MODULE V INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

WHAT IS DATA INTERPRETATION?

Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data

is reviewed for the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The
interpretation of data assigns a meaning to the information analysed and
determines its signification and implications.

The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it needs to be

done properly. Data is very likely to arrive from multiple sources and has a
tendency to enter the analysis process with haphazard ordering. Data analysis
tends to be extremely subjective. That is to say, the nature and goal of
interpretation will vary from business to business, likely correlating to the type
of data being analysed. While there are several different types of processes that
are implemented based on individual data nature, the two broadest and most
common categories are “quantitative analysis” and “qualitative analysis”.

Yet, before any serious data interpretation inquiry can begin, it should be
understood that visual presentations of data findings are irrelevant unless a
sound decision is made regarding scales of measurement. Before any serious
data analysis can begin, the scale of measurement must be decided for the data
as this will have a long-term impact on data interpretation ROI. The varying
scales include:

 Nominal Scale: non-numeric categories that cannot be ranked or compared

quantitatively. Variables are exclusive and exhaustive.
 Ordinal Scale: exclusive categories that are exclusive and exhaustive but with
a logical order. Quality ratings and agreement ratings are examples of ordinal
scales (i.e., good, very good, fair, etc., OR agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).
 Interval: a measurement scale where data is grouped into categories with
orderly and equal distances between the categories. There is always an arbitrary
zero point.
 Ratio: contains features of all three.

For a more in-depth review of scales of measurement, read our article on data
analysis questions. Once scales of measurement have been selected, it is time to
 select which of the two broad interpretation processes will best suit your data
needs. Let’s take a closer look at those specific data interpretation methods and
possible data interpretation problems.

WHY INTERPRETATION IS NECESSARY?

Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and
utility of research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being
considered a basic component of research process because of the following
reasons:
1. It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the
abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link
up his findings with those of other studies, having the same abstract
principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events. Fresh
inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in
research can be maintained.
2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can
serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of
intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
3. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings
are what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of
his research findings.
4. The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results
into hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is
involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an
exploratory study does not have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of
such a study have to be interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the
interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’ interpretation.

TECHNIQUES OF INTERPRETATION .
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns
through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the
guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The
technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has
found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that
lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is
the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be
formulated.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered
while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a
key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.
3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult
someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will
not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such
a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the
utility of research results.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering
all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He
must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions,
which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
5. One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected
and analysed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions.
It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task of interpretation be
accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct
perspective. Researcher must pay attention to the following points for
correct interpretation:
6. At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences, the data
reflect good homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done through
statistical methods.
7. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly
arise in the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false
generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures,
such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations,
identification of correlation with causation and the like. Another major
pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the
basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test
results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord”
with the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity of the
 hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so
that false generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped
with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing
inferences concerning his study.
8. He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he
must take the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and
accordingly must take all those precautions that one usually observes
while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning
the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison
of results.
9. He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make
sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and
disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable
him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalisation
should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the
coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and
particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be
specified and the results must be framed within their limits.
10.The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research
study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis,
empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this
area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical
observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie." He must
pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.
11.One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected
and analysed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions.
It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task of interpretation be
accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct
perspective. Researcher must pay attention to the following points for
correct interpretation:
12.At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences, the data
reflect good homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done through
statistical methods.
13.The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly
arise in the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false
generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures,
such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations,
identification of correlation with causation and the like. Another major
pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the
basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test
results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord”
with the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity of the
hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so
that false generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped
with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing
inferences concerning his study.
14.He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he
must take the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and
accordingly must take all those precautions that one usually observes
while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning
the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison
of results.
15.He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make
sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and
disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable
him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalisation
should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the
coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and
particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be
specified and the results must be framed within their limits.
16.The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research
study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis,
empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this
area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical
observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie." He must
pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION

One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and
analysed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is,
therefore, absolutely essential that the task of interpretation be accomplished
with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct perspective. Researcher
must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:

At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences, the data reflect
good homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.

The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in
the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization
and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the
application of findings beyond the range of observations, identification of
correlation with causation and the like.

Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist
on the basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test
results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with
the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity of the hypothesis”. The
researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false generalization
may not take place.

He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical
measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must
take the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly
must take all those precautions that one usually observes while going through
the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data,
computational checks, validation and comparison of results.
He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the
factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of
interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalisation should be avoided as most
research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted to a
particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such restrictions, if
any, must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within their
limits.

The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study,
there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical
observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction
between theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for
originality and creativity lie." He must pay special attention to this aspect while
engaged in the task of interpretation.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH REPORT?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data,

and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that
serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically
considered as an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research

process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important
details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the
information you need about the core areas of the research process.
FEATURES OF A RESEARCH REPORT

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of
the basic features that define a research report.

 It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it

usually includes tables and graphs.
 It is written in a formal language.
 A research report is usually written in the third person.
 It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
 It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
 It always includes recommendations for future actions.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING

In general, reporting writing is very helpful for making the record of

documentation. With the help of reports, we can easily recognize our work. For
example, reports play a vital role in schools and colleges for knowing how
many students have joined in this year. Report writing also helps the director of
the industry, business or any organization in order to make quick decisions and
planning of anything. The importance of report writing is that it also helps to
communicate within the company that is workers, to discuss the problems of the
business and to give investor details of everyday running.

A report can be good when it can be written in the manner of proper

communication and written communication. There are also verbal reports and
informal reports. Many kinds of report provide many types of profits. Report
writing consists of the history and facts of a project or any kind of event. It is
useful for recording a past history and an overall summary of decisions.

Report writing helps as a path to solve problems. Writing a report guides you in
a way to modernize details about improvements and upcoming plans. For
example, the progress of technology or any policy of government. There are
many types of report writing such as research report writing. While writing the
report of a research paper seems hard but don’t worry as there are many online
academic report writing services who can help you in any way. The significance
of report writing can be highlighted below.

Easy Tool for Making Decision

In this modern world, huge companies need a large number of information. The
only solution to manage this is to make reports. With the help of report writing,
necessary judgments can be made in business. Report writing provides easy,
updated and helpful details in a document.

Analysis

Report is very important because whenever any issue occurs, a group of

committees try to find the reason for that issue and provide the whole scenario
and results with or without the suggestion in the shape of report writing.

Evaluation

A company that is based on a large scale are involved in many different

activities. Due to this reason, it is impossible for the management to keep an eye
on every one of what everybody is doing. Therefore, the management finds an
easy way and writes a report to highlight the acts of every department.

Quick Source

It is a fact that marketing managers require details in order to make a quick

decision. In this case, sometimes a senior manager seems to be very busy for
many reasons that’s why it requires authentic sources to get information. These
types of sources can be in the form of report writing.

Improvement of Skill

Report writing helps you to improve the skills of designing, judgments, and
means of communication. Therefore, these skills make a way to promote you.
Explain Facts

Facts can be considered in a way that can be obtained naturally. That is why this
type of presentation is verified with the help of a report because it examines and
explores, calculates and many other things about any fact.

Professional Improvements

Report writing is very important if we talk about the advancement and

improvement of the professional.
For example, in a company, if anyone is selected for promotion, so before this,
you have to make report writing document in which you will write about the
position, performance satisfaction and level of working, with the help of all
these points you can be able to make a report and submitted to the manager so
that promotion can be given to that particular person fulfilling all the
requirements areas.

Fully Control

No matter, the activities are fully achieved in accordance with the plan or not.
That is why in order to control such activities it depends mainly on report
writing.

Easy Tool

Many of the reports make an easy way of activities for the managers. In order
for planning, promoting, controlling and managing. No doubt a report writing
plays a vital role to help a manager as the report refers to as a source of
information.

Handle Complex Situation

In an organization that is based on a large scale, there might always have a

problem of labor which may result in complex conditions. In order to handle
this situation, managers make a report.
DIFFERENT STEPS TO WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the
different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A
research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for
a concise presentation of information.

Structure of a Research Report

 Title

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise
and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report.

 Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research
report.

 Abstract

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research

including the research method, data collection process, and research findings.
Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents
pertinent information in a concise manner.

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the
point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format –
What, Where, Why, When, Who and How.

 Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic
investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out
to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate
whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more
work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and
also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the
researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are
contained in the research.

 Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of

study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and
analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic
investigation.

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further

investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also
hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing
body of knowledge in your field of study.

 An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology,

sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth
information on the research process including the data collection and analysis
procedures.

In a quantitative research report, you'd need to provide information surveys,

questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your
research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the
qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews
and focus groups.

 Findings

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic
investigation.

 Discussion

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here,
you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether
the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have
come up with similar results.
  Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the
significance of the entire study.

 References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources.

MECHANICS FOR WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

 Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research
report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you
need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on
anything.

 Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the
report. If you're writing for a general audience, you would want to present the
information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you
would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms.

 Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your
systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant
information while highlighting only important data and findings.

 Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual

representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend
additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

 Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your
research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that
readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title.

 Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to
authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the
report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software.

TYPES OF REPORTS
Type # 1. Formal or Informal Reports:
Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization,
contain much detail, and are written in a style that tends to eliminate such
elements as personal pronouns. Informal reports are usually short messages with
natural, casual use of language. The internal memorandum can generally be
described as an informal report.

Type # 2. Short or Long Reports:

This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum is obviously short,
and a twenty page report is clearly long. But where is the dividing line? Bear in
mind that as a report becomes longer (or what you determine as long), it takes
on more characteristics of formal reports.

Type # 3. Informational or Analytical Reports:

Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and reports on
personnel absenteeism) carry objective information from one area of an
organization to another. Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility
reports, and real-estate appraisals) present attempts to solve problems.

Type # 4. Proposal Report:

The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is a
document prepared to describe how one organization can meet the needs of
another. Most governmental agencies advertise their needs by issuing “requests
for proposal” or RFPs. The RFP specifies a need and potential suppliers prepare
proposal reports telling how they can meet that need.
Type # 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports:
This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that more
upward or downward the hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports; such
reports contribute to management control. Lateral reports, on the other hand,
assist in coordination in the organization. A report traveling between units of
the same organization level (production and finance departments) is lateral.

Type # 6. Internal or External Reports:

Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such as annual
reports of companies, are prepared for distribution outside the organization.

Type # 7. Periodic Reports:

Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are generally
upward directed and serve management control. Pre-printed forms and
computer-generated data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.

Type # 8. Functional Reports:

This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports, financial
reports, and a variety of other reports that take their designation from the
ultimate use of the report. Almost all reports could be included in most of these
categories. And a single report could be included in several classifications.

PRECAUTIONS A RESEARCHER SHOULD KEEP IN MIND

WHILE PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT
A research report forms a channel of communication between the research
findings given by researcher on the one hand and the readers of the report on the
other hand and effective communication of research findings to the readers is
the basic task of the research report.

Hence researcher should keep in mind the following precautions while

preparing the research report:

1. The length of the report should be kept keeping in view the fact that it should
cover the subject in length but it should be short enough to maintain the interest
of readers.

2. The report should not be dull. It should be such as to sustain one’s interest.
3. The report should possess the features of simplicity and avoiding vagueness.

4. Readers of the report are more interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of

the main findings and the report should provide a ready availability of the
findings with the help of charts, graphs and statistical tables.

5. The contents of the report should be well thought out keeping in view the
objective of the research problem.

6. The grammatical mistakes should be avoided and the report should be

prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of report.
Writing such as the use of quotations, foot notes, proper punctuations and the
use of abbreviations in the foot notes etc.

7. Logical analysis should be the very basis of preparing a research report.

8. The report should also suggest the policy implication relating to the problem
under consideration and should help us in future forecasting.

9. All the technical data should be appended in the report.

10. A list of bibliography of various sources consulted for the research study
should be prepared and be given in the report.

11. A good report should also possess an index of subjects and authors as well.
It should be appended at the end of the report.

12. Report should be attractive in shape, neat and clean whether typed or
printed.

13. Calculated confidence limits must also be mentioned in the report and the
various limitations experienced by the researcher in his study should be stated in
the report.

14. A good report should also mention the objective of the study the nature of
the problem the methods and analysis techniques used. All these things should
be given in the form of introduction in the report.
 CONTENTS AND LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT

Contents of Research Report

The researcher must keep in mind that his research report must contain
following aspects:

1. Purpose of study
2. Significance of his study or statement of the problem
3. Review of literature
4. Methodology
5. Interpretation of data
6. Conclusions and suggestions
7. Bibliography
8. Appendices

These can be discussed in detail as under:

(1) Purpose of study:

Research is one direction oriented study. He should discuss the problem of his
study. He must give background of the problem. He must lay down his
hypothesis of the study. Hypothesis is the statement indicating the nature of the
problem. He should be able to collect data, analyze it and prove the hypothesis.
The importance of the problem for the advancement of knowledge or removed
of some evil may also be explained. He must use review of literature or the data
from secondary source for explaining the statement of the problems.

(2) Significance of study:

Research is re-search and hence the researcher may highlight the earlier
research in new manner or establish new theory. He must refer earlier research
work and distinguish his own research from earlier work. He must explain how
his research is different and how his research topic is different and how his
research topic is important. In a statement of his problem, he must be able to
 explain in brief the historical account of the topic and way in which he can
make and attempt. In his study to conduct the research on his topic.

(3) Review of Literature:

Research is a continuous process. He cannot avoid earlier research work. He

must start with earlier work. He should note down all such research work,
published in books, journals or unpublished thesis. He will get guidelines for his
research from taking a review of literature. He should collect information in
respect of earlier research work. He should enlist them in the given below:

1. Author/researcher
2. Title of research /Name of book
3. Publisher
4. Year of publication
5. Objectives of his study
6. Conclusion/suggestions

Then he can compare this information with his study to show separate identity
of his study. He must be honest to point out similarities and differences of his
study from earlier research work.

(4) Methodology:

It is related to collection of data. There are two sources for collecting data;
primary and secondary. Primary data is original and collected in field work,
either through questionnaire interviews. The secondary data relied on library
work. Such primary data are collected by sampling method. The procedure for
selecting the sample must be mentioned. The methodology must give various
aspects of the problem that are studied for valid generalization about the
phenomena. The scales of measurement must be explained along with different
concepts used in the study.

While conducting a research based on field work, the procedural things like
definition of universe, preparation of source list must be given. We use case
study method, historical research etc. He must make it clear as to which method
is used in his research work. When questionnaire is prepared, a copy of it must
be given in appendix.
(5) Interpretation of data:

Mainly the data collected from primary source need to be interpreted in

systematic manner. The tabulation must be completed to draw conclusions. All
the questions are not useful for report writing. One has to select them or club
them according to hypothesis or objectives of study.

(6) Conclusions/suggestions:

Data analysis forms the crux of the research problem. The information collected
in field work is useful to draw conclusions of study. In relation with the
objectives of study the analysis of data may lead the researcher to pin point his
suggestions. This is the most important part of study. The conclusions must be
based on logical and statistical reasoning. The report should contain not only the
generalization of inference but also the basis on which the inferences are drawn.
All sorts of proofs, numerical and logical, must be given in support of any
theory that has been advanced. He should point out the limitations of his study.

(7) Bibliography:

The list of references must be arranged in alphabetical order and be presented in

appendix. The books should be given in first section and articles are in second
section and research projects in the third. The pattern of bibliography is
considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader.

(8) Appendices:

The general information in tabular form which is not directly used in the
analysis of data but which is useful to understand the background of study can
be given in appendix.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

There is scientific method for the layout of research report. The layout of
research report means as to what the research report should contain. The
contents of the research report are noted below:
1. Preliminary Page
2. Main Text
3. End Matter

(1) Preliminary Pages:

These must be title of the research topic and data. There must be preface of
foreword to the research work. It should be followed by table of contents. The
list of tables, maps should be given.

(2) Main Text:

It provides the complete outline of research report along with all details. The
title page is reported in the main text. Details of text are given continuously as
divided in different chapters.

(a) Introduction

(b) Statement of the problem

(c) The analysis of data

(d) The implications drawn from the results

(e) The summary

(a) Introduction:

Its purpose is to introduce the research topic to readers. It must cover statement
of the research problem, hypotheses, objectives of study, review of literature,
and the methodology to cover primary and secondary data, limitations of study
and chapter scheme. Some may give in brief in the first chapter the introduction
of the research project highlighting the importance of study. This is followed by
research methodology in separate chapter.

The methodology should point out the method of study, the research design and
method of data collection.

(b) Statement of the problem:

This is crux of his research. It highlights main theme of his study. It must be in
nontechnical language. It should be in simple manner so ordinary reader may
follow it. The social research must be made available to common man. The
research in agricultural problems must be easy for farmers to read it.

(c) Analysis of data:

Data so collected should be presented in systematic manner and with its help,
conclusions can be drawn. This helps to test the hypothesis. Data analysis must
be made to confirm the objectives of the study.

(d) Implications of Data:

The results based on the analysis of data must be valid. This is the main body of
research. It contains statistical summaries and analysis of data. There should be
logical sequence in the analysis of data. The primary data may lead to establish
the results. He must have separate chapter on conclusions and
recommendations. The conclusions must be based on data analysis. The
conclusions must be such which may lead to generalization and its applicability
in similar circumstances. The conditions of research work limiting its scope for
generalization must be made clear by the researcher.

(e) Summary:

This is conclusive part of study. It makes the reader to understand by reading

summary the knowledge of the research work. This is also a synopsis of study.

(3) End Matter:

It covers relevant appendices covering general information, the concepts and

bibliography. The index may also be added to the report.
 ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Oral presentations usually introduce a discussion of a topic or research paper. A

good oral presentation is focused, concise, and interesting in order to trigger a
discussion.

 Be well prepared; write a detailed outline.

 Introduce the subject.
 Talk about the sources and the method.
 Indicate if there are conflicting views about the subject (conflicting views
trigger discussion).
 Make a statement about your new results (if this is your research paper).
 Use visual aids or handouts if appropriate.

A common assignment in technical writing courses—not to mention in the

workplace—is to prepare and deliver an oral presentation, a task most of us
would be happy to avoid. However, while employers look for coursework and
experience in preparing written documents, they also look for experience in oral
presentations as well.

The following was written for a standard face-to-face classroom setting. If you
are taking an online technical writing course, oral reports can be sent in as
“scripts,” or audio versions can be transmitted live or recorded.

TOPIC AND SITUATION FOR THE ORAL PRESENTATION

For the oral report in a technical writing course, imagine that you are formally
handing over your final written report to the people with whom you set up the
hypothetical contract or agreement. For example, imagine that you had
contracted with a software company to write its user guide. Once you had
completed it, you’d have a meeting with chief officers to formally deliver the
guide. You’d spend some time orienting them to the guide, showing them how
it is organized and written, and discussing some of its highlights. Your goal is to
get them acquainted with the guide and to prompt them for any concerns or
questions.

As you can see, you shouldn’t have to do any research to prepare for this
assignment—just plan the details of your talk and get at least one visual ready.
 If you have a report topic that you’d prefer not to present orally, discuss other
possibilities with your instructor. Here are some brainstorming possibilities in
case you want to present something else:

 Purpose: One way to find a topic is to think about the purpose of your talk. Is it
to instruct (for example, to explain how to run a text editing program on a
computer), to persuade (to vote for or against a certain technically oriented bond
issue), or simply to inform (to report on citizen participation in the new
recycling program).
o Informative purpose: An oral report can be primarily informative. For example,
as a member of a committee involved in a project to relocate the plant, your job
might be to give an oral report on the condition of the building and grounds at
one of the sites proposed for purchase. Or, you might be required to go before
the city council and report on the success of the new city-sponsored recycling
project.
o Instructional purpose: An oral report can be instructional. Your task might be to
train new employees to use certain equipment or to perform certain routine
tasks.
o Persuasive purpose: An oral report can be persuasive. You might want to
convince members of local civic organizations to support a city-wide recycling
program. You might appear before the city council to persuade its members to
reserve certain city-owned lands for park areas, softball and baseball parks, or
community gardens.
 Topics: You can start by thinking of a technical subject, for example, solar
panels, microprocessors, drip irrigation, or laser surgery. For your oral report,
think of a subject you’d be interested in talking about, but find a reason why an
audience would want to hear your oral report.
 Place or situation: You can find topics for oral reports or make more detailed
plans for them by thinking about the place or the situation in which your oral
report might naturally be given: at a neighbourhood association? At the parent–
teachers’ association meeting? at a church meeting? At the gardening club? At a
city council meeting? at a meeting of the board of directors or high-level
executives of a company? Thinking about an oral report this way makes you
focus on the audience, their reasons for listening to you, and their interests and
background. As in all technical writing situations, identifying and understanding
your audience is of the utmost importance.
 CONTENT AND REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ORAL
PRESENTATION

The focus for your oral presentation is clear, understandable presentation; well-
organized, well-planned, well-timed discussion. You don’t need to be Mr. or
Ms. Slick-Operator—just present the essentials of what you have to say in a
calm, organized, well-planned manner.

Use the following as a requirements list, as a way of focusing your preparations:

 Situation: Plan to explain to the class what the situation of your oral report is,
who you are, and who they should imagine they are. Make sure that there is a
clean break between this brief explanation and the beginning of your actual oral
report.
 Timing: Make sure your oral report lasts no longer than the time allotted. Your
instructor will work out some signals to indicate when the mark is approaching,
has arrived, or has passed.
 Introduction: Pay special attention to the introduction to your talk. Here’s
where you tell your audience what you are going to tell them.
o Indicate the purpose of your oral report
o give an overview of its contents
o find some way to interest the audience
 Visuals: Use at least one visual—preferably slides using presentation software
(such as PowerPoint) or transparencies for the overhead projector. Flip charts
and objects for display are okay, but avoid scribbling stuff on the chalkboard or
whiteboard or relying strictly on handouts. Make sure you discuss key elements
of your visuals. Don’t just throw them up there and ignore them. Point out
things about them; explain them to the audience.
 Explanation: Plan to explain any technical aspect of your topic clearly and
understandably. Don’t race through complex, technical stuff—slow down and
explain it carefully so that we understand it.
 Transitions: Use “verbal headings”—by now, you’ve gotten used to using
headings in your written work. There is a corollary in oral reports. With these,
you give your audience a very clear signal you are moving from one topic or
part of your talk to the next your presentation visual can signal your headings.
 Planning: Plan your report in advance and practice it so that it is organized.
Make sure that listeners know what you are talking about and why, which part
 of the talk you are in, and what’s coming next. Overviews and verbal headings
greatly contribute to this sense of organization.
 Closing: End with a real conclusion. People sometimes forget to plan how to
end an oral report and end by just trailing off into a mumble. Remember that in
conclusions, you can:
o summarize (go back over high points of what you’ve discussed)
o conclude (state some logical conclusion based on what you have presented)
o provide some last thought (end with some final interesting point but general
enough not to require elaboration)
o or some combination of these three
 Questions: And certainly, you’ll want to prompt the audience for questions and
concerns.
 Timing (again): As mentioned above, be sure your oral report is carefully
timed. Some ideas on how to work within an allotted time frame are presented
in the next section.

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

Computer technology is leading to more accurate sizing and rating methods for
process equipment. Heat exchangers are designed with high-precision
prediction methods and complex numerical techniques to account for the local
flow and temperature conditions. Fouling mitigation is just changing from an art
to a science-based technology.

The real benefits of sophisticated design codes will not be achieved without
reliable fouling prediction methods and mitigation techniques that can be
incorporated into the design phase. Recent developments in the computer
technology provide an opportunity to productively use fouling information that
is scattered in the literature, industry log books, and in reports.

A long-term goal for the industry is to develop a knowledge-based system for

designing and operating heat exchangers with a minimum impact of water
fouling. The major challenges to develop the knowledge-based system are as
follows:
1. Compilation and organization of the fouling data
2. Easy access by both research organizations and industry

3. Development of a logic system for interpreting the fouling data

4. Industrial acceptance of such knowledge-based systems

The fouling data and analyses reported in the literature are often inadequately
utilized. To effectively utilize these data, compilation and organization of
fouling information are major tasks and challenges for research organizations
and industries. This task is more important for the fouling-mitigation
technology as compared to other engineering areas.

It is hard to imagine that there could be a single correlation with a given set of
parameters that can be used to predict the rate of fouling or determine the
threshold fouling conditions. One has to rely on the best possible approach to
mitigate fouling for a given set of conditions. In the absence of such
information, either mitigation methods are over utilized, with high chemical
costs, or underutilized, with high maintenance and production costs. Perrakis et
al. [54] introduced an approach for compiling the fouling data in the literature.

A major cooperative effort is required to carry out such a major challenge for
compiling and organizing data. The fouling data and analyses must be
accompanied with physical and chemical parameters without which the data
have little value.

The next step in information technology is to develop a logic system to utilize

the database for interpreting the results. Faltzin et al. [13] discussed a possible
approach for utilizing a so-called expert system for selecting a strategy for
fouling control. However, before such an expert system can be developed, it is
essential to develop a knowledge-based system to access and interpret the
fouling information..
WHAT IS COMPUTER SYSTEM ?

A computer system is a set of integrated devices which takes input, process it

and give output. Also it store data and information. Computer system allows
users to input, manipulate and store data. Computer systems include a CPU,
monitor, keyboard, mouse and other optional components.

WHAT IS COMPUTER?

Definition: Computer is an electronic device that takes data as an input and

processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called program) and then
produces a result (output), and all the set is called as computer system.

Components of a computer system

All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components

Memory: It is used to store data and programs. It may be temporary or

permanent
eg RAM, ROM

Mass storage device: Allows a computer to store large amount of data

permanently.
eg Hard Disk.

Input device: Any device that sends data to a computer is called input device.
eg keyboard and mouse

Output device: Any device that outputs information or data from a computer
to another device is called output device.
e.g display screen, printer

Central processing unit (CPU) : This is also called as heart of the computer,
CPU is responsible for executes instructions. It receives data input, executes
instructions, and processes information and then generates appropriate result.
Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly
called processor.

Input Devices
Keyboard, Mouse, Digitizing Tablet, Track Ball, Joystick, Touchscreen, Light
Pen, Speech Recognition System, Digital camera, Scanner, Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Optical
Mark Recognition (OMR), Barcode Reader

Output Devices
Monitor, Visual Display Terminal, Printer, Plotter, Computer Output on
Microfilm (COM), Video Output System, Audio Response System

Input-Output Devices
Hard disk drive, Floppy disk drive, USB drive, CD drive, DVD drive.

Computer system parts

Computer parts and functions

The Basic components of computer system are given below :

a) Input Unit
b) Output Unit
c) CPU (Central Processing Unit)
i) Control Unit ( C U)
ii) Arithmetic logic Unit ( A L U)
iii) Main Memory unit ( M M U)
d) Storage Unit

a) Input Unit:

Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to process the task.
Therefore we need to input the data and instructions into the computers.
Keyboard and mouse is the one of the most commonly used input device.
b) Output Unit:

The output unit of a computer receive output from CPU (Central Processing
Unit). Example of Output Unit is Printers, Monitor, etc. Other commonly used
output devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.

c) CPU (Central Processing Unit) :

This is main Part of computer system, Is also known as processor and consist of
three units which is as follow,

i) Control Unit (C U)
ii) Arithmetic logic Unit (A L U)
iii) Main Memory unit (M M U)

i) Control Unit (C U):It controls all other units in the computer. The
control unit instructs the input unit, where to store the data after receiving it
from the user. A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals, control
unit directs the entire computer system it’s also communicate with both the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and main memory. The control Unit or CU
Controls or coordinates all activities performed in a computer system.

ii) Arithmetic logic Unit (A L U) : All calculations are performed in

the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does comparison and
takes decision.
Arithmetic operation comprises of (Addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication) and the logical unit carries out the operation such (AND, OR,
Equal, less than, greater then).
Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. Whenever
calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to
ALU once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage
unit by the control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying
results.

iii) Main Memory unit ( M M U) : The main memory unit is used

for storage of the copy of the main software program that controls the general
operation of the computer.
and temporary storage of a copy of application program instruction, to be
received by CPU for interpretation and processing or execution.

d) Storage Unit :

Storage unit is the unit which gives space to store data or instruction of
processed data.
It stores information or instruction
It stores Results
It stores consequence of prepared data

There are mainly two types of storage Unit

i) Primary Storage
ii) Secondary Storage

i) Primary Storage: They are also called as Main memory or in other

words as RAM (Random Access Memory).
The primary Storage cannot store huge amount of data, and the data store in this
memory is temporary (The data is lost when there is power failure), it is also
called as temporary memory, they are very expensive.
The other example of primary Storage is L1 Cache of Processor, RAM

ii) Secondary Storage : Secondary storage are also called as permanent

storage unit as when the data store in this memory are stored permanently .The
data remains in this memory even when there is a power failure or shutdown,
they are much more cheaper than primary memory.
The Example of Secondary Storage are Hard disk and Zip drives
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS ABOUT COMPUTER ARE:
1. Speed: – As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few
seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised
to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and
even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6
part of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From
this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.

2. Accuracy: – The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every

calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level
is 7.Determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are
due to human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: – A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration,
fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of
calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation
with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in
routine type of work.

4. Versatility: – It means the capacity to perform completely different type of

work. You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you
may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: – Computer has the power of storing any amount
of information or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as
you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how
much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these
data.

6. No IQ: – Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without

instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and
with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence.
So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
7. No Feeling: – It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and
experience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not
distinguish between users.
8. Storage: – The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large
amount of data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as
floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other
computers.

THE BINARY SYSTEM

A binary number system is one of the four types of number system. In computer
applications, where binary numbers are represented by only two symbols or
digits, i.e. 0 (zero) and 1(one). The binary numbers here are expressed in the
base-2 numeral system. For example, (101)2 is a binary number. Each digit in
this system is said to be a bit. Learn about the number system here.
Number System is a way to represent the numbers in the computer architecture.
There are four different types of the number system, such as:

1. Binary number system (base 2)

2. Octal number system (base 8)
3. Decimal number system(base 10)
4. Hexadecimal number system (base 16).

In this article, let us discuss what is a binary number system, conversion from
one system to other systems, table, positions, binary operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, uses and solved examples in
detail.

WHAT IS A BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM?

Binary Number System: According to digital electronics and mathematics, a
binary number is defined as a number that is expressed in the binary system or
base 2 numeral system. It describes numeric values by two separate symbols; 1
(one) and 0 (zero). The base-2 system is the positional notation with 2 as a
radix.
The binary system is applied internally by almost all latest computers and
computer-based devices because of its direct implementation in electronic
circuits using logic gates. Every digit is referred to as a bit.

WHAT IS BIT IN BINARY NUMBER?

A single binary digit is called a “Bit”. A binary number consists of several bits.
Examples are:

 10101 is a five-bit binary number

 101 is a three-bit binary number
 100001 is a six-bit binary number

Facts to Remember:

 Binary numbers are made up of only 0’s and 1’s.

 A binary number is represented with a base-2
 A bit is a single binary digit.

WHAT IS COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Computer Applications play a very important role in today's scenario as every
individual is significantly dependent on machines. A computer is one such
machine, which has made its presence in every walk of our life. With the wide
range of applications, it has to offer, the need for learning computer science is
now more than ever. The recent boom in the IT Industry tells us that the experts
in the field of computer applications are needed both in India and abroad.
Moreover, with the government's ambitious plan of digitalization, it may go a
notch higher. The huge gap in demand and supply in the field of computer
applications help them command a better salary.

There's a slight difference between Computer science and Computer

applications which people usually tend to ignore. Computer Science is a
detailed and systematic study of the fundamentals of working on a computer,
whereas computer applications are the study of the application of computer
software. In short, while the former is a study of how computers work, the latter
helps us understand all sorts of work that can be done on a computer.
COMPUTERS AND RESEARCHER
Computers play a major role today in every field of scientific research from
genetic engineering to astrophysics research. This article is a brief overview of
the role that computers have played in research and the ways in which they are
helping unravel several scientific mysteries.

While they are still far away from that supreme ideal of being able to think for
themselves as artificially intelligent machines, the brute force of their ability to
calculate and process information at phenomenal speeds powers research in
every field of human endeavour. In fact, computers have changed the way in
which information, or more precisely, knowledge is disseminated around the
world through the Internet, via which I am communicating with your right now.
In this Tec spirited article, I have highlighted the role of computers in research
fields, where it works to overcome the horizons of ignorance that still exist.

The first computers developed were mere calculators, with the ability to carry
out simple arithmetic operations. Advancement in electronics, the development
of the vacuum tube based transistors and devising of digital logic gates led to
development of the first digital computer which could perform more advanced
logical operations.

These early machines took up whole multi-storey buildings and were operated
through punch cards. All this changed after the development of semiconductor
based transistors which led to the extreme miniaturization of integrated circuits,
that made the development of the first personal computers possible.

Since then, computer technology has advanced by leaps and bounds to bring
extreme computing power into the hands of the common man. Today computers
are ubiquitous, with applications in every field of human endeavour. To no field
have computers contributed as much as scientific research? From predicting
weather to running astrophysical simulations, computers are the scientist’s
prime analytical tool in unraveling the mysteries of nature.

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

It is truly impossible to capture the whole range of computer applications in
scientific research. Here is a bird’s-eye view of the role of computers in
scientific research, where I shall discuss four of their most important
applications.

Data Storage & Analysis

Experimentation is the cornerstone of scientific research. Every experiment in
any of the natural sciences generates a lot of data, that needs to be stored and
analyzed to derive important conclusions, to validate or disprove hypotheses.
Computers attached with experimental apparatuses, directly record data as it’s
generated and subject it to analysis through specially designed software.

Analyzing tons of statistical data is made possible using specially designed

algorithms that are implemented by computers. This makes the extremely time-
consuming job of data analysis to be a matter of a few minutes. In genetic
engineering, computers have made the sequencing of the entire human race
possible. Data from different sources can be stored and accessed via computer
networks set up in research labs, which makes collaboration simpler.

Scientific Simulations
One of the prime uses of computers in pure science and engineering projects is
the running of simulations. A simulation is a mathematical modelling of a
problem and a virtual study of its possible solutions. Problems which do not
yield themselves to experimentation can be studied through simulations carried
out on computers.

For example, astrophysicists carry out structure formation simulations, which

are aimed at studying how large-scale structures like galaxies are formed. Space
missions to the Moon, satellite launches and interplanetary missions are first
simulated on computers to determine the best path that can be taken by the
launch vehicle and spacecraft to reach its destination safely.

Instrumentation Control
Most advanced scientific instruments come with their own on-board computer,
which can be programmed to execute various functions. For example, the
Hubble Space Craft has its own on-board computer system which is remotely
programmed to probe the deep space. Instrumentation control is one of the most
important applications of computers.

Knowledge Sharing Through Internet

Lastly, in the form of Internet, computers have provided an entirely new way to
share knowledge. Today, any one can access the latest research papers that are
made available for free on websites like Arxiv. Sharing of knowledge and
collaboration through the Internet, has made international cooperation on
scientific projects possible.

Through various kinds of analytical software programs, computers are

contributing to scientific research in every discipline, ranging from biology to
astrophysics, discovering new patterns and providing novel insights. When the
work in neural network based artificial intelligence advances and computers are
granted with the ability to learn and think for themselves, future advances in
technology and research will be even more rapid. If we survive human strife and
manage not to self-destruct our civilization, future is going to be an exciting
time!

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

The importance of computers in scientific research is exceptionally high and the

use of a computer can help scientific research immensely, and is an almost
invaluable and priceless tool.
There are many reasons why computers are so important in scientific research
and here are some of the main reasons:

- Speed: Although calculations can be done by a human being, a computer can

process numbers and information in a very short space of time. This means that
time is then saved thanks to the use of the computer, leaving researchers more
time to complete and conduct further research. Also, a sum that may take a
person several hours to process will take a computer mere minutes, if not
seconds.

- Accuracy: Computers are incredibly accurate, and like mentioned above, a

calculation or piece of research that is very difficult to calculate by a human can
be processed easily by a computer, delivering flawless accuracy. Accuracy is of
the utmost importance in scientific research as a wrong calculation could result
in an entire project/research piece being filled with incorrect information.

- Organization: When researching science, you can often be flooded with

different pieces of information, calculations and notes, and with a computer,
you're able to stock it all neatly and safely. By using simple folders, word
processors and computer programs, you can store millions of pages of
information, which are stored safe within the computer. This is a method that is
significantly more productive and safer than using a paper filing system in
which anything can be easily misplaced, therefore disrupting research.

- Consistency: As a computer is a machine, it cannot make mistakes through

"tiredness" or fatigue or lack of concentration which humans can sometimes
suffer with when working. This trait alone makes the computer exceptionally
important to the world of scientific research.