MODULE 2

Subject:- Materials, Testing &

Evaluation

Prepared by :- Mr. Ravi Ranjan Kumar

Civil Engineering Department
DCE,Darbhanga
 What is material Engineering ????
• New materials have been among the greatest achievements of every age and
they have been central to the growth, prosperity, security, and quality of life of
humans since the beginning of history. It is always new materials that open the
door to new technologies, whether they are in civil, chemical, construction,
nuclear, aeronautical, agricultural, mechanical, biomedical or electrical
engineering.
• The definition of the academic field of Materials Science & Engineering is :- It is
the properties of the material that give its value.
• A material may be chosen for its strength, its electrical properties, resistance to
heat or corrosion, or a host of other reasons; but they all relate to properties.
• Experience shows that all of the useful properties of a material are intimately
related to its structure, at all levels, including which atoms are present, how the
atoms are joined, and how groups of atoms are arranged throughout the
material. Most importantly, we learn how this structure, and the resulting
properties, are controlled by the processing of the material.
• Materials can be characterized in terms of :-
❖State of matter: solid, liquid, gas, plasma etc.
❖Physical properties like density, melting point etc.
❖ Mechanical properties like hardness, strength, brittleness or ductility etc.
❖ Electrical properties like conductivity
❖ Magnetic properties like ferro, para, and dia magnetism
❖ Optical properties like transparent, opaque, translucent etc. I have
answered in general terms as I am not clear the purpose of your question.
 ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
• Elasticity is the property of the solid material by virtue of which it tends to regain
its shape after the removal of external load. Elasticity is the way a material
initially responds when it is subjected to stresses. Elasticity refers to the
material's ability to deform in a non-permanent way, meaning that when the
stress load is removed from the material it will recover its original form.
• A material will continue to deform elastically as the stress upon it increases until
the elastic limit is reached. The elastic limit can be found on stress-strain
diagrams for all materials, and the limit varies by the material. For instance, steel
experiences far less stress before reaching the elastic limit than rubber does.

LINK:-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frGL1jTnDsg
• Elastic Constants: Stress produces a strain, but how much strain is produced
depends on the solid itself. The solid is then characterised by anelastic modulus
that relates strain to stress

Different types of stresses and their corresponding strains within elastic limit are
related which are referred to as elastic constants. The three types of elastic
constants (moduli) are:
❑ Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (E)
❑ Bulk modulus (K)
❑ and Modulus of rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)
Young’s modulus

Rigidity modulus

Bulk modulus
• Plasticity is the property of the solid material by virtue of which it tends to retain
its deformed shape even after the removal of external load.
In the other words, plasticity, also known as plastic deformation, is the ability
of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-reversible change of
shape in response to applied forces.

llustration of offset yield point. Key: 1: True elastic limit 2: Proportionality limit 3: Elastic limit 4: Offset
yield strength, usually defined at e=0.2% σ: Engineering stress ε: Engineering strain A: Undeformed
cross-sectional area F: Uniaxial load L: Undeformed length
 TENSILE TEST
• Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials
science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a
controlled tension until failure.
• Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From
these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.
Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the
mechanical characteristics of isotropic materials.
• Tensile testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:
• Select a material or item for an application
• Predict how a material will perform in use: normal and extreme forces.
• Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of a specification, regulation,
or contract are met
• Decide if a new product development program is on track
• Demonstrate proof of concept
• Demonstrate the utility of a proposed patent
• Provide standard data for other scientific, engineering, and quality
assurance functions
• Provide a basis for Technical communication
• Provide a technical means of comparison of several options
• Provide evidence in legal proceedings
• Tensile specimen:-
• The preparation of test specimens depends on the purposes of testing and on the
governing test method or specification. A tensile specimens is usually a
standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders and a gage (section) in
between. The shoulders are large so they can be readily gripped, whereas the
gauge section has a smaller cross-section so that the deformation and failure can
occur in this area
 • Equipment :-
The most common testing machine used in tensile
testing is the universal testing machine. This type of
machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the
length of the specimen and the other is driven to
apply tension to the test specimen. There are two
types:-
1. hydraulic powered Tensile specimens made from an
2. electromagnetically powered machines. aluminum alloy. The left two
specimens have a round cross-
section and threaded shoulders. The
The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test right two are flat specimens
designed to be used with serrated
specimen being tested. There are four main parameters: grips.
force capacity, speed, precision and accuracy. Force capacity
refers to the fact that the machine must be able to generate
enough force to fracture the specimen.
• The machine must be able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly
mimic the actual application. Finally, the machine must be able to accurately and
precisely measure the gauge length and forces applied; for instance, a large
machine that is designed to measure long elongations may not work with a brittle
material that experiences short elongations prior to fracturing.
• The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being
tested. There are four main parameters: force capacity, speed, precision and
accuracy. Force capacity refers to the fact that the machine must be able to
generate enough force to fracture the specimen.
• The machine must be able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly
mimic the actual application. Finally, the machine must be able to accurately and
precisely measure the gauge length and forces applied; for instance, a large
machine that is designed to measure long elongations may not work with a brittle
material that experiences short elongations prior to fracturing.
• Alignment of the test specimen in the testing machine is critical, because if the
specimen is misaligned, either at an angle or offset to one side, the machine will
exert a bending force on the specimen. This is especially bad for brittle materials,
because it will dramatically skew the results.
 • If the initial portion of the stress–strain curve is curved and not linear, it indicates
the specimen is misaligned in the testing machine

The strain measurements are most commonly measured

with an extensometer, but strain gauges are also frequently
used on small test specimen or when Poisson's ratio is
being measured. Newer test machines have digital time,
force, and elongation measurement systems consisting of
electronic sensors connected to a data collection device
(often a computer) and software to manipulate and output
the data.

Universal testing machine

• Process:-
The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine
and slowly extending it until it fractures. During this process, the elongation of the
gauge section is recorded against the applied force. The elongation measurement is
used to calculate the engineering strain, ε.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Strain=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Stress=
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

The machine does these calculations as the force increases, so that the data points
can be graphed into a stress–strain curve.
• A stress–strain curve for a material gives the relationship
between stress and strain.
These curves reveal many of the properties of a material such as the Young's
modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength.

Stress-strain curve typical of a low carbon steel

• Stages:-
• A schematic diagram for the stress-strain curve of low carbon steel at room
temperature is shown in previous slide. There are several stages showing
different behaviors, which suggests different mechanical properties.
• The first stage is the linear elastic region. The stress is proportional to the strain,
that is, obeys the general Hooke's law, and the slope is Young's modulus. In this
region, the material undergoes only elastic deformation. The end of the stage is
the initiation point of plastic deformation. The stress component of this point is
defined as yield strength (or upper yield point, UYP for short).
• The second stage is the strain hardening region. This region starts as the strain
goes beyond the yielding point, reaching a maximum at the ultimate strength
point, which is the maximal stress that can be sustained and is called the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS).
• In this region, the stress mainly increases as the material elongates, except that
for some materials such as steel, there is a nearly flat region at the beginning. The
stress of the flat region is defined as the lower yield point (LYP). (Shown in next
slides).
The third stage is the necking region. Beyond tensile strength, a neck forms where
the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the average. The
necking deformation is heterogeneous and will reinforce itself as the stress
concentrates more at small section. Such positive feedback leads to quick
development of necking and leads to fracture.

Note that though the pulling force is decreasing, the work strengthening is still
progressing, that is, the true stress keeps growing but the engineering stress
decreases because the shrinking section area is not considered. This region ends up
with the fracture. After fracture, percent elongation and reduction in section area
can be calculated.
Engineering stress and strain
• Consider a bar of original cross sectional area 𝐴0 being subjected to equal and
opposite forces F pulling at the ends so the bar is under tension. The material is
experiencing a stress defined to be the ratio of the force to the cross sectional
area of the bar, as well as an axial elongation:
𝐹
STRESS =
𝐴0
𝐿−𝐿0 ∆𝐿
STRAIN = =
𝐿0 𝐿0
Subscript 0 denotes the original dimensions of the sample. The SI unit for stress is
newton per square metre, or pascal (1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2), and for strain is "1".
Stress-strain curve for this material is plotted by elongating the sample and
recording the stress variation with strain until the sample fractures.

Note that for engineering purposes we often assume the cross-section area of the
material does not change during the whole deformation process. This is not true
since the actual area will decrease while deforming due to elastic and plastic
deformation. The curve based on the original cross-section and gauge length is
called the engineering stress-strain curve.
 True stress and strain
• Due to the shrinking of section area and the ignored effect of developed
elongation to further elongation, true stress and strain are different from
engineering stress and strain.
𝐹
True Stress = A= Instantaneous area
𝐴

True Strain, L = Final Length

= 𝐿0 + ∆𝐿 OR 𝐿0 − ∆𝐿
Here the dimensions are instantaneous values. Assuming volume of the sample
conserves and deformation happens uniformly,
AL= 𝐴0 𝐿0

The curve based on the instantaneous cross-section area and length is called
the true stress-strain curve.
• The true stress and strain can be expressed by engineering stress and strain.

So in a tension test, true stress is larger than engineering stress and true strain is
less than engineering strain. Thus, a point defining true stress-strain curve is
displaced upwards and to the left to define the equivalent engineering stress-strain
curve. The difference between the true and engineering stresses and strains will
increase with plastic deformation. At low strains (such as elastic deformation), the
differences between the two is negligible.
 Classification
It is possible to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–strain
curves of various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two
broad categories; namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials.
1. Ductile materials
Ductile materials are those which could show plastic deformation. Such materials
can be actually drawn or bent or rolled before it reaches its fracture point.
2.Brittle materials
Brittle material are those which breaks into pieces upon application of tensile
force without any elongation or plastic deformation.
Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a well-defined yield
point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and breaking
strength are the same. A typical stress–strain curve for a brittle material will be
linear.
 Differences between ductile material and brittle material

Ductile Material Brittle Material

Solid materials that can undergo substantial plastic Solid materials that exhibit negligible plastic deformation
deformation prior to fracture are called ductile materials. are called brittle materials.
Percentage elongation of the ductile materials before Percentage elongation of the brittle materials before
fracture under tensile testing is higher. fracture under tensile testing is very less.
Ductile materials fail gradually by neck formation under the Brittle materials fail by sudden fracture (without any
action of external tensile loading. warning such as necking).
Energy absorbed by ductile materials before fracture under Brittle materials absorb very small energy before fracture.
tensile testing is more.
Various metal forming operations (such as rolling, forging, Forming operations cannot be easily performed on brittle
drawing, bending, etc.) can be performed on ductile materials. For example, brittle material cannot be drawn into
materials. wire.
Ductile materials show longer life when subjected to fatigue Brittle materials fail faster when subjected to fatigue loading.
loading.
Examples of ductile material: Examples of brittle material:
•Mild steel •Cast iron
•Aluminum •Ceramics such as glass, cement, concrete, etc.
•Copper •Stone
•Rubber •Ice
•Most plastics
 Hardness Test
A) Rockwell method
➢ The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced
by a force/load on an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred
to as preload or minor load) is applied to a sample using a diamond or ball
indenter. This preload breaks through the surface to reduce the effects of surface
finish. After holding the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the
baseline depth of indentation is measured.
➢ After the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is added to reach the
total required test load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time
(dwell time) to allow for elastic recovery. This major load is then released,
returning to the preliminary load. After holding the preliminary test force for a
specified dwell time, the final depth of indentation is measured. The Rockwell
hardness value is derived from the difference in the baseline and final depth
measurements. This distance is converted to a hardness number. The preliminary
test force is removed and the indenter is removed from the test specimen.
• Preliminary test loads (preloads) range from 3 kgf (used in the “Superficial”
Rockwell scale) to 10 kgf (used in the “Regular” Rockwell scale). Total test
forces range from 15kgf to 150 kgf (superficial and regular) to 500 to 3000 kgf
(macrohardness).
• Test Method Illustration
A = Depth reached by indenter after application of preload (minor load)
B = Position of indenter during Total load, Minor plus Major loads
C = Final position reached by indenter after elastic recovery of sample
material
D = Distance measurement taken representing difference between preload
and major load position. This distance is used to calculate the Rockwell
Hardness Number.
• A variety of indenters may be used: conical diamond with a round tip for
harder metals to ball indenters ranges with a diameter ranging from 1/16” to
½” for softer materials.
When selecting a Rockwell scale, a general guide is to select the scale that
specifies the largest load and the largest indenter possible without exceeding
defined operation conditions and accounting for conditions that may influence
the test result. These conditions include test specimens that are below the
minimum thickness for the depth of indentation; a test impression that falls
too close to the edge of the specimen or another impression; or testing on
cylindrical specimens.
b) Brinell hardness test method

The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine Brinell hardness, is

defined in ASTM E10. Most commonly it is used to test materials that have a
structure that is too coarse or that have a surface that is too rough to be tested
using another test method, e.g., castings and forgings.
Brinell testing often use a very high test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm diameter
indenter so that the resulting indentation averages out most surface and sub-
surface inconsistencies.
 The Brinell method applies a predetermined test load (F) to a carbide ball of fixed
diameter (D) which is held for a predetermined time period and then removed. The
resulting impression is measured with a specially designed Brinell microscope or
optical system across at least two diameters – usually at right angles to each other
and these results are averaged (d).
Although the calculation below can be used to generate the Brinell number, most
often a chart is then used to convert the averaged diameter measurement to a Brinell
hardness number.

Common test forces range from

500kgf often used for non-
ferrous materials to 3000 kgf
usually used
for steels and cast iron. There
are other Brinell scales with D = Ball diameter
load as low as 1kgf and 1mm d = impression diameter
diameter indenters but these F = load
are infrequently used. HB = Brinell result
➢ Typically the greatest source of error in Brinell testing is the measurement of the indentation.
Due to disparities in operators making the measurements, the results will vary even under
perfect conditions. Less than perfect conditions can cause the variation to increase greatly.
Frequently the test surface is prepared with a grinder to remove surface conditions.

➢ The jagged edge makes interpretation of the indentation difficult. Furthermore, when operators
know the specifications limits for rejects, they may often be influenced to see the
measurements in a way that increases the percentage of “good” tests and less re-testing.
 c). Vickers hardness test method
✓ The Vickers hardness test method, also referred to as a micro hardness test method,
is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.
✓The Vickers method is based on an optical measurement system. The Microhardness
test procedure, ASTM E-384, specifies a range of light loads using a diamond
indenter to make an indentation which is measured and converted to a hardness
value. It is very useful for testing on a wide type of materials, but test samples must
be highly polished to enable measuring the size of the impressions. A square base
pyramid shaped diamond is used for testing in the Vickers scale. Typically loads are
very light, ranging from 10gm to 1kgf, although "Macro" Vickers loads can range up
to 30 kg or more.
✓ The Microhardness methods are used to test on metals, ceramics, composites -
almost any type of material.
Since the test indentation is very small in a Vickers test, it is useful for a variety of
applications: testing very thin materials like foils or measuring the surface of a part,
small parts or small areas, measuring individual microstructures, or measuring the
depth of case hardening by sectioning a part and making a series of indentations to
describe a profile of the change in hardness.
✓ Sectioning is usually necessary with a microhardness test in order to provide a small
enough specimen that can fit into the tester. Additionally, the sample preparation will
need to make the specimen’s surface smooth to permit a regular indentation shape and
good measurement, and to ensure the sample can be held perpendicular to the indenter.
✓ Often the prepared samples are mounted in a plastic medium to facilitate the
preparation and testing. The indentations should be as large as possible to maximize the
measurement resolution. (Error is magnified as indentation sizes decrease) The test
procedure is subject to problems of operator influence on the test results.
 BENDING TEST:-
The Flexural(bending) test measures the force required to bend a beam under 3 point
loading conditions. The data is often used to select materials for parts that will support loads
without flexing. Flexural modulus is used as an indication of a material’s stiffness when flexed.
Since the physical properties of many materials (especially thermoplastics) can vary
depending on ambient temperature.

• The bend test is useful for assessing the workability of thick sheet and plate. Generally, this
test is most applicable to cold-working operations. Figure 9 shows a plate deformed in three-
point bending. The principal stress and strains developed during bending are defined in Fig.
10. The critical parameter is width- to-thickness ratio (w/t). If w/t > 8, bending occurs under
plane-strain conditions if w/t > 8, the bend ductility is independent of the exact w/t ratio. If
w/t < 8, then stress state and bend ductility depend strongly on the width-to-thickness ratio.
• Bending ductility tests determine the smallest radius around which a specimen
can be bent without cracks being observed in the outer fiber (tension) surface.
This forming limit commonly is called the minimum bend radius and is expressed
in multiples of specimen thickness, t. A material with a minimum bend radius of
3t can be bent without cracking through a radius equal to three times the
specimen thickness. It thus follows that a material with a minimum bend radius
of 1t has greater ductility than a material with minimum bend radius of 5t.
Alternatively, the bend radius can be fixed, and the angle of bend at which
fracture occurs noted. As illustrates bend radius, angle of bend, and other
concepts associated with bending tests.
• Bend or flexure testing is common in springs and brittle materials whose failure
behaviors are linear such as concretes, stones, woods, plastics, glasses and ceramics.
Other types of brittle materials such as powder metallurgy processed metals and
materials are normally tested under a transverse flexure. Bend test is
therefore suitable for evaluating strength of brittle materials where interpretation of
tensile test result of the same material is difficult due to breaking of specimens
around specimen gripping. The evaluation of the tensile result is therefore not valid
since the failed areas are not included in the specimen gauge length. Smooth
rectangular specimens without notches are generally used for bend testing under
three-point or four- point bend arrangements as shown in figures 1 a) and b)
respectively. Figure illustrates three-point bending which is capable of 180o bend
angle for welded materials.
• This test has a number of disadvantages. First, dissimilar metal corrosion and/or
crevice corrosion can occur under the bolt. Secondly, once the crack has formed,
the stress condition changes such that the outer layer of the specimen is not
subject to a tensile stress only, but to a complex combination at tensile and
bending stresses. The propagating crack will then deviate from the centerline.
Thus, the three-point bend test can only be used as a qualitative test to assess the
susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking.

• Three-Point Bend Specimens :- Three-point bend tests are commonly used

because of the ease of load application and the ability to use the same loading rigs
for different stresses. The load is applied by turning a bolt in the rig, deflecting the
specimen.
• Procedure:-
• Took a steel bar specimen measured its length and mass.
• Placed it on test machine and adjusted machine such that the difference
between support is 8 time dia of bar and landle is 5 times the dia of steel bar
• Applied load until it bended at 180 angle.
 Significance and Use
• Bend tests for ductility provide a simple way to evaluate the quality of materials by
their ability to resist cracking or other surface irregularities during one continuous
bend. No reversal of the bend force shall be employed when conducting these tests.
• The type of bend test used determines the location of the forces and constraints on the
bent portion of the specimen, ranging from no direct contact to continuous contact.
• The test can terminate at a given angle of bend over a specified radius or continue until
the specimen legs are in contact. The bend angle can be measured while the specimen
is under the bending force (usually when the semi-guided bend test is employed), or
after removal of the force as when performing a free-bend test. Product requirements
for the material being tested determine the method used.
• Materials with an as-fabricated cross section of rectangular, round, hexagonal, or similar
defined shape can be tested in full section to evaluate their bend properties by using
the procedures outlined in these test methods, in which case relative width and
thickness requirements do not apply.
 Torsion Test
• Torsion tests twist a material or test component to a specified degree, with a
specified force, or until the material fails in torsion. The twisting force of a torsion
test is applied to the test sample by anchoring one end so that it cannot move or
rotate and applying a moment to the other end so that the sample is rotated
about its axis. The rotating moment may also be applied to both ends of the
sample but the ends must be rotated in opposite directions. The forces and
mechanics found in this test are similar to those found in a piece of string that
has one end held in a hand and the other end twisted by the other.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eBrskh1hJQ
• Types of torsion tests:-
The three common forms that torsion testing take include failure, proof and
operational. A torsion test for failure requires that the test sample be twisted until
it breaks and is designed to measure the strength of the sample. A proof test is
designed to observe the material under a specified torque load over a set period of
time. Finally, operational testing is measures the material’s performance under the
expected service conditions of its application. All of these forms of tests may be
performed with either torsion only loading or a combination of torsion and axial
(tension or compression) loading depending upon the characteristics to be
measured.
Procedure:-
• Measure the specimen initial length, initial diameter and initial gauge length and
put these values on the provided table shown below.
•
Mark a line along the length of specimen with the help of permanent pen. This
will help us to measure the rotation during twisting.
• Calibrate the torsion testing equipment as explained above
• Use the hexagonal sockets to grip specimen on torsion testing machine
• Fix one end of specimen on input and other end on torque shaft and apply small
preload
• Set torque meter to zero
• Start the process and twist the specimen with the strain increment of 0.5 degree
until failure of specimen
• Record all experimental data in the provided table
• Note: before taking reading make sure that it’s not fluctuating and leveled off
• Construct relationship between degree and torque
• Establish a relation between shear strain and shear stress
• Calculate the theoretical values of second polar moment of inertia and modulus
of rigidity
 CREEP
• Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load.
Basically, long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This
deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a
concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam bending. Creep does not
necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. When a load is applied to
concrete, it experiences an instantaneous elastic strain which develops into creep
strain if the load is sustained.
• Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.
• Factors Affecting Creep:-
• Aggregate
• Mix Proportions
• Age of concrete
• The magnitude of creep strain is one to three times the value of the
instantaneous elastic strain, it is proportional to cement-paste content and, thus,
inversely proportional to aggregate volumetric content.
• The magnitude of creep is dependent upon the magnitude of the applied stress,
the age and strength of the concrete, properties of aggregates and cementitious
materials, amount of cement paste, size and shape of concrete specimen, volume
to surface ratio, amount of steel reinforcement, curing conditions, and
environmental conditions

• Influence of Aggregate :-
• Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible
for the creep. However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a
restraining effect on the magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under
load is restrained by aggregate which do not creep. The stronger the aggregate
the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is the magnitude of creep.
An increase from 65 to 75 % of volumetric content of the aggregate will decrease
the creep by 10 %.
• The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing
creep. It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less
is the creep. Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal
weight aggregate
• Influence of Mix Proportions:
• The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors
influencing creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it
can be said that creep increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other
words, it can also be said that creep is inversely proportional to the strength of
concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are affecting the
water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.
• Influence of Age:
• Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the
magnitude of creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality
of gel improves with time. Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load
being not so stronger creeps more. What is said above is not a very accurate
statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the concrete being
different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.
• Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
• In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may
be a critical consideration in design.
• In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to
buckling.
• In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions
creep may relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures
changes or movement of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all
concrete structures to reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or
restrained shrinkage.
• In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature
conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a
cause of cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps
must be taken to see that increase in temperature does not take place in the
interior of mass concrete structure.
• Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.
• Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will experience
loads that can be as large as the design loads at very early age; these can cause
deflections due to cracking and early age low elastic modulus. So, creep has a
significant effect on both the structural integrity and the economic impact that it
will produce if predicted wrong.
 • Toughness
Toughness is the measurement of a material's resistance to break, fracture or
rupture. It is usually measured in units of energy or work. It is the ability of a
material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing. One definition
of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume that a material can
absorb before rupturing.
Toughness is related to the area under the stress–strain curve. In order to be
tough, a material must be both strong and ductile. For example, brittle materials
(like ceramics) that are strong but with limited ductility are not tough; conversely,
very ductile materials with low strengths are also not tough. To be tough, a material
should withstand both high stresses and high strains. Generally speaking,
toughness indicates how much energy a material can absorb before rupturing.
To calculate the toughness of a sample we have to integrate the area under stress
strain curve.As the value of toughness is joule per cubic metre, so how should we
convert the value of area to assign it the unit of joule per cubic metre?
 Tests for measuring toughness
There are mainly two tests which are generally used to measure toughness.
1. Charpy impact test or Charpy V-notch test
2. Izod impact strength test

Charpy impact test or Charpy V-notch test

The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is
a standardized high strain-rate test which determines the amount
of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. Absorbed energy is a measure of
the material's notch toughness.
The test was developed around 1900 by S. B. Russell (1898, American)
and Georges Charpy (1901, French). The test became known as the Charpy test in
the early 1900s due to the technical contributions and standardization efforts by
Charpy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpGhqQvftAo
• The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped
from a known height to impact a notched specimen of material. The energy
transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in the
height of the hammer before and after the fracture (energy absorbed by the
fracture event).
• The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test,thus it is necessary
for the notch to be of regular dimensions and geometry. The size of the sample
can also affect results, since the dimensions determine whether or not the
material is in plane strain.
 Izod impact strength test
• The Izod impact strength test is an ASTM standard method of determining the
impact resistance of materials. A pivoting arm is raised to a specific height
(constant potential energy) and then released. The arm swings down hitting
a notched sample, breaking the specimen. The energy absorbed by the sample is
calculated from the height the arm swings to after hitting the sample. A notched
sample is generally used to determine impact energy and notch sensitivity.
• The test is similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement of
the specimen under test.The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test
in that the sample is held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a
three-point bending configuration.
• The test is named after the English engineer Edwin Gilbert Izod (1876–1946), who
described it in his 1903 address to the British Association.
• The results are expressed in energy lost per unit of thickness (such as ft·lb/in or
J/cm) at the notch. Alternatively, the results may be reported as energy lost per
unit cross-sectional area at the notch (J/m2 or ft·lb/in2 )
• The Izod test involved the striker, the testing material, and the pendulum. The
striker was fixed at the end of the pendulum. The test material was fastened at a
vertical position at the bottom, and the notch was facing the striker. The striker
swings downward, hitting the test material in the middle, at the bottom of it’s
swing, and is left free at the top.
• The notch is placed to concentrate the stress, and provoke delicate failure. It
lowers distortion and decreases the ductile fracture. The test was done easily and
quickly to examine the quality of the materials, and test whether it meets the
specific force of collision properties. It is also used to evaluate the materials for
overall hardiness. It is not applicable to compound materials because of the
influence of complicated and inconsistent failure modes.
• The notch is very important because it can affect the result of the test. The
making of the notch has been a problem. Initially, the radius of the notch is
crucial. The radius should not change. It has an essential effect on the
competence of the sample to absorb the collision.
• The blades in the notch can overheat the polymers, and deteriorate the materials
surrounding the notch, which could lead to an inaccurate test result. The Izod
method chose a short projection, supported at one end, to produce better steel
tools for cutting metal.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d3bg2Q3FJ_A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bf_lxCwm004
 FATIGUE
• Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by cyclic loading that results in
progressive and localized structural damage and the growth of cracks. Once
a fatigue crack has initiated, each loading cycle will grow the crack a small
amount, typically producing striations on some parts of the fracture surface.
• The crack will continue to grow until it reaches a critical size, which occurs when
the stress intensity factor of the crack exceeds the fracture toughness of the
material, producing rapid propagation and typically complete fracture of the
structure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Ssi297_4Lc