CPE 111: INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE

Lecture Eleven
Learning outcomes
1. Explain the importance of material testing
2. Describe how to carry out material testing
3. Perfom material testing experiments

“Material Testing

Testing of materials is necessary for many reasons including:

a. To determine material properties such as hardness, strength, toughness etc

b. To determine the quality of a material or finished product/component
c. To check for flaws within a material or finished product/component
d. To assess the likely performance of the material or finished product/component in
a particular service condition

Classification of tests

1. Test to establish the properties of materials or products/components

2. Test to establish the integrity of materials or products/components

▪ Tests in the first category are also referred to as destructive

▪ In a destructive type of test, the material or test piece is damaged or broken in the
process
▪ An example is a standard tensile test used to determine the strength of materials
▪ Tests in the second category are also referred to as non-destructive
▪ They are used to detect the presence of flaws in a material, component or finished
product

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▪ Non-destructive tests do not damage the parts or component being tested
▪ Material testing is normally carried out according to some Standard Test Procedures
or Protocols
▪ For example, in Kenya, we have Kenya bureau of standards (KEBS) standards for
testing of Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders
▪ It is obvious that no single type of test can provide all the necessary information about
a material and its performance capabilities
▪ Therefore, there are many different types of tests that have been devised for use in
assessing materials or finished products/components

Types of Tests

In this lecture, we shall look at the following types of tests

1. Tensile Test
2. Compression Test
3. Hardness Tests
4. Impact Tests
5. Fatigue Tests
6. Creep Test
7. Flexural Test
8. Fracture Toughness Test

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Introduction

• Many materials are subjected to forces or loads (tensile, compressive, shear etc) when
in service. Examples include the aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing is
constructed or the steel in an automobile axle
• In such situations it is necessary to know the characteristics of the material and to
design the member from which it is made such that any resulting deformation will not
be excessive and fracture will not occur
• The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or deformation in relation
to an applied load or force
• Key mechanical design properties are stiffness, strength, hardness, ductility,
toughness etc
• The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by performing carefully
designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service
conditions
• During the experiments, factors to be considered include the nature of the applied
load and its duration, as well as the environmental conditions
• The load can be tensile, compressive, shear etc and its magnitude may be constant
with time, or it may fluctuate continuously
• Application time may be only a fraction of a second, or it may extend over a period
of many years
• In addition, service temperature may be an important factor
• Mechanical properties are of concern to a variety of parties (e.g., producers and
consumers of materials, research organizations, government agencies) that have
differing interests
• Consequently, it is imperative that there be some consistency in the manner in which
tests are conducted and in the interpretation of their results
• This consistency is accomplished by using Standardized Testing Techniques
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• Establishment and publication of these standards are often coordinated by
professional societies
• In the United States, the most active organization is the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM)
• Its Annual Book of ASTM Standards (http://www.astm.org) comprises numerous
volumes that are issued and updated yearly; a large number of these standards relate
to mechanical testing techniques
• The role of structural engineers is to determine stresses and stress distributions within
members that are subjected to well-defined loads
• This may be accomplished by experimental testing techniques and/or by theoretical
and mathematical stress analyses
• Materials and metallurgical engineers, however, are concerned with producing and
fabricating materials to meet service requirements as predicted by these stress
analyses
• We start by having a brief description of the different types of tests

1. Tensile Test
Aim: Determine the Tensile Strength of a given specimen using Universal Testing
Machine (UTM) and determine the following:
i. Limit of proportionality
ii. Elastic limit
iii. Yield strength
iv. Ultimate strength
v. Young’s modulus of elasticity
vi. Percentage elongation
vii. Percentage reduction in area.

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Theory
• Tensile test is the most applied one, of all mechanical tests
• In this test, ends of a test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device
(extensometer) and to a load measuring device
• If the applied load is small enough, the deformation is entirely elastic
• An elastically deformed solid will return to its original form as soon as load is
removed
• However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed permanently
• The initial part of the tension curve which is recoverable immediately after unloading
is termed as Elastic, while the rest of the curve which represents the manner in which
the solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed Plastic
• The stress below which the deformations are entirely elastic is known as the Yield
Strength of the material
• In some material the onset of Plastic Deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in
load indicating both an Upper and a Lower Yield Point
• However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point
• For most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists only to strains of about
0.005
• As the material is deformed beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to
strain (Hooke’s law ceases to be valid), and permanent, non-recoverable, or Plastic
Deformation occurs
• From an atomic perspective, Plastic Deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and then the re-forming of bonds with new
neighbors as large numbers of atoms or molecules move relative to one another
• Upon removal of the stress, they do not return to their original positions
• The mechanism of this deformation is different for crystalline and amorphous
materials
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• Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation will result when
a stress is applied
• A structure or component that has plastically deformed—or experienced a permanent
change in shape—may not be capable of functioning as intended
• It is therefore desirable to know the stress level at which plastic deformation begins,
or where the phenomenon of yielding occurs
• Yield strength is indicative of the stress at which plastic deformation begins
• The magnitude of the Yield Strength for a metal is a measure of its resistance
to Plastic Deformation
• Yield Strengths may range from 35 MPa for a low-strength aluminum to greater
than 1400 MPa for high-strength steels
• After yielding, the stress necessary to continue Plastic Deformation in metals
increases to a maximum, point M in Figure 1, and then decreases to the eventual
Fracture, point F
• The Tensile Strength (TS) is the Stress at the maximum on the Stress–Strain curve
(Figure 1)
• This corresponds to the Maximum Stress that can be sustained by a structure in
tension. If this stress is applied and maintained, Fracture will result
• All deformation to this point is uniform throughout the narrow region of the tensile
specimen
• However, at this maximum stress, a small Constriction or Neck begins to form at
some point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this Neck, as indicated by
the schematic specimen insets in Figure 1
• This phenomenon is termed Necking, and fracture ultimately occurs at the neck
• The Fracture Strength corresponds to the stress at fracture
• Tensile strengths vary from 50 MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for the
high-strength steels
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 • Typically, when the strength of a metal is cited for design purposes, the Yield
Strength is used because by the time a stress corresponding to the Tensile Strength
has been applied, often a structure has experienced so much plastic deformation that
it is useless
• Furthermore, Fracture Strengths are not normally specified for engineering design
purposes.

Figure 1: Typical Stress-Strain behaviour to Fracture, point F. The Tensile Strength (TS)
is indicated at point M. The circular inserts represent the geometry of the deformed
specimen at various points along the curve (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

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Description of Apparatus and Specimen for Tensile Test
• A standard tensile test specimen is shown in Figure 2
• Normally, the cross section is circular, but rectangular specimens are also used
• This “dogbone” specimen configuration was chosen so that, during testing,
deformation is confined to the narrow center region (which has a uniform cross section
along its length) and also to reduce the likelihood of fracture at the ends of the
specimen
• The standard diameter is approximately 12.8 mm
• Gauge length is used in ductility computations. The standard value is 50 mm
• The specimen is mounted by its ends into the holding grips of the testing apparatus
(Figure 3)
• The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate,
and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load (with
a load cell) and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer)
• A Stress–Strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is destructive; that
is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured.
• The output of a tensile test is recorded as load or force versus elongation

Figure 2: A standard Tensile Test specimen with circular cross section

(Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

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Figure 3: Schematic representation of the apparatus used to conduct Tensile Stress-Strain
Tests. The specimen is elongated by the moving crosshead. The load cell and
extensometer measure the magnitude of applied load and elongation respectively
(Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

Figure 4: Progress of Tensile Test and a plot of results obtained during the test
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Procedure: Summary
1. Measure the original gauge length and diameter of the specimen
2. Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach strain-measuring
device to it
3. Begin the load application and record load/force versus elongation data
4. Take readings more frequently as yield point is approached
5. Continue the test till Fracture occurs
6. By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final length
and diameter of specimen.
Observations
a) Original diameter of specimen, dO =
b) Original gauge length of specimen, LO =
c) Original cross-section area of specimen, Ao =
d) Load of yield point, FY =
e) Ultimate load after specimen breaking, FU =
f) Final length after specimen breaking, LF =
g) Diameter of specimen at breaking point, dF =
h) Cross section area at breaking place, AF =
Table 1: Tensile Test data sheet
S/NO. Load (N) Extension (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

Calculations
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = = = 𝑁⁄
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑚𝑚2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∆𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜖 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑂
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 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡, 𝜎𝐸 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐸) =
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜎𝑌 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜎𝑇𝑆 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐿𝐹 −𝐿𝑂
% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐿𝑂
𝐴𝑂 −𝐴𝐹
% 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100
𝐴𝑂

Allowable working stress

▪ The most suitable strength criterion for any component or structure is normally some
maximum stress which must not be exceeded
▪ This value of stress is normally referred to as Allowable Working Stress
▪ In order to ensure that this value of stress is not exceeded, designers introduce a
factor of safety into their designs
▪ The factor of safety is defined as:
Ultimate stress
Factor of Safety =
Allowable working stress

▪ For example, a factor of safety of 3.0 implies that the design is capable of carrying 3
times the maximum stress which the structure or component might be subjected to in
any normal loading

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2. Compressive Tests
Introduction
• Brittle materials are often weak in tension because of the presence of sub-
microscopic cracks
• In brittle materials, tensile stress tends to propagate these cracks
• Therefore, brittle materials exhibit low Tensile Strength
• However, brittle materials are strong in compression, and are mainly loaded/used
in compression, where their strengths are much higher
• Compression Stress–Strain tests may be conducted if in-service forces are of this
type
• A Compression Test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except
that the force is compressive and the specimen contracts along the direction of the
stress

Compressive Test on a Cube

Aim
To study the behavior of a material under Compressive load and to establish the following
engineering material properties
i. Modulus of elasticity

ii. Maximum Compressive strength or ultimate stress

Theory
• Ductile materials attain a Bulge or a Barrel shape after reaching the maximum
compression load
• No fracture takes place and there is a change in cross-section and compression value
remains the same on reaching the maximum load as shown in the Fig.1 of Figure 5
• For brittle Materials, there will be no change in the cross-sections or height of the
specimen due to the compression load
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• On reaching the maximum compression load, the specimen suddenly fractures as
shown in the Fig. 2. of Figure 5
• Compression test is mainly used for testing brittle materials such as ceramics, concrete
etc
• Because the compression test increases the cross-sectional area of the sample, necking
never occurs

Figure 5: Compression loading for ductile and brittle materials

Figure 6: Compressive stress-strain curve

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Procedure: Depend on the type of equipment

Observation
a) Original diameter of specimen, dO =
b) Original length of specimen, LO =
c) Original width of specimen, Wo =
Calculations
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜎𝑇𝑆 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Table 2: Compression Test data sheet

S/NO. Load (N) Area (A), mm2 Compressive stress, σ = F/A

Compressive Strength Test on a Brick

Aim: To determine the compressive strength of a given test sample (brick) by
compression testing
machine
Apparatus: To be included
Procedure: To be included
Calculations
1. Calculate the compression strength of the test sample by the formula
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Observations
Name of material used =
Area of cross-section =

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3. Hardness Test
Theory
• Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation or abrasion by another hard body
(a material resistance to scratching or wear)
• Hardness can also be defined as a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic
deformation. (i.e. small dent or a scratch)
• Hardness test are commonly used for assessing material properties because they are
quick and convenient
• There are three general types of hardness measurements depending upon the manner
in which the test is conducted:
a) Scratch hardness measurement
b) Rebound hardness measurement
c) Indention hardness measurement.
• In scratch hardness method, the materials are rated on their ability to scratch one
another and it is usually used by mineralogists
• In rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is usually dropped on to the
material surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its rebound
• The general means of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of a material to
indentation
• The indenter is usually a ball cone or pyramid of a material much harder than that
being used as specimen
• Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond indenters are generally used
▪ Materials possessing high hardness will have a high resistance to abrasive wear
▪ The hardness of a ceramic material may be determined using a scratch test

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Theory
• Another mechanical property that may be important to consider is hardness, which is
a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent
or a scratch)
• Early hardness tests were based on natural minerals with a scale constructed solely on
the ability of one material to scratch another that was softer
• A Qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness indexing scheme was devised, termed
the Mohs Scale, which ranged from 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for diamond (Table
3)
▪ Moh’s scale of hardness was devised for assessing the relative hardness of minerals
and rock
Table 3: Moh’s scale of hardness (Source: Vernon, 2003)

▪ In this test an attempt is made to scratch the surfaces of the standards with the material
under test
▪ The hardness of the unknown lies between the number of the mineral it just fails to
scratch and that of the mineral it just scratches
• Quantitative hardness testing techniques have been developed in which a small
indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be tested under controlled conditions
of load and rate of application

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• The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured and related to a
hardness number; the softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation,
and the lower the hardness index number
• Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test for
several reasons:
i. They are simple and inexpensive; no special specimen needs to be prepared, and
the testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive
ii. The test is nondestructive; the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively
deformed; a small indentation is the only deformation
iii. Other mechanical properties such as Tensile Strength may be estimated from the
hardness data
• The following are the most common Hardness Testing Techniques
1. Brinell Hardness Tests
2. Rockwell Hardness Tests
3. Vickers Hardness Tests
4. Knoop Hardness Tests.

Brinell Hardness Test

Theory
• In Brinell hardness tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the
metal to be tested
• The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide) indenter is 10.00 mm
• Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments
• During a test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30
s)
• The Brinell hardness number (HB), is a function of both the magnitude of the load
and the diameter of the resulting indentation

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• This diameter is measured with a special low-power microscope using a scale that is
etched on the eyepiece
• The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB number using a chart
or calculated using Equation 1
• Semi-automatic techniques for measuring Brinell hardness are available. They
employ optical scanning systems consisting of a digital camera mounted on a flexible
probe, which allows positioning of the camera over the indentation
• Data from the camera is transferred to a computer that analyzes the indentation,
determines its size, and then calculates the Brinell Hardness Number

Figure 7: An illustration of the Brinell hardness testing machine, and types of indenters
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Brinell Hardness Test: Requirements
Apparatus: To be included
• In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (F) on to the
surface of the test specimen
• Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the removal of the load (F)
Procedure: To be included
Observations
Test piece material =
Diameter of the ball, D =
Test load =
Load application time =
Calculations
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, kg
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐷 − √(𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 ))
𝐷 𝐷
𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜋 ℎ = 𝜋 [𝐷 − √(𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )]
2 2
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝐵𝐻𝑁 =
𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2𝑃
𝐵𝐻𝑁 = Equation 1
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√(𝐷2 −𝑑 2 ))

Table 4: Brinell Hardness test data sheet

S/N Type of Surface area of Indentation BHN
Load Diameter of the
O
Specimen
indenter
Applied Indentation, d in mm2, 𝑨 = 𝝅𝑫[𝑫 −
/material (kg) (mm) √𝑫𝟐 −𝒅𝟐 ]
1
2
3

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Rockwell Hardness Tests
• This test constitute the most common method used to measure hardness because they
are so simple to perform and requires no special skills
• Several different scales may be utilized from possible combinations of various
indenters and different loads, which permit the testing of virtually all metal alloys and
some of the polymers
• Indenters include spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of 1.588, 3.175,
6.350, and 12.70 mm, respectively as well as a conical diamond indenter, which is
used for the hardest materials
• With this system, a hardness number is determined by the difference in depth of
penetration resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed by a larger
major load
• On the basis of the magnitude of both major and minor loads, there are two types of
tests: Rockwell and superficial
• In Rockwell test, a hardness number designated by HR is determined by the difference
in depth of penetration resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed
by a large major load
• The utilization of minor load enhances test accuracy. The minor load is 10 kg, whereas
major loads are 60, 100 and 150 kg respectively
• Each scale is represented by a letter of the alphabet; several are listed with the
corresponding indenter and load in Table 5 and Table 6
• For Superficial Tests, 3 kg is the minor load; 15, 30, and 45 kg are the possible major
load values
• These scales are identified by a 15, 30, or 45 (according to load), followed by N, T,
W, X, or Y, depending on the indenter
• Superficial tests are frequently performed on thin specimens
• Table 7 presents several superficial scales

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• When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardnesses, both hardness number and
scale symbol must be indicated
• The scale is designated by the symbol HR followed by the appropriate scale
identification
• For example, 80 HRB represents a Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale, and 60
HR30W indicates a superficial hardness of 60 on the 30W scale
• The modern apparatus for making Rockwell hardness measurements is automated and
very simple to use in that hardness is read directly, and each measurement requires
only a few seconds
Table 5: Hardness Testing Techniques (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

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Table 6: Rockwell Hardness Scales (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

Table 7: Superficial Rockwell Hardness Scales (Source: Callister & Rethwisch, 2018)

Table 8: Rockwell Hardness Test data sheet

S/NO. Type of Indenter Material Load (N) Hardness

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Vickers and Knoop Hardness Tests
• Two other hardness-testing techniques are the Knoop and Vickers tests (sometimes
also called Diamond Pyramid)

Vickers Test
• Vickers hardness test is preferred over Brinell test where hard materials are
concerned since it uses a diamond indenter
• For each test, a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced
into the surface of the specimen
• The diamond indenter is in the form of a square-based pyramid with an angle of 136o
between opposite faces
• Since only one type of indenter is used, the load has to be varied for different hardness
ranges
• The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured. This
measurement is then converted into a hardness number using Equation 2
• Careful specimen surface preparation (grinding and polishing) may be necessary to
ensure a well-defined indentation that may be measured accurately
• One advantage of the Vickers test over the Brinell test is that the square impressions
made are always geometrically similar, irrespective of size
• The plastic flow patterns, therefore, are very similar for both deep and shallow
indentations and, in consequence, the hardness value obtained is independent of the
magnitude of the indenting force used.
• After an impression has been made, the size of the impression is measured accurately
using either a calibrated microscope or by projecting a magnified image of the
impression onto a screen and measuring this image
• Both diagonals of the impression are measured and the mean value of D, the diagonal
length, is used in the determination of the hardness number

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• For Vickers test, the hardness number (HV) is found by:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝐻𝑉 =
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑚2 )

𝑃 (𝑘𝑔)
𝐻𝑉 =
𝐷2
[ 1 ](𝑚𝑚2 )
2 sin (136𝑜 )
2

2𝑃 sin 68𝑜
𝐻𝑉 =
𝐷2
𝑃
𝐻𝑉 = 1.854 Equation 2
𝐷2

• Where P is the load (kg) and D (mm) is the diagonal of the impression made by the
diamond indenter

Table 9: Convenient loads to use during Vickers Hardness Test

Steels and cast irons 30 kg
Copper alloys 10 kg
Pure copper, aluminium alloys 5 kg
Pure aluminium 2.5 kg
Lead, tin, tin alloys 1 kg

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Knoop Hardness Test
• The Knoop technique is used for testing brittle materials such as ceramics
• The Knoop Hardness Number, HK, is given by Equation 3
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐻𝐾 =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

From the geometry of the indenter;

14.2𝑃
𝐻𝐾 = Equation 3
𝑙2

Where P is the load and l is the length of the Knoop impression

The Shore Scleroscope Test

• Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers hardness tests are suitable for small sized specimen that
can be placed on the testing machine, and hardness is measured as a function of
indentation
• A scleroscope is an instrument that measures the rebound height of a hammer dropped
from a certain distance above the surface of the material to be tested
• This is a dynamic test and involves allowing a small diamond tipped weight to fall
freely through a known height onto the test-piece surface and measuring the height of
rebound of the weight
• The hammer consists of a weight with a diamond indenter attached to it
• The scleroscope therefore measures the mechanical energy absorbed by the material
when the indenter strikes the surface
• The energy absorbed gives an indication of resistance to penetration, which is a
measure of harness
• The scleroscope is used for measuring the hardness of large steel parts such as large
rolls, castings and gears

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• Since it is portable, the scleroscope can be used for testing large surfaces and other
components which could not easily be placed on the testing tables of any other testing
machines
• The scleroscope test is particularly useful for measuring the hardness of very hard
metals
• It is also very useful for the in-situ testing of parts such as gears and the surfaces of
the large rolls used in metal working operations
• A dynamic test, such as the Shore test, can be used to gauge the elastic recovery
response of a rubber type material
• While this is not the same as hardness, when the test is used for metals, the rebound
values obtained with rubbers and thermoplastics is termed their Shore Hardness
Value and this parameter is a good indication of the quality of the material
• The Shore value for rubber and plastic materials is generally determined using a small
instrument known as a Durometer, rather than using the standard Shore falling weight
apparatus
• A typical durometer is a compact hand-held device in which a rounded indentor is
pressed into the material surface under the action of a spring or weight and a pointer
registers a hardness value on a graduated scale
• Various designs are available to cover the range of elastomers and plastics from the
very soft to the very hard over the range Shore A to Shore D
• The hardness of rubbers and plastics is often quoted on the IHRD scale (International
Rubber Hardness Degrees)
• The IHRD scale closely approximates to the Shore scale.

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Microhardness Testing
• There are systems available for Micro-Hardness Testing and the two most widely
used methods are the Vickers Diamond Test and the Knoop Diamond Test
• The Vickers and Knoop techniques are referred to as Micro-Indentation-Testing
methods on the basis of indenter size
• Both are well suited for measuring the hardness of small, selected specimen regions
• The principle of the Vickers diamond micro-hardness test is basically the same as for
the standard Vickers test but the indenting loads used are measured in grammes rather
than kilograms
• The modern micro-indentation hardness testing equipment has been automated by
coupling the indenter apparatus to an image analyzer that incorporates a computer and
software package
• The software controls important system functions, including indent location, indent
spacing, computation of hardness values, and plotting of data

Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength

• Both Tensile Strength and Hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation
• Tensile Strength and Hardness are roughly proportional
• As a rule of thumb, for most steels, the Brinell Hardness Number (HB) and the Tensile
Strength (TS) are related according to:

𝑻𝑺(𝑴𝑷𝒂) = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝑯𝑩
𝑻𝑺(𝒑𝒔𝒊) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝑯𝑩

NB: Procedure for hardness testing depend on the equipment to be used

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Summary

• Universal electronic hardness testing machines are now widely used, which at the turn
of a switch, can show Brinell, Vickers or Rockwell hardness numbers as a digital
readout automatically
• These machines also give a hard copy printout of the test results together with the test
conditions and the date”

References

1. Callister Jr D.W. & Rethwisch D.G. (2018). Materials Science and Engineering:
An Introduction, (10th Edn. ) New York: John Wiley and Sons

2. Vernon, J. (2003). Introduction to Engineering Materials. (4th Edn.). London:

Macmillan Press Ltd.

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