SCIENCE

PHYSICS FORCE AND MOTION

College Admission Test Reviewer FORCE
Force is a push or pull that can cause an object to
accelerate, decelerate, or change its shape. It is a vector
quantity, which means it has both magnitude (how strong
the force is) and direction. Forces can be applied by contact
or at a distance.

FOCUSED TOPICS MOTION

Motion refers to a change in the position of an object with
respect to its surroundings over time. It can involve
Force and Motion translational motion, rotational motion, or a combination of
Work, Power, Energy and Torque both.
EM Spectrum
Newton’s Law of Motion
Mirrors
Lenses 1st Law of Motion: Law of Inertia
Magnetism “An object at rest will remain at rest unless a force is acted
Thermal Expansion upon it.” or “An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in
motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the
Electricity
same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced external
force.”

2nd Law of Motion: Law of Acceleration

“The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
net force acting upon it and inversely proportional to its
mass.”
This can be expressed with the formula F=ma, where F is the
force, m is the mass, and a is the acceleration.
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3rd Law of Motion: Law of Interaction
“For every action, there’s an equal and opposite reaction.”
This law means that forces always occur in pairs. If one body
exerts a force on another, the second body exerts an equal
and opposite force on the first.

Other Formulas

Force
CONCEPTS ABOUT FORCE AND MOTION
Speed - It is a way of measuring how fast something is Gravitational Force
moving. It tells you how far an object has traveled in a
certain amount of time. It is a scalar quantity.
Momentum
Velocity - Similar to speed but it contains both how fast the
object is and the direction of the object. It is a vector
quantity. Impulse
Acceleration - It is the measure of how quickly an object’s
speed changes over time.
Displacement - It is the change in position of an object from Where,
its initial point to its final point in a specific direction. It is a F = force p = momentum
vector quantity. m = mass v = velocity
Distance - The total length of the path traveled by an object, a = acceleration J = impulse
regardless of direction. G = gravitational constant Δp = change in momentum
Magnitude - The size or length of a vector, representing the r = distance between the Δt = change in time
quantity's size without considering its direction. A scalar centers of the two masses
quantity.
Kinematic Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Vector and Scalar Quantities

Scalar Quantity
A quantity that has only magnitude and no direction.
Scalars are represented using only a number and a unit.
Examples: Speed, distance, mass, temperature, energy.

Vector Quantity
A quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Vectors are represented using arrows to show their direction
and magnitude.
Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force. Uniform Motion
Motion of an object aloong a straight line with uniform velocity
FORMULAS as it covers equal distance in interval line.
Speed d/t
Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Velocity Δx/t One dimension with constant acceleration.
Objects involved are moving in a straight line whose
Acceleration (vf - vi)/t
acceleration does not change over time.
Displacement xf - xi The velocity of the body which is moving in straight lines
changes at a constant time.
Distance st
Equal change in velocity in equal intervals of time.
Time d/s
Frictional force is the resistive force that opposes the relative
where, d = distance, t = time, Δx = displacement, v = velocity, motion or tendency of such motion of two surfaces in contact. It
x = position (i = initial, f = final) acts parallel to the surfaces and opposite to the direction of
motion or intended motion.
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Types of Frictional Force Normal Force on a Flat Surface
Static Friction: This force prevents relative motion between
two surfaces that are not moving relative to each other. It
must be overcome to start moving an object. (Ex.: Prevents a
stationary object from sliding down an inclined plane.)
= static frictional force
= coefficient of static friction
= normal force

Kinetic (Dynamic) Friction: This force acts on moving

objects and opposes the motion. (Ex.: Opposes the motion of
a sliding object, such as a sled moving over snow.)

= kinetic frictional force

= coefficient of kinetic friction
= normal force
Normal Force on an Inclined Plane

Normal Force
The normal force is the support force exerted by a surface
perpendicular to an object resting on it. It arises from the
contact between two surfaces and prevents objects from
"falling" into the surface they rest upon. The normal force is
crucial in balancing the forces acting on an object, ensuring
that the object remains in equilibrium.

Flat Surface: When an object rests on a horizontal surface

Distance vs. Displacement
without any additional vertical forces, the normal force (N)
equals the gravitational force (mg) acting on the object.

m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity

Inclined Plane: When an object rests on an inclined plane

making an angle θ\thetaθ with the horizontal, the normal force is
a component of the gravitational force perpendicular to the
surface.
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
θ = angle of inclination
 SCIENCE
Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to the total length of Equations of Motion
the path traveled by an object, regardless of its direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to the change in Velocity
position of an object. It is the shortest straight-line distance
from the initial to the final position of the object and includes
Displacement
direction.

Velocity-Displacement
Example:
Relationship
15 cm
end
distance = 23 cm Where,
(15 cm + 8 cm = 23 cm) v is the final velocity.
u is the initial velocity (for free fall from rest, u=0).
8 cm g is the acceleration due to gravity.
displacement t is the time.
c² = a² + b²
c = displacement
s is the displacement (distance fallen).
a = distance 1
b = distance 2
start

c² = 8² + 15²
c² = 64 + 225
c² = 289
√c² = √289
c = 17

displacement = 17 cm

Vectors Operation Example

→ →
Solve: 3C + 4D
→ → → → Where,
v is the final velocity.
→ → → →
u is the initial velocity (for free fall from rest, u=0).
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Solution: t is the time.
s is the displacement (distance fallen).
→ →
Substitute C and D.
→ → → → → →
PROJECTILE MOTION

Distributive Multiplication. Projectile motion describes the motion of an object that is

→ → → → → → launched into the air and is subject to gravity. The path followed
by a projectile is called its trajectory, which is typically a
Combine like terms. parabola.
→ → → → → →

→ → →

Answer:
→ → →

Free fall refers to the motion of an object under the influence of

gravity alone, with no other forces acting on it. In a vacuum,
where air resistance is negligible, all objects fall at the same rate
regardless of their mass.

Key Concepts and Formulas

Acceleration due to Gravity (g)

Near the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity
is approximately g = 9.8 m/s²
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Key Concepts and Formulas Power can also be expressed in terms of force and velocity:
Horizontal Component: Velocity in the horizontal direction
(vₓ) remains constant.
Vertical Component: Motion in the vertical direction is
influenced by gravity.
Range (R): The horizontal distance the projectile travels. Torque is a measure of the rotational force applied to an object,
Maximum Height (H): The peak vertical position of the causing it to rotate around an axis. It is the rotational equivalent
projectile. of linear force. The SI unit of torque is the newton-meter (N·m).
Time of Flight (T): The total time the projectile is in the air.

Horizontal Component
Where,
τ = torque.
Vertical Component #1 r = position vector from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of the force.
Vertical Component #2 F = applied force.
θ = angle between r and F.

Vertical Component #3 Torque is a vector quantity. The direction of the torque vector is
given by the right-hand rule, which specifies that the direction
If the projectile is launched of the torque vector is perpendicular to the plane formed by r
with an initial velocity v₀ at an and F.
angle θ to the horizontal
Energy is the capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential,
Range kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or various other
forms.
Max. Height
Law of Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy in
Time
an isolated system remains constant. Energy can transform from
one form to another (e.g., potential to kinetic), but the total
Where, amount of energy remains the same.
x = horizontal displacement
vₓ₀ = initial horizontal velocity
vᵧ₀ = initial vertical velocity
vᵧ = vertical velocity at time Where, Eₜₒₜₐₗ is the total mechanical energy of the system, U is
y = vertical displacement the potential energy, and K is the kinetic energy.

Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its

position or configuration. The two common types are
WORK, POWER, ENERGY, AND TORQUE gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy.
Work is done when a force causes displacement of an object. It Kinetic energy is the energy of an object due to its motion.
is a measure of energy transfer and is defined as the product of
the force applied to an object and the displacement of that Gravitational Potential
object in the direction of the force. The SI unit of work is the Energy (GPE)
joule (J) where 1 J = 1 Nm.
Elastic Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

Where,
W = work done Law of Conservation of Energy Examples
F = force applied
d = displacement Pendulum
θ = angle between the force and the displacement vectors. At the highest point, the pendulum has maximum potential
energy and zero kinetic energy.
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. At the lowest point, the pendulum has maximum kinetic
It measures how quickly work is performed. The SI unit of power energy and zero potential energy.
is the watt (W), where 1 W = 1 J/s. Throughout the motion, the sum of kinetic and potential
energy remains constant.
Where,
P = power Free Fall
W = work done An object falling from a height will convert its gravitational
t = time taken potential energy into kinetic energy.
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The potential energy lost equals the kinetic energy gained: Perfectly Inelastic Collision
A special case of inelastic collision where the colliding
objects stick together and move as a single object after the
collision.
Maximum kinetic energy loss consistent with the
conservation of momentum.
Where, The same as inelastic collision, but here, v is the shared
U = gravitational/elastic potential energy. velocity after collision.
m = mass of the object.
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s^2)
h = height above a reference point.
k = spring constant.
x = displacement from the equilibrium position. Elastic Collision
K = kinetic energy.
v = velocity of the object.

Work, Power, Energy, Torque

Work quantifies the energy transfer when a force moves an
object over a distance.
Power measures the rate at which work is done or energy is
transferred.
Torque measures the tendency of a force to rotate an object
about an axis.
Energy measures the capacity to do work.

Collision refers to an event where two or more bodies exert

forces on each other for a relatively short time. Collisions can be
categorized based on how kinetic energy and momentum are
conserved during the event.

Types of Collisions

Elastic Collision
A collision in which both kinetic energy and momentum are
conserved.
The objects bounce off each other without any deformation
or generation of heat.

Perfectly Elastic Collision

Where,

Inelastic Collision
A collision in which momentum is conserved, but kinetic
energy is not. Some kinetic energy is converted into other
forms of energy, such as heat or sound.
The objects may stick together or deform, and they might
not separate after the collision.
For completely inelastic collisions where the objects stick
together after collision:
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Inelastic Collision Brief History of Electromagnetic Theory
1. Oersted - current carrying wires behave like a magnet
2. Ampere - demonstrated the magnetic effect
3. Faraday - electromagnetic induction
4. Henry - imitating the wire instead of iron core
5. Maxwell - formulated the Electromagnetic Wave Theory.
Made a mathematical equation.
6. Hertz - experimental setup

Remember
Changing electric field creates magnetic field.
Changing magnetic fields creates electric fields.

EM SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic waves are a disturbance in a field that carries Radio Waves
energy and does not require a medium to travel. Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves properties: They are commonly used for communication, including radio
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves consisting of broadcasting and television transmission.
electric and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to Radio waves are also used in radar systems for navigation
each other and to the direction of wave propagation. and weather monitoring.
They do not require a medium to travel through and can
propagate through a vacuum. Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves can travel at the speed of light Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radio waves and
(approximately 299,792,458 meters per second). c = 3.0 x longer than infrared waves.
108m/s in vacuum. They are used in microwave ovens for cooking,
Electromagnetic waves consist of oscillating electric and communication in cell phones, and satellite communication.
magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and to Microwaves are also used in radar technology and some
the direction of wave propagation. medical imaging techniques.
As the wave travels through space, the electric and
magnetic fields interact and create a self-sustaining pattern Infrared Waves:
of energy transfer. Infrared waves have wavelengths longer than visible light
but shorter than microwaves.
Amplitude, Frequency, and Wavelength They are associated with heat and are used in applications
Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of the electric such as thermal imaging, remote controls, and night vision
or magnetic field from its equilibrium position. It represents technology.
the intensity or brightness of the wave. Infrared radiation is also emitted by warm objects and is
Frequency (f) is the number of complete cycles or used in astronomy to study celestial objects.
oscillations of the wave that occur in one second and is
measured in hertz (Hz). Visible Light:
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive Visible light is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that
points in a wave that are in phase (e.g., crest to crest or is detectable by the human eye.
trough to trough). It is divided into different colors, each corresponding to a
different wavelength and frequency.
The relationship between frequency, wavelength, and the speed Visible light is crucial for human vision and is used in a wide
of light (c) is given by the equation: c = λf range of applications, from illumination to optical
communication.
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Ultraviolet (UV) Waves: Related Formulas
Ultraviolet waves have shorter wavelengths than visible light
but longer than X-rays. Wave speed
They are known for their ability to cause sunburn and are
used in germicidal lamps for disinfection.
Energy in a photon
X-rays:
X-rays have shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet waves and Wave equation
longer than gamma rays.
They are commonly used in medical imaging (X-ray
Doppler Effect (for Light)
radiography and CT scans) to visualize the inside of the
human body.
X-rays are also used in materials testing and research. Where,
c = speed of light (3.0 x 10⁸ m/s)
Gamma Rays: λ = wavelength
Gamma rays have the shortest wavelengths in the f = frequency
electromagnetic spectrum. E = energy
They are highly energetic and are produced in nuclear h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ Js)
reactions and radioactive decay. v = wave speed
Gamma rays are used in medical treatments (radiation f’ = observed frequency
therapy) and are important for studying high-energy
phenomena in astrophysics. The Doppler Effect (for sound) is the change in frequency or
wavelength of a wave in relation to an observer moving relative
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM USES to the source of the wave. This effect is commonly experienced
1. Radio waves: Communication (AM, FM, TV), radar with sound waves.
2. Microwaves: Cooking, communication (cell phones), radar
3. Infrared: Thermal imaging, remote controls Frequency Change
4. Visible light: Human vision, photography When the source of the sound moves towards the observer,
5. Ultraviolet: Disinfection, sunscreen, fluorescent lighting the observed frequency increases.
6. X-rays: Medical imaging, security screening When the source moves away from the observer, the
7. Gamma rays: Medical treatments, nuclear processes observed frequency decreases.

VISIBLE LIGHTS Wavelength Change

Visible Light, commonly refers to electromagnetic radiation that As the source approaches the observer, the wavelengths get
can be detected by the human eye. compressed (shorter).
As the source recedes from the observer, the wavelengths
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that exhibits get stretched (longer).
wave-like behavior.
Transverse waves are characterized by oscillations
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Electric and magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular to each
MIRRORS
other and to the direction of light's movement. Two Category of Objects:
The speed of light in a vacuum is a fundamental constant of Luminous objects are objects that generate their own light.
nature, denoted by "c." It is approximately 299,792,458 Illuminated objects are objects that are capable of reflecting
meters per second (m/s). light to our eyes.
The sun is an example of a luminous object, while the moon
is an illuminated object.

LINE OF SIGHT
You can only view the object when light from that object
travels to your eye. In order to view an object, you must
sight along a line at that object; and when you do, light will
come from that object to your eye along the line of sight.
To view the image of an object in a mirror, you must sight
along a line at the image. One of the many rays of light from
the object will approach the mirror and reflect along your line
of sight to your eye.

The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency

(violet).
The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency (red).
SCIENCE

Types of mirrors
Plane mirrors: flat mirrors that reflect light rays in the same
order as they approach the mirror.
Spherical mirrors: portion of a sphere that is sliced away
and then silvered on one of the sides to form a reflecting
surface
LAW OF REFLECTION
When a light ray is incident upon a reflecting surface, the Two Types of Spherical Mirrors
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Both of
these angles are measured relative to a normal drawn to the 1. Concave Mirror
surface. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal It reflects light inward to one focal point. It is used to focus
all lie in the same plane. light.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. θi = Also known as a converging mirror, it has a reflecting
θr. surface that is recessed inward (away from the incident
light).
When light hits an object, every part of that object reflects light
in all directions. Some of the reflected light reaches our eyes. 2. Convex Mirror
Thus, we can see an object. A diverging mirror is a curved mirror in which the reflective
surface bulges towards the light source.
Characteristics of Images formed by plane mirror: Convex mirrors reflect light outwards; therefore they are not
Image is virtual used to focus light.
Same size as the object
Same orientation as the object
Same distance from the mirror as the object

Left-Right Reversal
If you view an image of yourself in a plane mirror, you will quickly
notice that there is an apparent left-right reversal of the image.
That is, if you raise your left hand, you will notice that the image
raises what would seem to be its right hand. If you raise your
right hand, the image raises what would seem to be its left hand.
This is often termed left-right reversal.

Specular Reflection
Reflection off of smooth surfaces such as mirrors or a calm body
of water.
rays reflect to form a clear image Real Image Virtual Image
reflected rays are nearly parallel
A virtual image is formed when
normals drawn to the surface (at the point at which the
A real image is formed when light rays do not actually
incident ray strikes the surface) are nearly parallel.
light rays actually meet after intersect after reflection, but
reflection. they appear to diverge from the
Diffuse Reflection
mirror.
Reflection off of rough surfaces such as clothing, paper, and the
asphalt roadway A real image can be formed on A virtual image cannot be
rays reflect in many directions and no clear image is formed a screen. formed on a screen.
none of the normals drawn to the surface (at the point at
A real image is inverted with A virtual image is erect with
which the incident light ray strikes the surface) are parallel.
respect to the object. respect to the object.

e.g. The image of a distance

e.g. The image of an object
object formed by a concave
formed by a convex mirror.
mirror.
SCIENCE
Image Formation on Concave Mirror
Location
Object beyond C
Object Image Orientation Size Real or Virtual

beyond C b/w C and F inverted diminished real

at C at C inverted same size real

b/w C and F beyond C inverted enlarged real

no image / at no image / no image / no image /

at F
infinity inverted highly enlarged real

behind the
b/w F and P upright enlarged virtual
mirror

Object at C
CONVEX MIRROR
-- Object at Any Position: Virtual, upright, diminished, between F and mirror.

MIRROR FORMULA

Mirror Equation Magnification

Object between C and F

APPLICATIONS
Concave mirrors, which curve inward, are used in applications where
magnified or focused images are needed. Including Shaving Mirrors and
Object at F Makeup Mirrors, Reflecting Telescopes, Headlights and Flashlights, Dental
Mirrors.
Convex mirrors, which curve outward, are used in applications where a wide
field of view is necessary. Like Security and Safety Mirrors, Vehicle Side
Mirrors, Convenience Store Mirrors.

LENSES
Object between F and P
SCIENCE

BASIS FOR COMPARISON CONVEX LENS CONCAVE LENS

It can be identified as the lens

It refers to the lens which merges
Meaning which disperses the light rays
the light rays at a particular point.
around.

Curve Outward Inward

Light Converges Diverges

Thicker at the center than the Thinner at the center than the
Center and Edges
edges edges

Focal length Positive Negative

Image Real, inverted image Virtual image

Objects Appear larger and closer Appear smaller and farther

Usage Correct hyperopia Correct myopia

IMAGE FORMATION ON CONVEX LENSES

Location

Object Image Orientation Size Real or Virtual

beyond 2F b/w F and 2F inverted diminished real

at 2F at 2F inverted same size real

b/w 2F and F beyond 2F inverted enlarged real

no image / at no image / highly

at F no image no image
infinity enlarged

on the same side

b/w F and lens upright enlarged virtual
as the object

Concave Lens (Diverging Lens)

Object at Any Position: The image is on the same side as the object, virtual,
upright, and diminished.

same formulas as mirrors

SCIENCE
MAGNETISM THERMAL EXPANSION
Magnetism is a fundamental force of nature, exhibited by
Thermal expansion refers to the increase in the size or volume
certain materials that produce magnetic fields. This force is
of materials as their temperature increases. This phenomenon is
responsible for the behavior of magnets and the movement of
observed in solids, liquids, and gases, though the nature and
electric charges within a magnetic field.
magnitude of expansion differ across these states of matter.
Solids when heated has increased thermal energy causing
A magnetic field (B) is a vector field surrounding a magnet or a
the particles within the solid to vibrate more vigorously.
current-carrying conductor, representing the force that a
The vibration leads to a slight increase in the average
magnetic object would experience at any point in space.
distance of particles, resulting in the macroscopic expansion.

Magnetic Field Lines

Imaginary lines that represent the direction and strength of a
magnetic field.
The lines emerge from the north pole and enter the south
pole of a magnet.
The density of these lines indicates the field's strength;
closer lines mean a stronger field.

Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet

The field is strongest at the poles and diminishes with
distance.
The field inside the magnet flows from the south to the north
pole.

Basic Properties of Magnets

Opposite poles of magnets attract, while like poles repel. Coefficient of Coefficient of
Substances linear thermal Substance linear thermal
Poles expansion expansion
Magnets have two poles: North (N) and South (S).
Like poles repel each other, while opposite poles attract. Aluminum 25.0 Nickel 12.8

Brass 18.9 Silver 18.8

Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet where magnetic forces can be Copper 16.5 Steel 13.2
observed.
Glass 8.5 Tin 20
Represented by magnetic field lines that emanate from the
North pole and enter the South pole. Iron 11.7 Zinc 39.7

Lead 29.3 Ice 51

Linear Expansion Coefficient

Represents how much a unit length of a material expands
per degree change in temperature.

Typical Values:
Metals:
Concrete:

ELECTRICITY
Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law describes the force between two charges.
The force is attractive if the charges are opposite and
repulsive if the charges are the same.
Coulomb’s Law is similar to Newton’s Law of Gravitation but
applies to electric forces.
SCIENCE
Ohm’s Law Current through Each Component
Ohm’s Law relates the voltage, current, and resistance in an
electrical circuit.
Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the voltage
across the two points and inversely proportional to the
resistance.

Term Definition Units

The electric potential difference
Voltage Volts (V)
Where: between two points in a circuit.
V = Voltage (volts, V) The flow of electric charge through a
I = Current (Ampere, A) Current Amperes (A)
conductor.
R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)
The opposition to the flow of electric
Resistance Ohms (Ω)
Electrical Circuits current.
Electrical circuits can be described in terms of series and The rate at which electrical energy is
Power Watts (W)
parallel configurations. Each configuration affects the total transferred by an electric circuit.
resistance, voltage, and current differently. A field around charged particles that Volts per meter
Electric Field
exerts force on other charges. (V/m)
Series Circuits
Components are connected end-to-end. Potential The work done to move a unit charge
Volts (V)
Same current flows through all components. Difference from one point to another.
The total resistance is the sum of individual resistances. The ability of a system to store charge
Capacitance Farads (F)
per unit voltage.

Parallel Circuits
Components are connected across the same two points. Power Formula
The same voltage is applied across all components. Power in an electrical circuit can be calculated using the
The total current is the sum of currents through each following formulas:
component.

General Formula

Using Ohm’s Law