Lecture 2

Strength refers to the ability of a structure or machine to resist loads without failure.

Mechanical properties are expressed in terms of quantities that are functions of stress or strain or
both stress and strain.
Mechanical testing is concerned with the determination of measures of mechanical properties.

There are three factors involved in defining the manner in which the load is
applied:
1- kind of stress induced,
2- rate at which the load is applied
3- number of times the load is applied

1- Types of loading

Tension

Compression
Direct Shear
Torsion
Bending (Flexure)

2- Three groups of the rate of loading

over a short time (Static test)

very rapidly (Dynamic test,
impact)
long-time (Creep test)

3- Number of times of loading

Single application
Repeated application (Fatigue test)

Definitions
Stress: Load on a specimen divided by the area
through which it acts. Stress is based on
original cross-sectional area without
taking into account changes in area due
to applied load (Engineering Stress). As
used with most mechanical tests, stress is
based on original cross-sectional area.
This sometimes is called conventional or
engineering stress.

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 Lecture 2

Strain: It is the relative change in dimensions due to the applied load. It is defined
as the change per unit of length in linear dimension of a body.
Deformation: is used as a general term to indicate the change in form of a body or
dimensions. It may be due to stress, to thermal change, to change in
moisture.
Deformation set: is the deformation or strain remaining in a previously stressed body
after release of load.
Deformation-measuring instrument
Such as
Extensometer
Compressometer
Deflectometer
Detrusion indicator
Poisson's Ratio
It is the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain in an axial loaded specimen. It is the constant that
relates modulus of rigidity to Young's Modulus in the equation:

E 2G 1
Where: E is Young's Modulus; G, modulus of rigidity; and , Poisson's ratio. The formula is
valid only within the elastic limit of a material. A method for determining Poisson's ratio is
given in ASTM E-132.

For most structural materials: = 1/3 to 1/6 Elastic zone

= 1/2 always Plastic zone
Elasticity: Ability of a material to return to its original shape when load causing
deformation is removed.
Plasticity: Ability of material to deform permanently when stress is applied, without
failure.
Hardness: Resistance to scratching, penetration, wear
Brittleness: Ability to fail under stress precedes a negligible strain.
Toughness: Resistance to shock.
Ductility: Extent to which a material can sustain plastic deformation without rupture.
Elongation and Reduction of Area are common indices of ductility.
Malleability: Ability to deform under compressive stress.
Rigidity, Stiffness: Resistance to deformation under applied load

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 Lecture 2

Scope and Applicability

The terms tension test and compression test are usually taken to refer to tests in which a
prepared specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing (i.e., "static") uniaxial load until
failure occurs. In a simple tension test, the operation is accomplished by gripping opposite
ends of the piece of material and pulling it apart.

In a compression test, it is accomplished by subjecting a piece of material to end loading

which produces crushing action.

In a tension test, the test specimen elongates in a direction parallel to the applied load; in a
compression test, the piece shortens. Within the limits of practicability, the resultant of the
load is made to coincide with the longitudinal axis of the specimen.

The static tension and compression tests are the most commonly made and are among the
simplest of all the mechanical tests. Since what may be considered the beginning of
scientific testing, tension tests, at least, have occupied a large share of attention.

When properly conducted on suitable test specimens, these tests, of all, tests come closer to
evaluating fundamental mechanical properties for use in design, although it should be
observed that the tensile and compressive properties are not necessarily sufficient to enable
the prediction of performance of materials under, all loading conditions.

The tension test is very commonly employed with and is appropriate for general use with
most cast, rolled, or forged ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys.

With brittle materials, such as mortar, concrete, brick, and ceramics products, whose tensile
strengths are low compared with their compressive strengths, and which are principally
employed to resist compressive forces, the compression test is more significant and finds
greater use.

Why Perform a Tensile Test or Tension Test?

Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By applying a force on a
material using a uniaxial load, the reaction of the material can be readily recorded and
analyzed. This data can then be used to predict how the material will react to forces being
applied in practical situations such as in bridges, or in airframes.

A lot can be learned about a material from tensile testing. As the material is stretched until it
breaks, a comprehensive tensile profile will result producing a curve showing how it reacted to
-Extension
The load at which the material fails is of much interest on these diagrams as is the maximum load
the material can withstand - the Ultimate Load.

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 Lecture 2

-
analyze

comparisons can be
made from the results carried out on different size and shape specimens tested on any machine in
the world. It is important to note that the shape -
when converted to a stress-strain diagram.

The measuring units for tensile testing are:

Load Newton (N), or more commonly kN.

Extension meters (m), or more commonly µm
Stress Pascal (Pa), or more commonly MPa
Strain percentage (%)

Requirements for Tension Specimens

[Review the international or Egyptian standards and your LAB. Book]

Procedures for tension tests of metals are given in ASTM E-8. Methods for tension tests of
plastics are outlined in ASTM D-638, ASTM D-2289 (high strain rates), and ASTM D-882
(thin sheets). ASTM D-2343 outlines a method for tension testing of glass fibers; ASTM D-
897, adhesives; ASTM D-412, vulcanized rubber.

The cross section of the specimen is usually round, square, or rectangular.

The central portion of the length is usually (but, not always) of smaller cross section than
the end portions in order to cause failure to occur at a section where the stresses are not
affected by the gripping device.
The gage length is the marked length over which elongation or extensometer measurements
are made.

Gauge length is the original

length of the sample or
extensometer. This value is used
to calculate extension. It is often
Gauge Length
defined in the testing standard.
The gauge length is also
sometimes taken as the distance
between the grips

The shape of the ends should be suitable to the material and such as to fit properly the
gripping device to be employed.
The ratio of diameter or width of end to diameter or width of reduced section is determined
largely by custom, although for brittle materials it is important to have the ends sufficiently
large to avoid failure due to the compounding of the axial stress and the stresses due to
action of the grips.

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 Lecture 2

The transition from end to reduced section should be made by an adequate fillet in order to
reduce the stress concentration caused by the abrupt change in section; for brittle materials,
this is particularly important.
A specimen should be symmetrical with respect to a longitudinal axis throughout its length
in order to avoid bending during application of load.
In a tensile test, a sample is extended at constant rate, and the load needed to maintain this
is measured. The stress ( ) (calculated from the load) and strain ( ) (calculated from the
extension) can be plotted as nominal stress against nominal strain.

Central and axial installation of a load cell and

mounting studs. This is vitally important for most
materials. It is also a principal measure of the
Alignment
quality of the testing machine. The load frame /
gripping system must not distort during the test
causing poor alignment.

A transducer which converts a value of force into

an electrical signal. All load cells have a lower
limit specified in the testing machine calibration
Load Cell
accuracy standards for testing machines. Be careful
not to externally quote or guarantee test results
below this limit.

[Review your LAB. Book]

[Follow, carefully, the procedure of conducting the test in Materials Lab.]

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 Lecture 2

A typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile metal undergoing tension.

Several points on the graph can be defined:

"a"- limit of proportionality - the point beyond which Hooke's Law is no longer obeyed. This
is the point at which slip (or glide ) due to dislocation movement occurs in favorably oriented
grains. The graph is linear up to this point, and begins the transition from elastic to plastic
deformation above this.

"b" - yield stress - the stress at which yielding occurs across the whole specimen. The stress
required for slip in a particular grain will vary depending on how the grain is oriented, so points
"a" and "b" will not generally be coincident in a polycrystalline sample. At this point, the
deformation is purely plastic.

"c" - proof stress - a third point is sometimes used to describe the yield stress of the material.
This is the point at which the specimen has undergone a certain (arbitrary) value of permanent
strain, usually 0.2%. The stress at this point is then known as the 0.2% proof stress. This is used
because the precise positions of "a" and "b" are often difficult to define, and depend to some
extent on the accuracy of the testing machine.

"d" - ultimate tensile strength (UTS) - the point at which plastic deformation becomes unstable
and a narrow region (a neck) forms in the specimen. The UTS is the peak value of nominal stress
during the test. Deformation will continue in the necked region until fracture occurs.

"e" - final instability point - the point at which fracture occurs, i.e. the failure point

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 Lecture 2

Elastic Limit: Greatest stress that can be applied to a material without causing permanent
deformation. For metals and other materials that have a significant straight
line portion in their Stress/strain diagram, elastic limit is approximately
equal to proportional limit
Proportional Limit: Highest stress at which stress is
directly proportional to strain.
It is the highest stress at which
the curve in a Stress-Strain
Diagram is a straight line.
Proportional limit is equal to
elastic limit for many metals.

Modulus of Elasticity: It is the rate of change

of strain as a function
of stress. It is measured by the slope of the straight line
portion of a stress-strain diagram. Young's Modulus is an
alternate term for modulus of Elasticity in tension or
compression.
Shear Modulus is almost always equal to torsional modulus and both are called
modulus of rigidity,

Where: G is modulus of rigidity (N/mm2) and is shear strain

Spring back: Degree to which a material returns to its original shape after deformation. In
plastics and elastomers, it is also called recovery
Yield: The first stress in a material, usually less than the maximum attainable stress, at
which an increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress. Only certain
metals-those which exhibit a localized, heterogeneous type of transition from
elastic to plastic deformation-produce a yield point. If there is a decrease in stress
after yielding, a distinction can be made between upper and lower yield points.
The load at which a sudden drop in the flow curve occurs is called the upper yield
point. The constant load shown on the flow curve is the lower yield point.

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 Lecture 2

Yield Point: Stress at which strain increases without accompanying increase in stress. Only a
few materials (notably steel) have a yield point, and generally only under tension
loading. [Stress in an adhesive joint at which a marked increase in deformation
occurs without an increase in load]
Yield Strength: Indication of maximum stress that can be developed in a material without
causing plastic deformation. It is the stress at which a material exhibits a
specified permanent deformation and is a practical approximation of elastic
limit. Offset yield strength is determined from a Stress-Strain Diagram. It
is the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve, and
a line parallel to its straight line portion offset by a specified strain. Offset
for a metal is usually specified as 0.2%, i.e., the intersection of the offset
line and the 0-stress axis is at 0.2% strain. Offset for plastics is usually 2%.
Offset Yield Strength: Arbitrary approximation of elastic limit. It is the stress that
corresponds to the point of intersection of a Stress-Strain Diagram
and a line parallel to the straight line portion of the diagram. Offset
refers to the distance between the origin of the Stress-Strain Diagram,
and the point of intersection of the parallel line and the 0 stress axis.
Offset is expressed in terms of strain (often 0.2%).

Ductility
1- Elongation: Measure of the ductility of a material determined in a Tensile Test. It is the
increase in gage length (measured after rupture) divided by original gage
length. Higher elongation indicates higher ductility. Elongation cannot be
used to predict behavior of materials subjected to sudden or repeated
loading.
2- Reduction of Area: Measure of the ductility of metals obtained in a Tensile Test. It is
the difference between original cross sectional area of a specimen
and the area of its smallest cross section after testing. It is usually
ex-pressed as % decrease in original cross section. The smallest
cross section can be measured at or after fracture.

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Elongation % = L-Lo/Lo %

Reduction of Area % = A-Ao/Ao%

Resilience: The amount of energy absorbed in stressing a material up to the elastic

limit, or the amount of energy that can be recovered when stress is released
from the elastic limit. It equals the area under load-extension curve up to
elastic limit.
Modulus of Resilience: The energy stored per unit volume at the elastic limit and equals the
area under stress-stain curve up to elastic limit.

Resilience in terms of stress-strain diagram Toughness in terms of stress-strain diagram

Toughness: It is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture.

It equals the area under load-extension curve up to fracture.

Modulus of Toughness: The amount of wore per unit volume of a material required to carry
the material to failure under static loading. It equals the area under
stress strain curve up to fracture

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