Scalars and Vectors

• Scalars are measurements with magnitude but no direction.

o Distance (d)
o Speed (s)
o Time (t)
o Mass (m)
o Energy (E)
• Vectors are measurements that have magnitude and direction.
o Displacement (𝑠⃑)
o Velocity (𝑣⃑)
o Acceleration (𝑎⃑)
o Force (𝑓⃑)
o Momentum (𝑝⃑)

• Scalar is represented by a simple italic symbol e.g. d, s, m, etc.

• Vector is represented using vector notation e.g. 𝑠⃑, etc.
• Some vector quantities do not need vector notation.

Units
• A quantity e.g. length, mass, force; must be measured in some unit
• Regardless of whether a quantity is a scalar or a vector, it is meaningless without a
unit.

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
h
Quantity of substance mole mol
Luminosity candle cd
SI Units Table

Rectilinear Motion:
• is motion in a straight line
o Distance: describes how far an object travels to reach a given point
o Displacement: describes an object’s change in position (straight line distance
between two points)
o Speed: is a measure of the rate an object travels a distance (scalar)
o Velocity: is a measure of the rate an object changes in displacement or position)
o Acceleration: is the rate of change of velocity

• Speed and Velocity

÷𝟑.𝟔
𝒌𝒎 𝒎
o ⏞
→
𝒉 𝒔
• Average vs Instantaneous Speed and Velocity
o We refer to speed and velocity as their average. Thus;
!
§ Average speed =
"
 #⃑
§ Average velocity =
"
o Note: speed/velocity at any instant of time is known as instantaneous
speed/velocity
§ The speed shown on a speedometer is instantaneous.

• Acceleration
∆&
o Acceleration = {Note: ∆ stands for change in and (∆𝑉 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣)}
"
o Two forms of acceleration:
1. Speeding up
2. Slowing down
o If acceleration is in the same direction as velocity (speeding up)
o If acceleration is in the opposite direction as velocity (slowing down)
o However, a special case may include: the car initially going in one direction but
then turning around and going in another direction. (the car is speeding up in the
opposite direction)
o Standard unit for acceleration is (𝑚𝑠 '( )

Motion Graphs:
• Drawing Graphs
o Rules:
§ Drawn in pencil
§ Contains title
§ Axes must be labelled with units
§ Appropriate scales must be used
• Uniform vs Non-uniform Velocity
o The motion of an object can be described to have uniform or non-uniform
velocity.
o Uniform velocity is when there is no change (constant 𝑣⃑ or stationary)
o Non-uniform velocity is when there is change (speeding up or slowing down)

← Uniform Velocity

← Non-Uniform Velocity
 • Displacement vs. Time (𝑠⃑ − 𝑡)
o Represents velocity (object’s displacement over time)
§ 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 /𝒔⃑ − 𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

• Velocity vs. Time (𝑣⃑ − 𝑡)

o Represents velocity and/or acceleration
§ 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒗 /⃑ − 𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 = 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
§ Area under 𝑣⃑ − 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = 𝑠⃑
§ 𝑣⃑ > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎⃑ > 0 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝)
§ 𝑣⃑ > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎⃑ < 0 (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛)
§ 𝑣⃑ < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎⃑ < 0 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝)
o 𝑠⃑ = 𝐴! ± 𝐴" …
o 𝑑 = |𝐴! | + |𝐴" | …

Vector Operations:
• Vector quantities represented by arrows, always use head-to-tail rule.
• Vector quantities can be added and subtracted to give a resultant vector (𝑉! )
• Vector Addition:
o 𝑉! = 𝑉" + 𝑉# + 𝑉$ … … ….

• Vector Subtraction:
o Flip direction of subtracted arrow to create vector addition.
o 𝑉! = 𝑉" + (−𝑉# ) … ..

• Vector Components:
o Vectors can be thought of as the sum of two perpendicular vector components
o Consider:

§ 𝑉# 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡.

§ 𝑉# = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
§ 𝑉$ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡.
§ 𝑉$ = 𝑉 cos 𝜃
Compass and True Bearings:
• Hence, vectors involving two dimensions require bearings which can be represented
as compass or true bearings.
• Compass bearings provide the angle of the vector relative to the points on a
compass.
• True bearings provide the angle of the vector relative to North, moving clockwise.

• Bearing = 060°𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑁70°𝐸

Relative Motion
• “All motion is relative.”
• Relative motion and Velocity:
o Relative motion is the calculation of how an object moves with regards to another
object.
o Hence, relative velocity is the calculated velocity if an object from the perspective
of another.
o The usual perspective we use is the ground (or Earth) as it is stationary.

• Case 1: Straight Line

o To calculate the relative velocity from an object A from the perspective of object
B:
§ 𝑉%/' = 𝑉% − 𝑉'
§ 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚.
• Case 2: Planar
o Use trigonometric ratios to help you and always treat it as if it is being observed
from Earth.
o Also use Pythagoras to help you.

• Case 3: Harder Problems

o Use what you have already learnt (Method 1)
o Use vector analysis (Method 2)

Equations of Motion:
• Equations of motion mathematically relate time, displacement, velocity and
acceleration in rectilinear position.
• The equations of motion are derived from acceleration:

1. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 ') )

" 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 ') )
2. 𝑠⃑ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 #
# 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑠 '( )
3. 𝑣 # = 𝑢# + 2𝑎𝑠⃑ 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)
𝑠⃑ = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)

o For a given motion, the acceleration and initial velocity are constant. They
determine how the motion will occur (the shape of our motion graphs)
o To pick the correct equation, look at the variables you are given and the variable
you would like to find.
 Dynamics Dot Point Summary

Focus 1: Forces
Inquiry question: How are forces produced between objects and what effects do forces
produce?

Forces
• Dynamics describe the forces acting on objects.
• Newton’s Laws of Motion describe how forces cause the motion of object.
• A force is a pull, push or twist.

Contact Forces: e.g. a hand pushing a ball

Non-Contact Forces: e.g. Earth’s gravity pulls on a ball

Free Body Diagrams

• We always represent forces using free body diagrams.
• A free-body diagram shows all the forces acting on the object.

• 𝐹!"# describes the net force acted upon an object.

• A net unbalanced force means 𝐹!"# ≠ 0

Inertia
• Definition: inertia is an object’s ability to resist change to its motion
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝛼 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

• Note: Inertia is not related to VELOCITY

 Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. Newton’s 1st Law of Motion

o Newton’s 1st Law of Motion is the Law of Inertia.
o It states that:

“An object will remain stationary or at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.”

2. Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

“A net unbalanced force on an object is equal to product of its mass and acceleration.”
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

3. Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

o Newton’s 3rd Law states:

“For every force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.”

4⃑𝑩 𝒐𝒏 𝑨 = −𝑭
𝑭 4⃑𝑨 𝒐𝒏 𝑩

Focus 2: Forces, Acceleration and Energy

Inquiry question: How can the motion of objects be explained and analysed?

Weight Force
• Any object with a mass is subjected to a weight force
• Weight is a force exerted by massive objects on small objects, as a result of gravity.

𝑭𝒘 = 𝒎𝒈
Where,

𝐹* = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑁)

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (9.81𝑚𝑠 +, )

Remember:
• The mass of an object depends on what it is made of, thus it stays constant.
• The weight of an object depends on the object that is pulling on it (the gravity).

Your mass is the same on both the Earth and the Moon, but your weight will change.
 Force Vector Quantities
• Forces are vector quantities; thus, vector operations are used for forces.
• We only observe and consider 1D and 2D vectors.

Remember:
𝐹- = 𝐹 cos 𝜃

𝐹. = 𝐹 sin 𝜃

𝐹- 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹. 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Note:

𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙.

Tension
• Pulling force from a stretch in the connection of objects
• Tension will remain constant throughout the length of the rope pulling the object

𝑻 = 𝒎𝒂

Where,
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑁)

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑠 +, )
 Focus 2: Forces, Acceleration and Energy
Inquiry question: How can the motion of objects be explained and analysed?

Friction
• Friction is a constant force from two surfaces opposing their direction of motion.
• Friction force acts parallel to the surface.

• To calculate friction:
4⃑𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝝁𝑭
𝒇 4⃑𝑵

Where,
𝑓⃑6789#8:! = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐)

𝐹⃑; = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

• The coefficient of friction (𝜇) indicates the difficulty of two objects sliding.
• Static friction constant is used when calculating the force on object when stationary.
• Kinetic frictional constant is used when the object is already in motion.

Kinetic Energy
• Faster and heavier objects possess greater kinetic energy. This is due to the equation:
𝟏
𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
Where,
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 +< )

Gravitational Potential Energy

• An object lifted higher up on Earth has a greater gravitational potential energy.
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈∆𝒉
Where,
𝑈 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (9.8𝑚𝑠 +, )

ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(𝑚)

Mechanical Energy
• Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬

Work
• Term used to describe the energy used to displace an object.
• Work is a scalar quantity, it is essentially a change in energy.
𝑾=𝑭 4⃑𝒅
Where,
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑁)

𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)

Power
• Power is a measure of how quickly work is done.
• Power is the rate of work done.
𝒘
𝑷=
𝒕

Where,
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐽𝑠 +< 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)

𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝐽)

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
 Focus 3: Momentum, Energy and Simple Systems
Inquiry question: How is the motion of objects in a simple system dependent on the
interaction between the objects?

Momentum
• Momentum is the measurement of mass in motion, it is the product of an object’s
mass and velocity.
4𝒑⃑ = 𝒎𝒗
4⃑

Where,
𝑝⃑ = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑁𝑠 +< )

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑣⃑ = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 +< )

• Momentum can change as an object changes its motion.

• Hence to calculate change in momentum:
4⃑ − 4𝒖
∆𝑷 = 𝒎(𝒗 4⃑)

Impulse
• Impulse describes the effect of a net force acting on an object for a duration
∆𝑷 = 𝑭∆𝒕
Where,
𝑝⃑ = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑁𝑠 +< )

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)

Collisions
• Collisions occur when two subjects are in contact to exert a force on each other.
• Momentum is conserved in all collisions.
• Collisions can either be elastic or inelastic.
Elastic Inelastic
Σ𝑚𝑣⃑="6:7" = Σ𝑚𝑣⃑>6#"7 Σ𝑚𝑣⃑="6:7" = Σ𝑚𝑣⃑>6#"7
1 1 1 1
Σ 𝑚𝑣 , = Σ 𝑚𝑣 , Σ 𝑚𝑣 , ≠ Σ 𝑚𝑣 ,
2 ="6:7" 2 >6#"7 2 ="6:7" 2 >6#"7
- Momentum is conserved - Momentum is conserved
- Kinetic energy is conserved - Kinetic energy is not conserved
Waves and Thermodynamics Dot Point Summary

Focus 1: Properties of Waves

Inquiry question: What are the properties of all waves and wave motion?

Wavefronts and Rays

• Rays refer to direction in which energy moves from initial disturbance which
created the wave.
• Note: where all particles are doing the “same thing”: in phase
• Wavefront essentially marks points at which energy of particles are equal.

Wave Model
• Waves are a means of transferring energy from one point to another without the
physical movement of particles.
• Even if a particle is displaced, it will move back to its normal (equilibrium) position.
Essentially particles oscillate about their equilibrium position as they oscillate.

Waves transport energy without transporting matter.

Transverse Waves:

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑏 𝑢𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

Longitudinal Waves:

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 ∥

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−∥
 Transverse Longitudinal
Similarities • Both involve the transfer of energy
• Neither transfer matter
• Both produced by an original disturbance
Differences • Particles oscillate ⊥ • Particles oscillate ∥
to direction of 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−∥ to
energy transfer direction of energy
transfer

Transverse Waves:
• The direction of particle movement and direction of energy propagation are:
Perpendicular

Longitudinal Waves:
• The direction of particle movement and direction of energy propagation are:
Parallel and anti-parallel

Mechanical Waves:
• Are disturbances in matter that transfer energy through the matter.
• Mechanical waves require mediums to travel through.
• Mechanical waves can be either transverse or longitudinal

The Role of the Medium:

• Speed of sound waves in a medium, depend on 2 main factors:
1. Elasticity of the medium
2. Density of the medium
• The more rigid a material is, the faster the mechanical waves are transmitted.
• The more elastic a material is, the slower a mechanical wave is transmitted.

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑒=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

• Another variable which can impact the speed of mechanical waves through the
medium is the temperature.

𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 (𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑻) = 𝟑𝟑𝟏℃ + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗(𝑻)

• As the temperature of the medium increases, the kinetic energy of the particles that
make up the medium increase and the particles start colliding with adjacent particles.
• Therefore, the mechanical wave is transferred through the medium more quickly.
𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝜶
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

Remember:
• The more elastic a medium is, the faster a mechanical wave will move through it.
• The denser a medium is, the slower a mechanical wave will through it.
• The higher the temperature a given medium is, the faster a mechanical wave will
move through it.
Electromagnetic Waves:
Remember:
• All EM waves propagate through space at 3 × 10! 𝑚𝑠 "#
• EM waves do not require a medium as they self-propagate.

• A charged particle produces an electric field.

• A moving charged particle produces a magnetic field.
• An oscillating charged particle produces an EM wave.
• EM waves consist of perpendicular electric and magnetic fields.

Other Properties of EM Waves:

• All EM waves are transverse waves.
• All able to undergo:
o Reflection
o Refraction
o Polarisation
o Interference
o Diffraction
• All EM waves travel in straight lines.

• EM waves exist in a continuous spectrum.

Remember:
• 𝜆 of visible light is 400𝑛𝑚 − 700𝑛𝑚

Mechanical Electromagnetic
Similarities • Both of the waves propagate
• Transfers energy
• Do not transfer matter
Differences • Requires a medium • Does not require a
to travel medium
• Can be transverse or • Are all transverse
longitudinal • Travel faster than
• Travels far slower mechanical wave
than EM waves

Displacement – Time Graphs for Transverse Waves:

• Shows how a single particle is displaced from natural resting position as a function of
time.

CANNOT determine 𝝀
Displacement - Distance Graphs for Transverse Waves:
• Shows wavelength

CANNOT determine 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅

Focus 2: Wave Behaviour
Inquiry question: How do waves behave?

Reflection:
• Law of reflection states 𝜃$ = 𝜃%

• Reflected wave has the same frequency, wavelength and speed as the incident
wave, leading to wavefronts being unchanged after reflection.

Ray Diagrams:
Definitions:

Centre of curvature (C): the centre of the sphere of the mirror.

Radius of curvature (r): radius of the sphere of the mirror
Focal point (F): point where parallel light rays converge
Focal length (f): distance between focus and mirror

Mirrors:

Convex Mirror:

• Curves outward and rays diverge outward

from its surface
• Spread out from surface
• Used in car exterior mirrors or surveillance
mirrors
 Concave Mirrors:

• Curves inward and waves converge at the

focus
• Used to reflect microwaves or radio waves
from collecting dishes to receiving antenna

Remember:

Convex Mirrors:
- Curves outwards
- Centre of curvature and focus on opposite sides

Concave Mirrors:
- Curves inwards
- Centre of curvature and focus on same side

Refraction:
• When an EM wave travels from one medium to another some of the wave will be
absorbed, some reflected, and the rest propagate through new medium

When light moves from one medium to another:

• Frequency of light remains unchanged
• Wavelength of light changes
• Velocity of wavelength changes
 Note: If boundary is struck ∥ to the normal, 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 still change, but wave does not bend.

Remember:

Water waves travel faster the deeper they are.

Remember:

When a wave slows down, the wave bends towards the normal.

Di Diffraction:
• Refers to the spreading if waves as the waves passes an object or travels through a
gap between objects

Diffraction around an object:

• Wave diffracts around barrier at edges, leaving a shadow region behind it where the
wave does not reach.
Note:
General Rule: If 𝜆 of incoming wave is LESS than size of object, shadow region will be
SIGNIFICANT.

Diffraction through a gap:

• A wave diffracts when it oases through a small opening.
• Larger slit width 𝜔 compared to 𝜆, LESS the wave diffracts and SMALLER the
spread.

Note:
𝝎
As value of 𝝀 increases the extent of the
diffraction increases.

For diffraction to be significant 𝝀 ≥ 𝝎

E.g. (1): Using the concept of diffraction, why is it more likely that you will hear the
basslines when music is played in one room and you are standing in a second room, rather than
the high-pitched sounds?

- Diffraction is bending or spreading of waves around objects or through small gaps

- B/c bassline à lower frequency ∴ 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝜆
- Door acts as a slit
(
- As wavelength is larger for basslines, ) increases, the sound waves diffract more.
Superposition:
• Constructive and Destructive interference
• Change frequency, amplitude and phase

Progressive waves:
• Known as travelling wave. These are the types of waves which we are most familiar
with
• Crest or peak moves in direction of energy transfer.

Standing Waves:
• Does not appear to be moving along the medium.
• Instead it appears as though maxima oscillate between crests and troughs.

Waves at Fixed Ends:

Each overtone increases by amount equal

#
to 1st harmonic (* 𝜆)

Nodes do not seem to move while

antinodes appear to oscillate between
maximum positive and negative
displacement.

• Fixed ends are signified by nodal points.

 Waves at Open Ends:

Each overtone increases

by amount equal to 1st
#
harmonic (* 𝜆)

Odd harmonics only

#
1st harmonic = + 𝜆

Each odd harmonic

#
increase * 𝜆

Waves at Open Ends:

Each overtone increases by

amount equal to 1st harmonic
#
(* 𝜆)

Nodes do not seem to move

while antinodes appear to
oscillate between maximum
positive and negative
displacement.

Remember:

If antinodes = 𝒏
Then, 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic and (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒕𝒉 overtone

Resonance:
• A phenomenon in which a vibrating system or external force drives another system to
oscillate with greater amplitude at specific frequencies.
• Frequencies where response amplitude is a maximum is termed “resonant
frequency”.
Focus 3: Sound Waves
Inquiry question: What evidence suggests that sound is a mechanical wave?

Sound Waves:
• Sound is a mechanical wave; the wave is caused by a vibrating source.
• Travel as alternating regions of compressions and rarefactions.
• Travel at 343𝑚𝑠 "#
• Changes depending on air pressure and temperature

Frequency and Pitch:

• Frequency is objective while pitch is how someone hears the frequency.

Amplitude and Volume:

• Directly proportional, increasing amplitude à increasing volume

Intensity of Sound Waves:

• Measured in 𝑊𝑚"*
𝑷
𝑰=
𝟒𝚷𝒓𝟐

• Intensity of sound decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the
source

𝟏
𝑰𝜶
𝒓𝟐

Echoes:
• Minimum distance boundary needs to be away is 17m.
• The sound wave has to travel a total of 34m.
• The best echoes come from hard, smooth surfaces.
• For a human to perceive two sounds as separate sounds, they MUST be 0.1 seconds
apart.
Beats:
Recall:
Superposition is when multiple waves are at the same point at the same time and these waves
combine to produce a resultant wave.

• If two waves are produced with the same amplitude but slightly different frequencies,
they form beats.
• 𝑓0123 = |𝑓* − 𝑓# |

The Doppler Effect:

• When source of wave approaches the observer, the observer interprets the wave as
‘compressed’.
• When source moves away, observer interprets the wave as ‘stretched’.
• Doppler Effect Formula:
𝒗𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 + 𝒗𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒓
𝒇4 = 𝒇( )
𝒗𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒗𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

• Source approaches means observed frequency increases

• Source leaving means observed frequency decreases
Focus 4: Ray Model of Light
Inquiry question: What properties can be demonstrated when using the ray model of light?

Ray Model of Light:

• Ray represents direction in which energy travels.
• Three types of reflection:

Image formation using Ray Diagrams:

• Ray diagrams determine type of image produced by mirror or lens.
• Following 4 rays should be drawn:

To describe an image use

TOMP:

- Type of image (real or

virtual)
- Orientation (upright or
inverted)
- Magnification
(enlarged, diminished
or true size)
- Position (distance that
the image is located
from the mirror)
 𝒉𝒊
𝑴=
𝒉𝒐

Where,

𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ$ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒

ℎ@ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

The Mirror Formula:

• Can be used to determine the position of image and whether it is virtual or real

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
Where,

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑐𝑚)

𝑢 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑐𝑚)

𝑣 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑐𝑚)

• Note: Lens formula is the EXACT same

Remember:

• Focal length of a concave mirror is positive.

• Focal length of a convex mirror is negative.

• The magnification equation can be expanded to:

𝒉𝒊 −𝒗
𝑴= =
𝒉𝒐 𝒖
Lenses:
• A lens is transparent and allows light to bend.

• Converging Lenses

• Diverging Lenses

Two important rays to remember:

1. Ray ∥ to principal axis passing through focal point

2. Ray passing through focal point ∥ to principal axis

Refractive Index:
• Speed of wave, in EM waves, depends on optical density.
• One indicator of optical density is refractive index (represented by n).
• A vacuum is given an n-value of 1.00.
• Key equations to remember:

𝑐
𝑛A231%$2B =
𝑣A231%$2B

𝑛*
1𝑛* =
𝑛#

𝒏𝟐 𝒗𝟏 𝝀𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒊
𝟏𝒏𝟐 = = = =
𝒏𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒓

𝒏𝟐
𝜽𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧"𝟏 ( )
𝒏𝟏
Total Internal Reflection in Optical Fibres:
• Optical fibres are mad of optically pure glass (core).
• The cladding is a medium with a lower refractive index than the optically pure glass.

Dispersion of Light:
• When white light passes through a triangular glass prism, the white light is broken up
to the individual spectral colours due to a phenomenon known as chromatic
dispersion.
• We can remember this using ROYGBIV.
Focus 5: Thermodynamics
Inquiry question: How are temperature, thermal energy and particle motion related?

Temperature, Heat and KE of Particles:

• Even though an object may be at rest, the particles which it is made up of are in a
constant state of motion.
• As temperature increases, the KE increases, thus particles move more quickly at
higher temperature.
• This allows energy to be transferred more quickly at higher temperatures.
• Heat is a measure of transfer of thermal energy between bodies.

Thermal Equilibrium:
• Thermal energy is always transferred from region of higher temperature to region of
lower temperature.
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states:
o “If two thermodynamics systems are each in equilibrium with a third system,
then they are also in equilibrium with each other.”
• First Law of Thermodynamics states:
o “Energy cannot be created or destroyed.”
∆𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾

Specific Heat Capacity:

• Specific heat capacity of a substance is a measure of how much energy a substance
must absorb in order to increase temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1°.
• Water’s specific heat capacity (𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝐻* 𝑂) = 4186𝐽𝑘𝑔"# 𝐾 "#
∆𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻

Where,

∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐽)

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐽𝑘𝑔"# 𝐾 "# )
∆T = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒(𝐾)

Common Temperature:

E.g. (1): 250g of 18℃ water is added to a 400g aluminium saucepan at 130℃, determine
final temperature when two objects are in thermal equilibrium.

∆𝑄D231% = −∆𝑄E2FG1H2I
𝑚𝑐∆𝑇D231% = −(𝑚𝑐∆𝑇E2FG1H2I )
∆𝑇D231% = 𝑇G@AA@I − 18
∆𝑇E2FG1H2I = 𝑇G@AA@I − 130
∴ 𝑇G@AA@I = 46.7℃

Latent Heat:
• A substance at a given temperature may actually have different internal energy –
depending on the state which the substance is in.
 • Specific latent heat of fusion is amount of energy required to change 1kg of substance
from liquid to gas WITHOUT A CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE.
Where, 𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳
Q = Heat energy transferred to substance (𝐽)
m = mass of substance (𝑘𝑔)
L = specific latent heat of fusion (𝐽𝑘𝑔"# )

Transferring Heat:
• Transfer of heat energy is brought about one of 3 ways:
à conduction
à convection
à radiation

Conduction:
• Heat is transferred through substance via vibrating particles within substance.
• Rate of heat transfer depends on thermal conductivity.
• Thermal conductivity (k). Unit is 𝑊𝑚"# 𝐾 "#
𝑸 𝒌𝑨∆𝑻
=
𝒕 𝒅
Where,

𝑄
= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 (𝐽𝑠 "# )
𝑡
𝑘 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑊𝑚"# 𝐾 "# )
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑚* )
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 (𝐾)
𝑑 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟/𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Convection:
• Transfer of heat energy through a substance arising due to mass movement of
particles between two regions of different temperature.
• Only occurs in liquids and gases.

Radiation:
• Transfer of energy where medium is not required.

Remember:

Conduction = Solid, Liquid or Gas

Convection = Liquid or Gas
Radiation = No medium
Electricity and Magnetism Dot Point Summary

Focus 1: Electrostatics

Inquiry Question: How do charged objects interact with other charged objects and with
neutral objects?

Electrostatics
• All atoms are made up of smaller, subatomic particles.
• The nucleus which is extremely dense
• The electrons which orbit in shells.

• The charge on electrons and protons are the same magnitude.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝑞! ) = −1.602 × 10"#$

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 (𝑞% ) = 1.602 × 10"#$

• When two charged objects are placed close to each other, they exert a force on each
other.

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟:
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
Charged Objects
• A charged arises from an excess or deficiency of electrons.
• Ionisation is the process by which atoms gain or lose electrons.

E.g. (1): 𝑁𝑎 → 𝑁𝑎& + 𝑒 "

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟:
Objects become charged due to a movement of electrons.
• Negatively charged objects = excess/gain of electrons
• Positively charged objects = deficiency/loss of electrons.

The Coulomb

E.g. (1): If 𝑞% = +1.602 × 10"#$ 𝐶, then how many protons are present in an object which
has a total charge of +1𝐶?

𝑄 = 𝑛|𝑞! |
1 = 𝑛 × 1.602 × 10"#$
𝑛 = 6.24 × 10#'

Charging Objects
• The 3 main mechanisms to charge an object are:
1. Charging by friction
2. Charging by contact (conduction)
3. Charging by induction

Charging by Friction
• Essentially what happens when you rub two objects together, electrons are stripped
from one of the materials to another depending on their position in the triboelectric
series.

Charging by Contact (conduction)

• When you have 2 or more separate insulated objects which are then brought into
contact with each other, the net charge present on those objects will be shared
between the objects.

Charging by Induction
• Charging by induction is markedly difficult to the other two types of charging as it
does not involve any contact.
 • You start with a neutral sphere and in the absence of another charge object, the
charges in the neutral sphere are evenly distributed.
• When a charged rod is brought close to the neutral sphere, the oppositely charged
particles are attracted to it and the like charges are repelled from it.
• This induces a temporary dipole.
• If one side of the sphere is connected to the ground, that side will discharge.
• If the ground is then disconnected and the rod is taken away, the positive charged
particles are redistributed evenly.
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:
• Neutral objects are attracted to charged objects and likewise, charged objects and likewise,
charged objects are equally attracted to neutral objects.
• Like charges repel.
• Unlike charges attract.
• The force exerted between the charged objects is determined by the magnitude of their
respective charge and their degree of separation.

Electric Fields
• Two types of forces: contact and non-contact
• The electric field model is a good model at predicting the motion of charged particles.
• Electric fields are vectors meaning they have magnitude and a direction.
• The direction of the electric field lines are defined as the direction in which a small
positive test charge experiences a force.

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:
• Field lines can be used to determine the direction of force on a charged particle and also
can be used as a measure of the relative field strength or relative charge.
• Field lines cannot be used as a measure of absolute field strength or absolute charge.
Electric Fields
• Electric fields occur whenever there is a charged object.

∆𝑽
𝑬=
𝒅

Where,
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑁𝐶 "# )

∆𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉)

𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)

• When in an electric field, charged particle experience a force.

J⃑ = 𝒒𝑬
𝑭 J⃑

Where,
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑁)

𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑁𝐶 "# )

𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:
• When a charged particle is suspended in air |𝑭𝑬 | = |𝑭𝑾 |

Force between charged objects

• We consider that one-point charge creates an electric field and second point charge
placed in that electric field experiences a force.

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
JJ⃑𝑬 =
𝑭 × 𝟐
𝟒𝚷𝓔𝟎 𝒓

Where,
𝐹⃑- = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑁)

ℰ. = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑁𝐶 "# )

𝑞# 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞/ = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)

𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑚)

 • When we look at small changes, often we use a unit of mass called an atomic mass
unit (on formula sheet).

Potential Energy, Work and Equipotential Lines

• Energy stored due to an objects position is known as potential energy.
• As a general rule, if a charge is moving in the direction that it would normally move,
its electric potential energy is decreasing.
• If a charge moves in opposite direction, electric potential energy increases.

∆𝑈
𝑉=
𝑞

Where,
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉)

∆U = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)

𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)

• Amount of electric potential energy lost = amount of kinetic energy gained

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ∆𝐸0

Fscosθ = ∆𝐸0

1 1
𝑞∆𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 / − 𝑚𝑢/
2 2

2𝑞∆𝑉
∴ 𝑣1 = √
𝑚
Focus 2: Electric Circuits

Inquiry Question: How do the processes if the transfer and the transformation of energy occur
in electric circuits?

• Electrical energy obeys the law of conservation of energy.

• Electrical energy can easily be transferred from one point to another.

What is current?
• Current is essentially the net flow of charged particles in a particular direction.
• We are mostly concerned with the delocalised electrons which are free to move under
the influence of an external electric field.
• Whenever the term ‘current’ is used in a question it is describing the flow of
positive charge. (conventional current)

When talking about current it refers to:

The flow or movement of charge.

Formula for current:

Where,
𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)

q = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)

𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡

Note:
𝒒 = |𝒏𝒆 𝒒𝒆 |

Definition of 1 Amp:

1 coulomb of charge passing a fixed point each second.

1 amp corresponds to 𝟔. 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 electrons passing through a fixed point each second.
Work and Voltage
• Work refers to a change in mechanical energy in a system.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ∆𝐸% + ∆𝐸0

Potential Difference is defined as:

The change in potential energy per unit charge between two points.

Voltage
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉

OR

∆𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉

Where,
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝐽)

q = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶)

𝑉 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉)

Resistance
• Refers to how much opposition to electron flow a particular conductor has.
• How likely it is for electrons to collide with the conductor itself.

Ohm’s Law:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Factors Affecting Resistance

• Number of variables which influence the frequency at which electrons will collide
with something whilst they are flowing through a conductor.

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
 Where,
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)

𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (Ωm)

𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)

𝐴 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚/ )

Factors Affecting Resistance

Length
• Length of a conductor affects the resistance
• As we can see from the equation 𝑅 𝛼 𝐿

Cross – Sectional Area

#
• You can see from the equation 𝑅 𝛼 4
• Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area

Materials (𝜌)
• Different materials have different resistivity
• Resistivity is a measure of the inherent electrical resistance of a material at a given
temperature

Temperature
• Heating a conductor makes it difficult for electricity to flow through it.
• Heating the conductor causes the atoms to vibrate more, thereby making it more
difficult for the electrons to flow through, thus increasing the resistance

Energy and Power

• Power is the measure of the rate at which work is done.

The syllabus defines power as:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟.

∆𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡
Where,
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (J𝑠 "# )

𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (J)

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

Where,
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (W)

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 (V)

𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)

Focus 3: Circuits

Inquiry Question: How do the processes if the transfer and the transformation of energy occur
in electric circuits?

Circuit Diagrams
• Universal way of representing electrical circuits

Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) deals with the conservation of charge.

𝐼5 − 𝐼# − 𝐼/ = 0

• His law states that for any closed loop series path in a circuit, the sum of all voltages
in the loop is equal to zero.

𝑉6 = 𝑉# + 𝑉/