has four more face centered atoms as nearest
neighbors.

Similarly, in a plane, which lies just below this corner

atom it has yet four more face centered atoms as its
nearest neighbors.
 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE

Therefore the number of nearest neighbours i.e., co-ordination

number for FCC unit cell = 4+4+4 = 12
ATOMIC RADIUS (R)
Consider the figure , AB = AC = ‘a’
and AC = 4r.
From the triangle ABC,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
AC2 = a2 + a2
AC2 = 2a2 ; AC = 2a
i.e. 4r = 2a 2a
Therefore atomic radius = 4
 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
Atomic Packing Factor
v
APF = V
v = 4  4/3 pr3: V = a3

APF = 4  4 pr 3

3a 3
2a
Substituting r = , we get,
4
3
 2a 
4  4p   p
 4 
APF = = 3 2 = 0.74
3a 3
Thus 74 percent of the volume of the FCC unit cell is occupied by atoms and the
remaining 26 percent volume of the unit cell is vacant or void space.
 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE
It consists of three layers of atoms.
The bottom layer has six corner atoms
and one face centred atom.
The middle layer has three full atoms.
The upper layer has six corner atoms
and one face centred atom.
Each and every corner atom
contributes 1/6 of its part to one unit cell.
The number of total atoms contributed
by the corner
atoms of both top and bottom layers is
1/6  12 = 2.
 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE

The face centred atom contributes 1/2 of its part to one unit
cell.
Since there are 2 face centred atoms, one in the top and the
other in the bottom layers, the number of atoms contributed
by face centred atoms is 1/2 2 = 1.
Besides these atoms, there are 3 full atoms in the middle
layer.
Total number of atoms present in an HCP unit cell is
2+1+3 = 6.
 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE
CO-ORDINATION NUMBER ATOMIC RADIUS (R)
(CN) Consider any two corner
The face centered atom touches atoms.
6 corner atoms in its plane. Each and every corner
The middle layer has 3 atoms. atom touches each other.
There are three more atoms, Therefore a = 2r.
which are in the middle layer of i.e., The atomic radius,
the unit cell. r = a/2
Therefore the total number of
nearest neighbours is 6+3+3=12.

a
 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR (APF)

v
APF =
V

v = 6  4/3 pr3
a
Substitute r =
2
a3
v = 6  4/3 p 8

v = pa3
 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE
AB = AC = BO = ‘a’. CX = where c 
height of the hcp unit cell.
Area of the base = 6  area of the C

triangle ABO = 6  1/2  AB  OO

Area of the base = 6 1/2 a  OO a
O
In triangle OBO O ' OB  30
30 
A
OO' OO'
cos30º =  30 
X A
BO a
 OO = a cos 30º = a 3
2 O
Now, substituting the value of OO,
Area of the base = 6   a 1 a = 3 3 3a 2 B
2 2 2
V = Area of the base × height
HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE

V =3 3a  c
2

2
v pa 3
APF = 
V 3 3 a2 c
2
 APF = 2pa 3 = 2p a
3 3a 2 c 3 3 c
 CALCULATION OF c/a RATIO

In the triangle ABA,

A ' AB  30
AA '
Cos 30º =
AB

AA = AB cos 30º = a 3

2
2 2 3
But AX = AA = a
3 3 2
a
i.e. AX =
3
 CALCULATION OF c/a RATIO

In the triangle AXC,

AC2 = AX2 + CX2

Substituting the values of AC, AX and CX,
2
 a 
2
c
a =  3
2   
  2
2 2
a c
a2  
3 4
c2 a2
 a 
2

4 3
 CALCULATION OF c/a RATIO

c2 2  1
 a 1  
4  3
c2 8

a2 3
c 8

a 3
Now substituting the value of to calculate APF of an
hcp unit cell,
HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE

2p 3
APF =
3 3 8
2p 3
=
3 3 2 2
p
 APF =  0.74
3 2

Packing Fraction =74%

 PROBLEMS

Worked Example
Zinc has HCP structure. The height of the unit cell is 4.935Å.
Find (i). How many atoms are there in a unit cell? and (ii). What is
the volume of the unit cell ?
Height of the unit cell, c = 4.935Å = 4.935 × 10-10m

In HCP structure, the number of atoms present in the unit cell is 6.

c 8
We know that, the ratio 
a 3
3 3
a = c , , a = 4.935 × a = 3.022 Å
8 8
 PROBLEMS

We also know that, volume of the unit cell for HCP structure is,

V = a2c or a3
V = (3.022 × 10-10)3
V = 1.17 × 10-28 m3
 Diamond Lattice Structure

•Exhibited by Carbon (C), Silicon (Si) and

Germanium (Ge).
•Consists of two interpenetrating FCC lattices,
displaced along the body diagonal of the cubic
cell by 1/4 the length of the diagonal.
• Also regarded as an FCC lattice with two
atoms per lattice site: one centered on the
lattice site, and the other at a distance of a/4
along all axes, ie an FCC lattice with the two-
point basis.
Diamond Lattice Structure

a = lattice constant
Diamond Lattice Structure
8 atoms at each corner, 6 atoms on each face, 4
atoms entirely inside the cell
DIAMOND CUBIC (DC) STRUCTURE

1. Number of atoms per unit cell

 Total number of atoms per unit cell = 1 + 3 + 4 = 8
2. Atomic radius
a 3
r 
8

3. Coordination number
The coordination number of diamond is 4.
4. Packing factor

Packing factor = 0.34%

Since the packing density is very low, it is termed as very loosely

packedstructure.
 Examples of elements with Cubic Crystal Structure

Fe Cu
Po

n=1 SC n=2 BCC n=4 FCC/CCP

n=8 DC
C (diamond)
 POLYMORPHISM & ALLOTROPHY
POLYMORPHISM -Ability of material to have
more than one structure
ALLOTROPHY - If the change in structure is
reversible
Example: Cobalt at ordinary temp. -HCP and at
477C -FCC
Graphite Structure

•Carbon atoms are arranged in

layer or sheet structure
•Each carbon atoms are
covalently bonded with three
other carbons
•The sheets are held together by
van der waals forces
•Weak bonding between sheets
give softness
•Fourth bonding electron of
carbon is delocalized
•Delocalized electrons are
mobile and contribute
conduction
 Physical properties of diamond and Graphite
S.No Diamond Graphite
high melting point (almost
1 has a high melting point
4000°C).
soft, slippery feel, and is used in
2 very hard
pencils
does not conduct electricity. Conducts electricity.
All the electrons are used up in The delocalised electrons are free to
3
bonding (held tightly between) move throughout the sheets. Hence
the atoms, and are not mobile. used as lubricant
insoluble in water and organic insoluble in water and organic
4
solvents solvents
5 Transparent Opaque
6 Crystallizes in Isometric system Crystallizes in hexagonal system

Carbon atoms are covalently bonded

Carbon atoms are covalently
7 in same plane and sheets are held
bonded
together by Van der waals bonds
 CRYSTAL GROWTH METHOD
• Crystals are solids that form by a regular
repeated pattern of molecules connecting
together.
• In some solids, the arrangements of the
building blocks (atoms and molecules) can be
random or very different throughout the
material.
• In crystals, however, a collections of atoms
called the Unit Cell is repeated in exactly the
same arrangement over and over throughout
the entire material.
• A crystal is a substance in which the atoms,
molecules, or ions which make up the
substance are arranged in a regularly ordered,
repeating, 3-dimensional pattern.
• A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material
whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions
are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern
extending in all three spatial dimensions
 METHODS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH
Crystal growth may be classified into three categories
as follows,

 Solid Growth - Solid-to-Solid phase transformation

 Liquid Growth - Liquid to Solid phase transformation
Vapour Growth - Vapour to Solid phase transformation
 GROWTH FROM SOLUTION
• Materials, which have high solubility and have
variation in solubility with temperature can be
grown easily by solution method.
• There are two methods in solution growth
depending on the solvents and the solubility
of the solute. They are
• High temperature solution growth
• Low temperature solution growth
 Czochralski method

Characteristics:
• charge and seed are separated at
start.
• No material is added or removed
(conservative process)
• charge is held at temperature
slightly above melting point
• crystal grows as atoms from the
melt adhere to the seed
 Czochralski method
Advantages: Drawbacks:
• Growth from free surface • delicate start (seeding,
(stress free) necking) and sophisticated
• crystal can be observed during further control
the growth process • delicate mechanics (the
• Forced convection easy to crystal has to be rotated;
impose rotation of the crucible is
• Large crystals can be obtained desirable)
• High crystalline perfection can • cannot grow materials with
be achieved high vapor pressure
• batch process (axial
segregation, limited
productivity
 Bridgman method

Characteristics:
• charge and seed are placed
into the crucible
• no material is added or
removed (conservative
process)
• axial temperature gradient
along the crucible
 Bridgman method
Advantages: Drawbacks:
• The shape of the crystal is • confined growth (crucible
defined by the container may induce stresses during
• No radial temperature cooling)
gradients are needed to control • difficult to observe seeding
the crystal shape. and growing processes
• low thermal stresses result in • delicate crucible and seed
low level of stress-induced preparation, sealing, etc.
dislocations.
• crystals may be grown in sealed
ampules (easy control of
stoichiometry)
• easy control and maintenance
CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION &
PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
 CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
CVD is the formation of a non-volatile solid film on
a substrate by the reaction of vapor phase chemicals
(reactants) that contain the required constituents.

The reactant gases are

introduced into a reaction
chamber and are decomposed
and reacted at a heated surface
to form the thin film.
 TYPES OF CVD
 Hot-wall thermal CVD (batch operation type)
 Plasma assisted CVD
 Atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD) – CVD process at
atmospheric pressure.
 Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD) – CVD process at sub-
atmospheric pressures. Reduced pressures tend to reduce
unwanted gas-phase reactions and improve film uniformity
across the wafer.
 Ultrahigh vacuum CVD (UHVCVD) – CVD process at
very low pressure, typically below 10−6 Pa (~10−8 torr).
Note that in other fields, a lower division between high and
ultra-high vacuum is common, often 10−7 Pa.
 CVD APPARATUS
 Gas delivery system – For the supply of precursors to
the reactor chamber
 Reactor chamber – Chamber within which deposition
takes place
 Substrate loading mechanism – A system for
introducing and removing substrates, mandrels etc.
 Energy source – Provide the energy/heat that is
required to get the precursors to react/decompose.
 Vacuum system – A system for removal of all other
gaseous species other than those required for the
reaction/deposition.
CONTI…
 Exhaust system – System for removal of volatile by-
products from the reaction chamber.
 Exhaust treatment systems – In some instances,
exhaust gases may not be suitable for release into
the atmosphere and may require treatment or
conversion to safe/harmless compounds.
 Process control equipment – Gauges, controls etc..
to monitor process parameters such as pressure,
temperature and time. Alarms and safety devices
would also be included in this category.
 Steps involved in a CVD process
(schematic)

1. Transport of reactants by forced convection to the

deposition region.
2. Transport of reactants by diffusion from the main gas
stream through the boundary layer to the wafer surface.
Conti…..
3. Adsorption of reactants on the wafer surface.

4. Surface processes, including chemical decomposition

or reaction, surface migration to attachment sites (such as
atomic-level ledges and kinks), site incorporation, and
other surface reactions.

5. Desorption of byproducts from the surface.

6. Transport of byproducts by diffusion through the

boundary layer and back to the main gas stream.

7. Transport of byproducts by forced convection away

from the deposition region.
Advantages:
 High growth rates possible
 Can deposit materials which are hard to evaporate
 Good reproducibility
 Can grow epitaxial films
Disadvantages
 high temperatures
 complex processes
 toxic and corrosive gases
 APPLICATION
 Coatings –
 Such as wear resistance,
 Corrosion resistance,
 High temperature protection,
 Erosion protection and
 Combinations thereof.

 Semiconductors and related devices –

 Integrated circuits,
 Sensors and
 Optoelectronic devices
Conti….
 Dense structural parts – CVD can be used to
produce components that are difficult or
uneconomical to produce using conventional
fabrication techniques.
Dense parts produced via CVD are generally
thin walled and maybe deposited onto a
mandrel or former.

 Optical Fibers – For telecommunications.

Conti ………………
 Composites – Preforms can be infiltrated using CVD
techniques to produce ceramic matrix composites
such as carbon-carbon, carbon-silicon carbide and
silicon carbide-silicon carbide composites. This
process is sometimes called chemical vapour
infiltration or CVI.
 Powder production – Production of novel powders
and fibers
 Catalysts
 Nano machines
 Physical Vapour Déposition(PVD)
 Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is fundamentally a
vaporization coating technique, involving transfer of
material on an atomic level.

 It is an alternative process to electroplating

 The process is similar to chemical vapour deposition (CVD)

except that the raw materials/precursors,

 i.e. the material that is going to be deposited starts out in

solid form, whereas in CVD, the precursors are introduced
to the reaction chamber in the gaseous state.
Conti …….
• Working Concept
PVD processes are carried out under vacuum
conditions. The process involved four steps:
1.Evaporation
2.Transportation
3.Reaction
4.Deposition
 Evaporation

During this stage, a target, consisting of the material to

be is bombarded by a high energy source such as a
beam of electrons or ions. This dislodges atoms from
the surface of the target, ‘vaporizing’ them.

Transport

This process simply consists of the movement of

‘vaporized’ atoms from the target to the substrate to be
coated and will generally be a straight line affair.
Conti…
Reaction

 In some cases coatings will consist of metal oxides,

nitrides, carbides and other such materials.
 In these cases, the target will consist of the metal.
 The atoms of metal will then react with the
appropriate gas during the transport stage.
 For the above examples, the reactive gases may be
oxygen, nitrogen and methane.
In instances where the coating consists of the target
material alone, this step would not be part of the
process.
Deposition

This is the process of coating build up on the substrate surface.

Depending on the actual process, some reactions between
target materials and the reactive gases may also take place at
the substrate surface simultaneously with the deposition
process.
The component that is to be coated is placed in a vacuum
chamber. The coating material is evaporated by intense heat
from, for example, a tungsten filament.
An alternative method is to evaporate the coating material by a
complex ion bombardment technique.
The coating is then formed by atoms of the coating material
being deposited onto the surface of the component being
treated.
121
 VARIENTS OF PVD
Evaporative
Deposition
In which the material
to be deposited is
heated to a high
vapor pressure by
electrically resistive
heating in "high"
vacuum
 Importance of PVD Coatings

 PVD coatings are deposited for numerous reasons.

Some of the main ones are:
 Improved hardness and wear resistance
 Reduced friction
 Improved Oxidation resistance
 The use of such coatings is aimed at improving
efficiency through improved performance and longer
component life.
 They may also allow coated components to operate in
environments that the uncoated component would not
otherwise have been able to perform.
124
 Advantages

 Materials can be deposited with improved properties

compared to the substrate material

 Almost any type of inorganic material can be used

as well as some kinds of organic materials

 The process is more environmentally friendly than

processes such as electroplating.

125
 DISADVANTAGES

 It is a line of sight technique meaning that it is

extremely difficult to coat undercuts and similar
surface features
 High capital cost
 Some processes operate at high vacuums and
temperatures requiring skilled operators
 Processes requiring large amounts of heat require
appropriate cooling systems
 The rate of coating deposition is usually quite slow
Applications

 PVD coatings are generally used to improve

Hardness, Wear Resistance And Oxidation
Resistance.
 Thus, such coatings use in a wide range of
applications such as:
 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Surgical/Medical
 Dies and moulds for all manner of material
processing
 Cutting tools
 Fire arms
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PVD AND CVD

PVD uses Physical Processes While CVD Primarily uses

only Chemical processes

PVD typically uses a Pure while CVD uses a Mixed

source material source material

http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jnm/2012/486301.fig.002.jpg
 UNIT-I IMPORTANT FORMULAE
The relation between the interplanar distance and the
interatomic distance is given by,

a for cubic crystal.

d 
h 2  k 2  l2

If (h k l) is the Miller indices of a crystal plane then the

a b c
intercepts made by the plane with the crystallographic , and
axes are given as where a, b and c are the primitives. h k l
UNIT-I IMPORTANT FORMULAE
 Sodium Chloride Structure

• Sodium chloride also crystallizes in a

cubic lattice, but with a different unit
cell.
• Sodium chloride structure consists of
equal numbers of sodium and
chlorine ions placed at alternate
points of a simple cubic lattice.
• Each ion has six of the other kind of
ions as its nearest neighbours.

131