Physics Department

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 VEERMATA JIJABAI TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
MATUNGA, MUMBAI –400019

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

Applied Physics Manual

Semester I

INDEX

Sr. PAGE
No. EXPERIMENTS DATE OF EXPT NO.

1. Study of Crystal Structure I: Unit Cell

Study of Crystal Structure II :Miller
2.
Indices
3. Hysteresis by Magnetometer

4. Ultrasonic Interferometer
Curie temperature measurement by two
5.
probe method
6. Resistivity by Four Probe method
Band gap of semiconductor by Four
7.
Probe method
8. Study of Hall Effect

Determination of Magnetic
9.
Susceptibility of Paramagnetic material

10. Band gap of P-N junction diode.

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 1. STUDY OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE I : UNIT CELLS

Aim: To obtain lattice parameter and packing factor of mono-atomic and diatomic
cubic crystal.

Space Lattice
Set of imaginary points forms a framework on which the actual crystal structure is
based called “space lattice”. The space lattice is defined as an infinite, 3-D array of points in
which every point has surroundings identical with that of every other point.

Atomic Basis or Motif

The crystal structure is always described in terms of atoms. Every point in space
lattice is associated with one or more atoms are called atomic basis or atomic pattern or
motif. Thus, a basis is an assembly of atoms identical in composition, arrangement and
orientation. A basis acts as a building unit or structural unit which when represented with
correct periodicity in 3-dimension gives an actual crystal.

Unit Cell
Unit cell is a useful construction to describe atomic arrangement. It is the smallest block
or geometrical figure from which the entire crystal structure is built up by repetition in 3-
dimension. It is also known as fundamental elementary pattern because it is repeated again and
again to form lattice structure of crystal. In general, a unit cell may be defined as that volume
of solid from which the entire crystal can be constructed by translation repetition in 3-
dimension. Unit cell has all the structural properties of the given crystal. In 3-D, three sides of
the unit cell are represented by three independent,
non-coplanar vectors a, b, and c. These vectors are
called crystal axes or lattice axes. These axes are z
chosen to have directions such that they pass
regularly through lattice points associated with like
atoms. The arbitrary arrangement of crystal axes c
marked by x, y, and z defining unit cell is shown in
Fig. 1.7. The angle between b and c is , angle  
between c and a is , and angle between a and b is b
. The angles , , and  are called interfacial y

angles. The intercepts a, b, and c define dimension a
of unit cell and are known as primitives or
characteristic intercepts on the axes. The primitives x
and interfacial angles constitute lattice parameters
of the unit cell. Fig.1.7: 3-dimesional unit cell

BRAVAIS LATTICE
According to scientist Bravais, who introduced the concept of space lattice, there are
fourteen indistinguishable ways of arranging points in space such that each arrangement
conforms to the definition of space lattice. These fourteen space lattices are known as Bravais
lattices. These lattices belong to seven crystal systems
In cubic crystal system there are three Bravais lattices:

1. Simple Cubic
2. Body centered Cubic
3. Face Centered Cubic
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One of the FCC diatomic structure is the Diamond Cubic (D.C.) structure which characterizes
a number of semiconductor crystals, this is a diatomic F.C.C. structure.

Let ‘r’ be the radius of the atom and ‘a ‘be the edge (length) of the Unit cell, called Lattice
Parameter.

Type No of nearest Avg. no. Cube Vol. of Packing No. of atoms

neighbors of atoms edge (a) unit efficiency per unit
(n.n.n.) in a cell cell volume
S.C.

B.C.C

F.C.C.

D.C.

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 Volume of average no. of atoms in unit cell  100
Packing efficiency = ------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of the unit cell

Examples of the different structures

1) S.C. – NH4C1, CuZn(Brass); A1 – Ni alloys
2) F.C.C. – Au, Ag, A1, Co, Ni, Pb, Cu,
3) B.C.C. – Fe W, Na, K
4) D.C. – C (diamond) Si, Ge
The crystal structure of some elements as determined by X-ray analysis is given below with
their atomic weights and mass densities.

Atomic Mass density

No. Element Structure
weight Kg/m3
1 Cu F.C.C. 63.54 8960
2 Na B.C.C. 22.99 970
3 Po S.C. 210 9358
4 Si D.C. 28.09 2330

Calculate the lattice parameter: (a) the effective atomic radius(r)

(b) the number of atoms per unit volume in each case.
Avogadro’s no. -: 6.032 x 1026/kg-mole

Calculations:-

Result:

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2. STUDY OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE II: MILLER INDICES

Aim: To obtain the miller indices for planes and directions in cubic crystals.

Definitions:
1) Miller indices of a crystal plane are defined as follows:
a) For the given plane measure the intercepts u, v, w on the three axes in terms of
the unit cell size
b) Take reciprocals 1/u; 1/v; 1/w;
c) Find three smallest integers h, k, I, such that h : k : 1 :: 1/u : 1/v : 1/w.

Here h, k, l are the Miller indices of the plane (use a bar for any index associated with a
negative intercept. The plane is called a (h k l) plane. Consider the plane given in the Fig.
Below which has axial intercepts 2a/3, b/2 & c on x-, y- and z-axis respectively.

Z
R
c

b/2 Y
P Q
2a/3
X

The miller indices of this plane are determined are as follows;

1. Intercepts are; 2/3, 1/2, &1.
2. Reciprocals are; 3/2, 2, & 1.
3. Reciprocals are reduced to smallest possible integers; 3,4&2 which are enclosed in
bracket as (3 4 2)

Important features of miller indices of crystal plane:

1. A zero miller index indicate that the plane is parallel to the corresponding axes (i.e.
the plane has an intercept of infinity on that axes) e.g. (100) means the plane is parallel
to y and z axes and cuts at 1 on x axis. Similarly (110) plane is parallel to z-axis and it
cuts at one on x-axis and y-axis.

2. The indices (hkl) denote single plane or a set of parallel planes. The planes equivalent
by symmetry are called family of planes and are denoted by curly brackets (braces)
around miller indices. Thus 100 represents a family of planes which has the planes
(100), (010), (001), (1̅00), (01̅0), & (001̅) as its members. These six members represent
the faces of the cube. Similarly there are 12 independent sets of plane for 110 and
eight for 111 family of planes.
3. If plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin, the corresponding index is
negative and is indicated by placing a minus sign above the index: (h𝑘̅ l) i.e. negative
y-intercept and read as bar k.
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Miller indices of a direction in the crystal are defined as follows:
(a) Consider a direction vector R, passing through the origin;
(b) Express R as R = u a + v b + w c (a, b, c are the edge vectors of a unit cell)
(c) Find three smallest integers h, k, l such that h: k: l: : u : v: w.
(d)

Z
R

wc
ub
X
va

Where u, v, & w are integers. Then, crystal direction denoted by R is written as [uvw] which
is called miller indices of direction. These indices have no common factor larger than unity.
The use of square bracket rather than parentheses denotes that they refer to crystallographic
axes rather than to a plane.

Procedure:
With the help of the models figure out the indices of various planes and directions in
cubic crystals like the cube faces, diagonal planes, cube edges, diagonal directions etc.

Exercises:
1) How many independent sets of planes there are in a cubic crystal in the following
families of planes – a) (100) ; b) (110) ; c) (111).
Draw these planes with reference to a unit cell.
2) Work out geometrically the inter-planer separation d, for the above planes.
3) Draw the following planes and directions with reference to a unit cell.
Planes:- (1 2 2 ), ( 2 1 2 ), ( 2 3 1 ): Directions :-[ 02 3], [2 1 2 ], [2 3 1].

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 3. Hysteresis by Magnetometer

Aim: To determine the coercively and retentivity using Hysteresis loop determined by
magnetometer.

Theory:
When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero
magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero
by a field in the opposite direction. If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material,
its magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop. The lack of retraceability of the
magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis and it is related to the existence of
magnetic domains in the material.
The coercivity of a ferromagnetic material is the intensity of the applied magnetic field required
to reduce the magnetization of that material to zero after the magnetization of the sample has
been driven to saturation.
The retentivity of a material is its capacity to remain magnetized after the external magnetizing
field has ceased to exist

Procedure:
A. DEMAGNETISING FERROMAGNETIC SAMPLE:
1. Connect any one solenoid to 10V AC terminals on the control unit. Switch on the control
unit and insert one sample rod through one end of the solenoid and slowly draw it out
from the other end.
2. Repeat the procedure 4-5 times. Always insert same end of rod through same end of
solenoid.
3. Take end of specimen rod close to magnetometer needle. If the rod is demagnetized, the
needle will not deflect. If it deflects, repeat earlier procedure for other 2-3 times.
4. Similarly demagnetize the other sample rod. Deflection of 20-30 is acceptable.

B. SETTING UP THE EQUIPMENT:

1. With help of Magnetometer, mark East-West direction on the bench. Make sure that there
is no magnetic material within 50 cm of the Magnetometer. Now unfold the wooden
platform and keep its length along East-West direction marked.
2. Place Magnetometer in cavity provided at the center of wooden platform and rotate it till
the needle slows 0-0.
3. Mount the solenoids one on each side of the Magnetometer about 10 cm away from the
center of Magnetometer. The terminal side of the solenoids should be facing outside.
4. Connect common (black) terminal of two solenoids together. Connect A (red) terminal of
one solenoid to terminal A of D.C. OUTPUT and B(red) terminal of the other solenoids
to B terminal of D.C. PUTPUT on the control unit. Make sure that none of the wires
passes close to Magnetometer.

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 5. Switch ON control unit and set current at about. 50Amp.
6. Magnetometer will show some deflection. Adjust the position of any one solenoid till
Magnetometer needle reads ZERO.
7. Now increase the current to 2.00 Amp. If the magnetometer shows any deflection, adjust
the same solenoid so that Magnetometer reads 0-0. Reduce the current to ZERO.
8. Now introduce one of the demagnetized sample rod in other solenoid such that it’s ends
are more or less equidistant from ends of the solenoid.
9. Increase current to 2.00 Amp. Magnetometer will show some deflection. Adjust solenoid
containing sample rod so that Magnetometer reads about 700 – 750. Again reduce the
current to ZERO and remove the sample rod without disturbing the solenoid and keep
the rod away.
10. Again increase the current to 2.00 Amp and adjust the position of the other solenoid till
Magnetometer needle reads 0-0. Now the equipment is set for the experiment. Make
sure that the position of the solenoids is not disturbed till the experiment is complete.
Reduce current to ZERO.

C. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the control unit and make sure that current is ZERO. Insert the other specimen
rod in the same solenoid in which the first specimen rod was kept.
VERY IMPORTANT: In the following procedure while changing the current SET
CURRENT control must be moved in one direction only. Even if the current is slightly
different from the desired value, do not reverse the direction of SET
CURRENT control. Note down the actual current. SET CURRENT control must be
turned very slowly.
2. Increase the current in suitable steps and note down the current and responding
magnetometer deflection. Continue the procedure up to 2.00 Amps.
3. Now start reducing the current from in suitable steps and note down the current and
responding magnetometer deflection. Continue the procedure till current become ZERO.
4.(a) & 4(b) Repeat procedure of step 2 & step 3 varying the current in reverse direction i.e.
from 0 to -2.00Amp and -2.00 to 0 Amp to respectively. (as indicated in table)
5. Again repeat the procedure of step 2 only by varying the current from 0 to 2.00V. The
experiment is now completed. Reduce current to ZERO and switch OFF the control unit.
Remove sample rod from the solenoid.
6. Plot graph of current on X-axis and tanθ on Y-axis.

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Observations:
a) Turns/meter of the solenoid : n = 11000 turns/meter
b) length of sample rod : L = ________ meter
c) Magnetic length of sample rod : 5/6 L = l = ________ meter
d) Diameter of the sample rod : D = ________ meter
3.14  D 2
e) Cross sectional area of rod : S  = ________ meter
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f) Distance of Magnetometer center to solenoid centre (d) = _______ meter.
g) Horizontal component of earths magnetic field H = 0.37 x10-4 web/m2

Obsevation Table

Current Deflection Average tan θ

Section I (Amp) θ1 θ2 θ
Step 1 0.0
(Current 0.4
varying from 0.8
0 to 2 Amp) 1.2
1.6
2.0
Step 2 2.0
(Current 1.6
varying from 1.2
2 to 0 Amp) 0.8
0.4
0.0
Step 3 0.0
(Current -0.4
varying from - 0.8
0 to -2Amp) -1.2
-1.6
-2.0
Step 4 -2.0
(Current -1.6
varying from -1.2
-2 to 0 Amp) -0.8
-0.4
0.0
Step 5 0.0
(Current 0.4
varying from 0.8
0 to 2Amp) 1.2
1.6
2.0

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Graph
tan θ

I (Amp)

Calculations:

Note down the X-intercept in positive and negative direction and take average (Xavg)
Note down Y-intercept in positive and negative direction and take average (Yavg).
i) To determine the coercivity:
Coeroivity = n  X avg weber/meter2

ii) To determine the Retentivity:

Distance of magnetometer centre to centre of solenoid : d = ________ meter
H  (d 2  l 2 )  Yavg
retentivity  Amp/meter
ld S
Result :
1) Coercivity of given ferromagnetic sample = _________ weber/meter2
2) Retentivity of given ferromagnetic sample = __________ Amp/meter.

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 4. Ultrasonic Interferometer

Aim: To determine velocity of ultrasonic waves in water.

Working Principle:
An Ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the Ultrasonic Velocity
in liquids with a high degree of accuracy.
The principle used in the measurement of velocity (V) is based on the accurate determination
of the wavelength () in the medium. Ultrasonic waves of known frequency (f) are produced
by a quartz crystal fixed at the bottom of the cell. These waves are reflected back by a movable
metallic plate, kept parallel to the quartz crystal. If the separation between these two plates is
exactly integral multiple of the sound wavelength, standing waves are formed in the medium.
This acoustic resonance gives rise to an electrical reaction on the generator driving the quartz
plate and the anode current of the generator increases.
If distance between reflector and crystal is increased or decreased anode current changes.
When distance variation is exactly one half of the sound wavelength (/2), or multiple of it,
anode current again becomes maximum. From the known wavelength () the velocity of the
sound waves can be obtained by the relation:
Velocity (V) = Wavelength ()  frequency (f)


Crystal
current

Position of reflector

Discription:
The Ultrasonic Interferometer consists two parts:- the high frequency generator and the
measuring cell
The High Frequency Generator: is designed to excite the quartz plate fixed at the bottom of
the measuring cell at its resonant frequency to generate ultrasonic waves in the experimental
liquid in the “Measuring Cell”. A micro-ammeter to observe the change in current and two
controls for the purpose of sensitivity regulation and initial adjustment of micro-ammeter is
provided on the high frequency generator.

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The Measuring Cell: is a specially designed double walled cell for maintaining the
temperature of the liquid during the experiment. A fine micrometer screw has been provided
at the top which can lower or raise reflector plate in the cell through a know distance. It has
quartz fixed at its bottom.

Procedure:
The measuring cell is connected to the terminal of the high frequency generator through a
shielded cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid before switching on the generator.
The ultrasonic waves moves normal from the crystal till they are reflector back from the
movable plate and the standing waves are formed in the liquid in between the reflector plate
and the quartz crystal.
The micrometer is slowly moved till the anode current meter on High Frequency Generator
shows a maximum. A number of maximal reading of anode current are passed on and their
number ‘n’ is counted. The total distance ‘d’ thus moved by the micrometer gives the
wavelength () with the help of the following relation:

d  n
2
Once the wavelength () is known the velocity (V) in the liquid can be calculated with the help
of following relation:
V  f

Observations :
1. L.C.-1 OF MICROMETER =
2. L.C.-2 OF VERNIER =
3. Total Reading = MSR  CSR  L.C.  1  VSR  L.C.  2
4. Frequency of crystal =

Observation Table:

Obs. Total Obs. Total 3/2  V=f Mean

No. reading No reading mm M/sec V= f
1 4

2 5

3 6

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Discussion :

1. Do not switch on the generator without filling the experimental liquid in the cell.

2. Remove experimental liquid out of cell after use and keep it clean and dry.

3. Keep micrometer open at 25mm after use.

4. Avoid sudden rise or fall in temperature of circulated liquid to prevent thermal shock to
the quartz crystal.

5. While cleaning the cell care should be taken not to spoil or scratch the gold plating on the
quartz crystal.

6. Give your Generator 15 seconds warming up time before observation.

Schematic Diagram of Ultrasonic Interferometer.

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 5. Determination of Curie temperature
AIM: Study of Dielectric Constant and Determination of Curie temperature of
Ferroelectric ceramics.
APPARATUS: Dielectric constant set up and sample of Barium Titanate 1
Diameter: 8.06mm, Area (A)- 60.00mm2, Thickness(t)- 1.74mm
Sample of Barium Titanate 2
Diameter: 8.86mm, Area(A)- 61.62mm2, Thickness(t)- 1.31mm
THEORY:
Barium Titanate (BaTiO3, BT)
Barium Titanate(BaTiO3) has a ferroelectric tetragonal phase(fig-a)
below its curie point of about 120° C and paraelectric cubic phase(fig-b) above Curie
point. The temperature of the curie point appreciably depends on the impurities present in
the sample and the synthesis process.

0.009nm

0.006nm

0.006nm

In the paraelectric cube phase the center of positive charges (Ba2+ ,

Ti4+) coincide with the center of negative charges ( o2- ion) and on cooling below Tc, a
tetragonal phase develops where the center of Ba2+ and Ti4+ ions are displaced relative to
the o2- ions, leading to the formation of electric dipoles.
As the BT ceramics have a very large room temperature dielectric
constant, they are mainly used in multilayer capacitor applications. The grain size control
is very important for these applications.
Dielectric Constant :
The dielectric constant (ε) of a dielectric material can be defined as the ratio
of the capacitance using that material as the dielectric in a capacitor to the capacitance
using a vacuum as the dielectric. Dielectric constant of Barium Titanate is 100-1250.
Dielectric constant (ε) is given by
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 ε = C/C0 , C0=ε0(A/t)
Where C = capacitance using the material as the dielectric in the capacitor.
C0 = capacitance using vacuum as the dielectric
ε0 = permittivity of free space 8.85x10-12F/m
A = Area of the plate / sample cross section area
t = Thickness of the sample
Experimental Procedure:
1. Put a small piece of aluminum foil on the base plate. Pull the spring loaded probes
upward, insert the aluminum foil and let them rest on it. Pull the sample (BatiO3) on
the foil. Again pull the top of one of the probe and insert the sample below it and let it
rest on it gently. Now one of the probes would be in contact with the lower surface
through aluminum foil.
2. Connect the probe leads to the capacitance meter.
3. Connect the oven to the main unit and put the oven in OFF position.
4. Switch on the main unit and note the value of capacitance. It should be a stable
reading and is obtain directly in pf.
5. (i) Switch ON the temperature controller and approx adjust the set-temperature. The
green LED would light up indicating the oven is ON and temperature would start
rising. The temperature of the oven in °C would be indicated by the DPM.
(ii) The controller of the oven would switch ON/OFF power corresponding to set
temperature.in case it is less than the desired, the set temperature may be increased or
viceversa.
(iii) Because of thermal inertia of oven, there would be some overshoot and
undershoot before a steady set temperature is attended and may take 10 min before
each reading.
(iv) To save time, it is recommended to under adjust the temperature.eg it is desired
to set at500C.adjust the temperature set knob so that LED is OFF at 450C.the
temperature would continue to rise. When it reaches 500C adjust the temperature set
knob so that oven is just ON/OFF. It may go up 1or 20C,but would settle down to
500C.since the change in temperature at this stage is very slow and response of RTD
and sample is fast, the reading can also be taken corresponding to ant temperature
without waiting for a steady state.

Observations and Calculations:-

(i) Sample of Barium Titanate- 1

Diameter: 8.06mm, Area (A)- 60.00mm2, Thickness(t)- 1.74mm
permittivity of free space(ε0): 8.85x10-12F/m or 8.85x10-3pF/mm

ε = C/C0 , C0=ε0(A/t) =(8.85x10-3x60)/1.74 =305.2x10-3pF

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 (ii) Sample of Barium Titanate- 2
Diameter: 8.86mm, Area (A)- 61.62mm2, Thickness(t)- 1.31mm
permittivity of free space(ε0): 8.85x10-12F/m or 8.85x10-3pF/mm

ε = C/C0 , C0=ε0(A/t) =(8.85x10-3x61.62)/1.31 =416.3x10-3pF

Observation Table:
Sr.No. Temperature 0C Capacitance(pF) Dielectric Constant

Result: From the graph Curie temperature Tc =………….0C.

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 6. Resistivity measurement of thin films by four probe method

Aim : To Determine the resistivity of given sample using four probe method and to study
temperature dependence of resistivity.

Apparatus : four probe assembly with oven, given sample (thickness w=0.8mm),probe
distance (S)= 0.2 cm, current source, voltmeter, etc

Diagram:

Four Probe method for measuring Resistivity of given Specimen

Theory:
At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and
inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

(1)
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a
conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of
decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying
electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity

18
is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a
straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be
small compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is
hemispherical and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A
conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor
has been plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the
semiconductor is in contact with insulator.

(3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor

Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the conductivities of the

valence band and conduction band carriers. Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity and
its temperature dependence is given by

(4)
Where Eg – band gap of the material
T – Temperature in kelvin
K – Boltzmann constant, K – 8.6x10-5 eV/K
The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing the temperature.

Applications

1. Remote sensing areas

2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation
5. Characterization of fuel cells bipolar plates

Part I Procedure:

1.Make the connections as shown in the figure 1

2. Set some suitable value of current from the constant current source. Note down these
readings

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3. Switch the LED display to micro voltmeter mode. Note the voltage between middle 2
probes.

4. Estimate error in measured resistivity.

Sr.No Current (I)mA Voltage (V) mV V/I (Ω)

5. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the slope.

0 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∗ 2 𝑆 (Ω 𝑐𝑚)

Correction factor for thin film non conducting bottom surface

2𝑆
CF= loge2
𝑊

0
Corrected() = 𝐶𝐹

To observe the temperature dependence of resistivity take the following observations by

keeping current constant.

Observation Table:
Sr.No Temperature Voltage Resistivity(0) Resistivity()
in 0C (V)

Result: The resistivity of given sample is………….Ω 𝑐𝑚 .

Conclusion:…………………………………………………….

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 6. Band gap measurement of thin semiconducting film by four probe
method

Aim : To Determine the energy band gap of given sample using four probe method.

Apparatus : four probe assembly with oven, given sample (thickness w=0.8mm) probe
distance (S)= 0.2 cm, current source, voltmeter, etc

Experimental set up :
The four probe assembly consists of spring loaded probes arranged in a line with
equal spacing between adjacent probes. These probes rest on a metal plate on which thin slice
of samples (whose resistivity is to be determined) can be mounted by insulating there bottom
surface using a mica sheet. outer two probes are connected to the current source and inner
two probes are connected to the voltmeter. The sample, usually, is brittle , hence do not
attempt to mount yourself. this assembly is mounted in a lid of an oven so that the four
probes and the sample can be kept inside the oven and sample can de heated up to
temperature of 2000C.the temperature inside the oven can be measured by the digital
thermometer display.
The constant current is supplied through probes 1 and 4 by constant current source.
The value of current can be read from the LED display on the unit. The digital voltmeter is
used to measure the voltage drop between probes 2 and 3.It use the same LED display
through a toggle switch .It operates in two modes x1 and x10 with maximum of 199.9 mV
and 1.999 V, respectively. Oven can be heated to low (L) or high (H) temperatures through
the electric supply for it. There is an Indicator LED which glows when the oven is turned
ON.

Four Probe Assembly

21
Procedure :

Part I

1.Make the connections as shown in the figure 1

2. Set some suitable value of current from the constant current source. Note down these
readings

3. Switch the LED display to micro voltmeter mode. Note the voltage between middle 2
probes.

4. Estimate error in measured resistivity.

Sr.No Current (I) Voltage (V) V/I x 10-3

𝑉
0 = 𝐼 2 𝑆 (Ω 𝑐𝑚)
Correction factor for thin film non conducting bottom surface
2𝑆
CF= loge2
𝑊

0
Corrected() =
𝐶𝐹

Part II

1.Make the connections as shown in figure.

2.Set some suitable value of current from the constant current source. note down these
readings

3.Switch the LED disply to microvoltmeter mode.note the temperature and voltage between
probes 2 and 3.

4.Switch on the oven supply. Record the voltage between inner probes as a function of
temperature using the method described in the previous steps.

5.Determine the experimental resistivity as function of temperature using above equation.

6.Express your resistivity data in Ω 𝑐𝑚 unit and temperature in Kelvin (K).

Plot ln vs 1000/T (K-1) and see that it is a straight line.From the slope of the line calculate
Eg(band gap ) of the given sample using the relation
Eg
 = 0 𝑒 2𝐾𝑇 Where k = 8.617x10-5 eV/K.

7.Estimate error in measured Resistivity.

22
Set Current (I) = mA.
Observation Table

Sr.No Temperature 1000/T Voltage Resistivity(0) Resistivity() ln

in 0C (K-1) (V)

Result :-

1. Energy Band gap of given sample is………..eV.

23
 7. Study of Hall Effect

Objective: To study Hall Effect in Extrinsic semiconducting samples and determine the type
and density of majority charge carriers. This experiment demonstrates the effect of Lorentz
force.
Apparatus: Commercial set up with the following components: Electromagnet with power
supply, Hall probe, semiconductor sample, Arrangement for pressure contact, current supply
with meter, Voltmeter etc.
Introduction: Consider a rectangular slab of semiconductor with the thickness d kept in XY
plane. An electric field is applied in X direction so that a current I flows through the sample.
If w is width of sample and d is a thickness, the current density is given by Jx =I/wd

VH
B

I Back face
E

d W
Front face
L
V

Schematic of Hall Effect

Now magnetic field B is applied along positive Z axis. If the charge carriers are positive(-ve)
and are moving with velocity v along +ve (-ve) X axis then the direction of force experienced
by the charge carriers in the presence of magnetic field is along –ve Y direction. This results
in accumulation of charge carriers bottom edge. This sets up a transverse electric field Ey in
the sample. The potential, thus developed, along Y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this
effect is called Hall Effect. As you mean Ey to be uniform the Hall voltage is given by VH
=Ey w and the Hall coefficient RH is given by
RH =Ey / JxB =VHd /IB
The majority carrier density n is related to the Hall coefficient by the relation ration
1
 RH 
qn
Where q is a charge
From above equation it is clear that the sign of charge carriers and density can be estimated
from sign and value of Hall coefficient RH. RH can be obtained by studying
variation of VH as a function of I for given B.

24
Experimental Set-up
Sample is mounted on a sunmica sheet with four spring type pressure contacts. A pair
of green color leads is provided for current and that of red color for hall voltage
measurement. Note the direction of current and voltage measurement carefully. Do not
exceed current beyond 10 mA.
The unit marked “ Hall effect set-up” consists of a constant current generator (CCG)
for supplying current to the sample and a digital millivoltmeter to measure the Hall voltage.
The unit has a digital display used for both current and Hall voltage measurement.
For applying the magnetic field an electromagnet with a constant current supply is
provided. It is capable of generating a magnetic field of 7.5 K gauss between its pole pieces.
The magnetic field can be measured by gauss meter along with hall probe based on the Hall
Effect.
Procedure:
1. Connect the leads from the sample to the “ Hall effect Set-up” unit. Connect the
electromagnet to constant current generator.
2. Switch on the current through sample and measure the hall voltage without any
magnetic field. There may be some voltage due to misalignment of pressure contacts on
the sample. This error must be subtracted from the reading.
3. Switch on the electromagnet and set suitable magnetic field (<3K gauss). You can
measure this using Hall probe. (Set magnetic field B=2kG and B=3kG for the
experiment).
4. Insert the sample between the pole pieces of the electromagnet such that I,B and V are in
proper direction.
5. Record the hall voltage. Also record voltage by reversing both the current and magnetic
field simultaneously. ( Note down data for the first two columns with +B for all I’s and
then reverse the field (-B) to record data for the next two columns)
6. Keeping the magnitude of magnetic field constant, measure hall voltage as a function of
I.
7. Repeat step 5 and 6 for various magnetic fields.
Plot VH as a function of I using the averaged data and find the value of Hall coefficient from
the slop of the graph. Hence determine charge carrier density and type of majority carrier in
the given material.
Note down the sample number or details of the sample.

25
Observation Table:
Sample number: Thickness of the sample: Magnetic field: B = Gauss
Sr.No. I(mA) VH1(+I,+B) VH2(-I,+B) VH3(+I,-B) VH4(-I,-B) VH avg

Plot two graphs and from the slope calculate Hall coefficient RH .From the sign of the
Hall Voltage with the given current and field direction ,determine the type of conductivity in
the semiconductor material.
Calculate free carrier density (n)=1/q RH = m-3 .

Result:
1. RH =……………
2. n =……………
3. Type of majority charge carriers are…….

26
8. To Determine Magnetic Susceptibility of given Paramagnetic material
Aim: To Determine Magnetic Susceptibility of given Paramagnetic material.

Apparatus: Sample in the form of a long rod (Aluminium Rod), Digital Balance,
Electromagnet, Constant Current Power supply, Gaussmeter.

Theory and Experimental Set Up: A schematic diagram of experimental set up is as shown
in the figure 1

Figure 1

The specimen in the form of a long cylinder or strip or filled in long nonmagnetic tube is
suspended freely from the pan of a sensitive balance such that its lower end is between the
poles pieces of electromagnet but without touching them. A length (about 7-12cm) of the
specimen is sufficient enough to keep the upper end of the specimen well outside the field of
the magnet. This is determined by preliminary experimental study. In this study the change in
the weight ∆m on applying the field is measured from specimens of increasing lengths in
steps of (say)2 cm until ∆m becomes steady. This is then repeated for several values of H.
The maximum of these is the specimen length for which H0=0.The widths of the specimen
and the air gap of the electromagnet are adjusted to maximize the force on the specimen .The
change in the weight of the specimen due to the force on it on applying the magnetic field is
measured by a sensitive balance of least count of the order of 10-3gm

Experimental Procedure:
1.Test and ensure that each unit (Electromagnet and Power supply) is functioning properly.
2.Make a current Vs Magnetic field chart of electromagnet and power supply using Gauss
meter.
3.Level the balance with help of leveling screw.
4.Suspend the sample specimen from the lower hook of the balance and make adjustments
such that its lower end is centrally and symmetrically between the pole pieces of
electromagnet without touching them.
5.Note volume V of the specimen and measure its weight m.
6.Apply the magnetic field H and note its value from calibration, which is done earlier as an
auxiliary experiment. Note whether there is an apparent increase in weight or decrease. It
increases for paramagnetic substances while decreases for diamagnetic ones. Again measure
the weight. The difference of these two readings gives ∆m for the field H.
7.Measure the apparent change ∆m in weight as a function of applied field H by changing the
magnet current in small steps. Plot a graph of ∆m as a function of H2.

The mass susceptibility χ’ is given by χ / and the molar susceptibility χ”

27
By M χ’.where  is the density and M is the molecular weight of the specimen.Also Volume
susceptibility is given by
2𝑔
χ(Vol) = (∆m/H2)
𝐴

Observations and Observation table:

Material: Aluminium Rod
Width = 10 mm, Length = 120 mm, Thickness of the Rod = 2 mm, weight of the Rod =6.50
gms, Density of Aluminium=2.7 gm/cc, Area(A)=2x10x10-2 =0.2 cm2.g=980
cm/sec2,Molecular weight of Aluminium =27.

Current (A) Measured Mag.Field H2 Measured Change in

Sr No Mag.Field H weight weight(mg)
(Kg)

2𝑔
Calculations: χ(Vol) = Slope of graph
𝐴

Result: 1. Mass susceptibility χ’ =……………

2. Molar susceptibility χ” =………………

3.Volume susceptibility χ(Vol)=…………

28
 10. To determine the Energy band gap of P-N junction diode.

Aim: To plot characteristics between reverse saturation current and 103/T and find out the
approximate value of Energy Band Gap in PN junction diode.

Apparatus:
1. Energy Band Gap Apparatus containing Micrometer, Voltmeter, temperature
controlled electric oven to heat up the diode, PN junction diode placed inside the
oven and connection brought out at the socket
2. Mercury thermometer to mount on front panel to measure the temperature of
oven.
3. Patch cords for interconnections.

We know in the case of insulators, the region between highest level of completely
filled band (called valence band) and the lowest level of allowed empty band (called
conduction band) is very wide. This is called energy gap, denoted by E g and is about 3
to 7 eV (electron volt) in case of insulators. In case of semiconductors, this energy gap
is quite small. For example, in case of germanium, E g =0.7 eV and in case of silicon E g
=1.1
In semiconductors at low temperatures, there are few charges to move so
conductivity is quite low. At higher temperatures, the donor or acceptor levels come in
to action and provide carriers and hence the conduction rises. In addition to the
dependence of the electrical conductivity on the number of free charges, it also depends
on their mobility. However, mobility of the charge carriers somewhat decrease with
increasing temperature but on the average the conductivity of the semiconductors rises
with increasing temperature.

To determine the energy gap of a semi-conducting material, we study the

variation of its conductance with temperature. In reverse bias, the currents flowing
through the junction are quite small and internal heating of the junction does not take
place.

Formula:
In the reverse bias, the saturated value of the reverse current for a pn- junction diode is given
by,

Is = constant. T3/2. e-Eg/KT _ _ _ _ _(1)

Where,

Is = saturation current in micro ampere

T = temperature of junction diode in Kelvin
Eg = band gap in eV
K = Boltzman constant in eV/K

For small changes in temperature where log T can be treated as constant relation (1)
can be written as

log10Is = constant – 5.04 Eg. 103/T_ _ _ _ (2)

29
Graph between 103/T as abscissa and log10Is as ordinate will be a straight line having
a slope = 5.04Eg
Hence band gap Eg = slope of the line / 5.04

N P _
+
+ µA

+
0-20V
DC D
Power V
supply
_

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1 i.e. positive of 0-20 V power supply to N-side
of diode and to positive of voltmeter. Connect negative of power supply to negative
of voltmeter and negative of microammeter (µA) and positive of micro ammeter to
P-side of diode.
2. Keep the temperature control knob fully anti-clockwise.
3. Switch on the instrument using on/off toggle switch provided on front panel
keeping temperature control knob fully anticlockwise.
4. Adjust the voltage at 2.5V DC and note down the reverse current.
5. Adjust the temperature control knob at maximum position. Temperature starts
increasing and the reading of the microammeter starts increasing.
6. When temperature reaches to 800C or 1000C, switch off the oven by rotating the pot
anticlockwise down to minimum side. Note down the maximum reading shown by
micro ammeter.
7. As the temperature starts falling, record the values of microammeter reading in
observation table after every 50C drop in temperature.
8. Repeat the whole procedure for 5VDC and 7.5V DC.
9. Plot a graph between 103/T along x axis and log10Is along y axis, and the slope of
the line is determined from the graph.

30
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Temperature of the
No. junction diode 103/T I Log10Is

In C In
Kelvin

31
GRAPH:

Slope dY/dX =

V= --- V

Log10Is

X
103/T

Calculation:

From graph slope of the line

dy/dx = Eg = slope/ 5.04 =--------------- eV

Result:

The band gap Eg for the given semiconductor = ------------------eV. Standard value for Ge =
0.72 eV

Standard value for Si = 1.1 eV

standard value – experimental value

Percentage error =--------------------------------------------------x 100=---------%
Standard value

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The diode should be reversed biased.

2. Do not exceed the temperature of the oven above 1000C to avoid over heating of
diode.
3. The voltmeter and ammeter reading should initially be at zero mark.
4. Voltmeter and ammeter reading should be varied in small steps.
5. After doing the experiment switch off the circuit.

32