Syllabus -Unit-5 : Interpretation and report writing – Techniques of interpretation – Precautions in

interpretation, – Significance of report writing – Different steps in report writing – Layout of research
report – Mechanics of writing research report – Layout and format – Style of writing – Typing –
References – Tables – Figures – Conclusion – Appendices.

5.1 Meaning of Interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental
study. Interpretation task is not only to make sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and
disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. After collecting and analysing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences, followed by report writing. The task of interpretation is not an easy job,
rather it requires a great skill and intelligence on the part of researcher. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise
misleading conclusions would be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get wasted. Even if the data are
properly collected and analysed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is only through
interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his findings. It is being considered a
basic component of research process because of the following reasons:
1. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies. This way the continuity in research can be
maintained.
2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future research
studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
3. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make
others to understand the real significance of his research findings.

5.2 Technique of Interpretation

Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance
from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The interpretation involves the following steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found.
2. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight into the study and
who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a
consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
3. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the
problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the
conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

5.3 Precautions In Interpretation

The task of interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct perspective.
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
a. At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and
adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been
done through statistical methods.
b. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results.
Errors because of the application of findings beyond the range of observations.
c. Precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of results.
d. Broad generalisation should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be
restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions.
e. The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there should be constant interaction
between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of
interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and
creativity lie. He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.
 5.4 Significance of report writing:
Writing of report requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages
of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and
guidance of experts for the purpose.
The purpose of the report- The main purpose of the report is to record, inform and recommendation. It can be
outcome of the result of some experiment, or an action plan. The purpose, scope, and limitations of every report are
required to be stated clearly, so that the reader will come to know, whether the report is useful to him or not. It will avoid
the unwanted and unfair criticism and will not communicate wrong information to the reader.
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research results must
invariably enter the general store of knowledge. Research report is considered a major component of the research study.
The research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. All this explains the significance
of writing research report.
Types of report -
Written or spoken report – written report remains on record for longer time. More copies can be prepared and it
can be distributed to many persons. These are the advantages of written report. Spoken report – it’s quick,
cheaper and flexible language can be used.
Regular or one off – the regular report is prepared on regular basis for e.g. Daily report, weekly report, monthly
report, annual report. It has fixed format. One off report remains on record for long time. It is having a
considerable importance. The project proposals, enquiry reports, survey reports, consultancy report is one off
report. It changes as per the requirement.
Technical report and popular report - In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed,
(it) assumptions made in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their
limitations and supporting data. The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical,
details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Technical reports are for professional audience, communicates
technical information, whereas, popular reports aimed at general audience with varying levels of expertise on
the topic.

5.5 Different Steps in Writing Report

The usual steps involved in writing report are,
1. Logical analysis of the subject-matter – The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in
developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. The directions for doing or
making something usually follow the chronological order.
2. Preparation of the final outline - Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed.
They are an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the
report.
3. Preparation of the rough draft - The researcher is to write down what he has done in the context of his research
study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with
various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and
generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing – This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually, this step
requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a
mediocre and a good piece of writing. Should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or
presentation, the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion, has been consistent or not, grammar,
spelling and usage in the report.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography- The bibliography, is generally appended to the research report. It should
contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically
 and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second
part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is
considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader. The entries in bibliography should be
made adopting the following order:
For books -
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978
6. Writing the final draft- This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective
style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones.
Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen
to be most effective in communicating the research findings to others.

5.6 Layout of research report

The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research
report should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B)the main text; and (C) the end matter.
A. Preliminary pages- In preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements
in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and
figures, so that the anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.
B. Main text - The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the
research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages
numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a
new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of
findings and recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) The
summary.
i. Introduction - The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should
contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be given to make
clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. The scientific reader would
like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If
the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were
collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The
questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix).
ii. Statement of findings and recommendations – After introduction, the research report must contain a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood
by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the
summarised form.
iii. The results – A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the
report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result
section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw
data.
iv. The implications drawn from the results – Toward the end of the main text, researcher should, state the
implications that flow from the results of the study. Such implications may have three aspects as stated
below:
1) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in
similar circumstances.
2) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the
inferences drawn from the study.
3) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with
suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
v. The summary – It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary,
resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions
drawn from the research results.
C. End Matter - At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources
consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers
 of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the
end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the
report.
5.6.1 Structure of report –
1. Title – The title of the report should be brief. The title should clearly indicate the scope of the work and contents
of the report. It should not resemble the earlier title. The cover page of report should give the information about,
report written by, report submitted to, date of report and organisation. This information will create curiosity in
the mind of reader and also it will give the information about usefulness of the report to the reader.
2. Summery / synopsis/abstract – this is useful for a busy reader, who has no time to read anything else. It is the
brief summary of the report. The summery or synopsis can be without reference to the chapter. While abstract
is to be written chapter wise.
3. Abbreviations terms and definitions – for special report such as research report, there may be use of various
terms, definitions. These may be new to the reader. So, all the such terms and definitions should be defined at
the beginning of the report only, so that reader will not be in confusion while going through report.
4. List of figures and tables – This is for the ready reference of the reader, so that time will be saved.
5. List of contents – The list of chapters, sections with the page no’s will be helpful to go to the required part of
the report directly.
The difference between contents and index is that contents go chapter wise, while index is in alphabetical
order. The content is at the beginning of the report while, index is at the end of the report.
6. Introduction – The introduction covers the relevance and importance of the topic. It also covers the purpose of
report, scope of the report, limitations of the work, resources and the principle sources for the data and
background scenario should be covered in the introduction.
7. Body of the report – covers the following points
Review of literature, the problem definitions – which clearly defines the scope of the work and limitations of
the work. Main body of the report covers the design or methodology to carry out the proposed work and
observations, Running the experiment, trials and performance, calculations, index, etc.
Result and discussion – the result and discussion should cover the validity of work and findings
8. Conclusion – the conclusion should comment on result validity and applicability of the result, so as to reach
the judgement.
Recommendations and conclusions are different – conclusions cover only the findings, while
recommendations take into consideration the other factor such as present technology used, environmental
requirements.
Limitations – will cover the conditions under which the present findings are obtained. This may also cover the
technical liability such as measuring methods.
Future scope – should give the detailed scope of the work.
9. References:
Citation of all sources referred to in the report, Follow a specific citation style (IEEE, ASA, Chicago, etc.).
IEEE-
Author 1, and Author 2. “Title of paper - WEDM with Different Diameter Wire Electrodes on Inconel 718”
Journal name -Materials Today: Proceedings, Volume -72, year - (2023): page no- 896–903.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.09.088- this is a Digital Object Identifier (DOI). A DOI is a unique
alphanumeric string assigned to a document, to provide a permanent link to it on the internet. DOIs are
commonly used in academic and scholarly publishing to ensure the persistent and reliable identification of a
specific document, making it easier for researchers to access and cite the work. from DOI, it is clear that, it is
 associated with a document published in a journal with the title beginning with "matpr," and the publication
date is September 2022.
10. Acknowledgments:
• Optional section for thanking individuals or organizations that contributed to the research.
11. Appendix – the contents of report, which are not useful to every reader, but a specific reader should be included
in the appendix. They are of much information for a specific reader.

5.7 Mechanics of Writing a Research Report –

There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the research report or paper.
Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be scrupulously adhered to, and no deviation permitted. The criteria
of format should be decided as soon as the materials for the research paper have been assembled. The following points
deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report are concerned:
1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper. If it is to be written by hand, then
black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at least one and one-half inches should be allowed at the
left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top
and bottom. The paper should be neat and legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be
double-spaced on one side of the page only except for the insertion of the long quotations.
2. Treatment of quotations – Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced, forming an
immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than four or five type written
lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right of the normal text margin.
3. Footnotes – The footnotes are meant for cross references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement
and explanation of a point of view. Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or
quotation which they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually
beginning with 1, in each chapter separately. Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided
from one another by double space.
4. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given work should be
complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Such documentary footnotes
follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as under:
John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p. 315.
If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only the first is given and the
multiple authorship is indicated by “et al.” or “and others”. A single page should be referred to as p., but more than
one page be referred to as pp.
5. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the footnote is the author’s name,
given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma. After the comma, the title of the book is
given, the title is followed by a comma. Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed
by a comma. The place of publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place
happens to be a famous one such as Lond. for London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on. This
entry is followed by a comma. Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closed by a comma.
It is followed by the date of publication if the date is given on the title page.
Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes to eliminate tedious
repetition. The following is a list of the most common abbreviations frequently used in report-writing.
art., article, bk., book, ch., chapter, diss., dissertation, ed., editor, edition, edited, et.al., and others.
6. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research reports is often considered a virtue
for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the material and research results.
One may well remember that a good picture is often worth more than a thousand words. Statistics are usually
presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphs and pictograms. Such presentation should be self-
explanatory and complete in itself. It should be suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand.
 7. The final draft - Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with great care before
writing the final draft. A friendly critic, by pointing out passages that seem unclear or illogical, and perhaps
suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can be an invaluable aid in achieving the goal of adequate
communication.
8. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should be given. It acts as a good guide, to the reader.
Subject index - gives the names of the subject-topics or concepts along with the number of pages on which they
have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas and as author index- gives the similar information regarding
the names of authors. The index should always be arranged alphabetically.

5.7.1 Check list for good report writing

a. It is difficult to reader, the mixture of figures and words. Therefore, such combination should be
avoided.
b. Do not start a line with figure.
c. Use the figures, flow diagrams wherever possible as compared to text.
d. Use ordinary language
e. Avoid using capital letters in large
f. Vary the font size as per priority
g. Keep separate sections for definitions
h. Use the short words as far as possible
i. Avoid fed headings
j. Avoid repeating simple instructions.
k. Use three tier numbering style – Where the first tier is represented by numbers (1, 2), the second tier is
represented by a combination of the section number and a sub-number (1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2), and the third
tier is represented by a combination of the section number, subsection number, and a sub-sub-number
(1.1.1, 1.1.2, 2.1.1, 2.1.2).