Topics:

-​ Force and Motion (Unit 2 and 3)

-​ Dynamics (Newton’s Laws) (Unit 4)
-​ Work, Energy and Power (Unit 5)
-​ Waves (Unit 6)
-​ Electricity (Unit 7)
-​ Electromagnetism (Unit 8)
-​ Thermal Physics (Unit 9)
-​ Climate Change (Unit 10)
-​ Radioactivity (Unit 11)
-​ Astrophysics (Unit 12)

Force and Motion (Unit 2 and 3)

(Unit 2)

Subtopic - Fundamental forces

Identify a range of forces

-​ Electromagnetic - electrical
-​ Electromagnetic - magnetic
-​ Gravitational force
-​ Applied force
-​ Normal force
-​ Frictional force
-​ Air resistance/drag
-​ Tension force
-​ Spring force

State that force is measured in newtons (N)

-​ The SI unit of force is the newton, with its symbol being N

Compare contact and non-contact forces

-​ Contact force is a type of force that would act between 2 or more objects in contact or
physical touch with one another. An example of a contact force would be frictional force as it
requires physical touch between the object and the surface it is sliding on
-​ Non contact force is a type of force that acts between 2 or more objects and does not require
any contact or physical touch with one another. An example of a non contact force would be
gravitational force as it does not require physical touch between 2 objects with mass.

Analyse and explain differentiate forces in our daily life

Differentiate between scalars and vectors and give examples

-​ A scalar is a physical quantity that is only described by its magnitude. Examples of scalar
forces include volume, density, speed, energy, mass and time.
-​ A vector is a physical quantity that is both described by its magnitude and its velocity.
Example of vector forces include velocity, momentum, force, electromagnetic fields and
weight as it can be described both its magnitude and direction
Outline the difference between mass and weight
 -​ Mass measures how much material an object is made of, the SI units of measurement for mass
is kilograms (KG)
-​ Weight measures the force of gravity upon an object, weight is a force and hence the SI units
of measurement for weight is N as the SI units of measurement for force is N
Measure the acceleration due to gravity g of an object
-​ Acceleration due to gravity is represented by the value g. The standard value of g on the
surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s2
Analyse gravity at different locations on earth to discuss its strength
-​ The Earth is not a perfect sphere—it's slightly flattened at the poles and bulges out near the
equator, so points near the equator are farther from the centre of mass. The distance between
the centres of mass of two objects affects the gravitational force between them, so the force of
gravity on an object is smaller at the equator compared to the poles. This effect alone causes
the gravitational acceleration to be about 0.18% less at the equator than at the poles.
-​ Second, the rotation of the Earth causes an apparent centrifugal force which points away from
the axis of rotation, and this force can reduce the apparent gravitational force (although it
doesn't actually affect the attraction between two masses). The centrifugal force points
directly opposite the gravitational force at the equator, and is zero at the poles. Together, the
centrifugal effect and the centre of mass distance reduce g by about 0.53% at the equator
compared to the poles.

Subtopic - Resultant forces

Describe force systems in terms of force arrows to show size and direction of forces
-​ Force arrows are commonly used to represent both the magnitude and direction of forces. The
length of this arrow would correspond to the magnitude of the force and the longer the arrows
are, the larger the magnitude the force would have. The direction of the arrow would
correspond to the actual direction that the force is being exerted.
Model a graphical method of vector addition and subtraction

-​
Understand the rules of vector addition and subtraction

-​
Apply vector diagrams to test whether forces are balanced or produce a resultant

-​

Apply vector diagrams to estimate size and direction of resultant forces

 -​

Use vector diagrams to solve multiple force problems and calculate the resultant

-​
Discuss that balanced forces cause the object to be in equilibrium
-​ Balanced forces are those that are opposite in direction and equal in size. Balanced forces are
considered to be in a state of equilibrium. When forces are balanced there is no change in
direction. Balanced forces cannot change the motion or direction of an object. Because all
forces are balanced, all the magnitudes are balanced with other forces in the opposite
direction.
Explain that unbalanced forces cause motion or deformation
-​ An unbalanced force causes a change in motion, speed, direction, or movements because of
unequal force or strength that is applied to one side of an object. Opposite sides have forces
acting against them, but in the case of unbalanced forces, one side has more energy than the
other.

Subtopic - Moment of a force

Define what is meant by the fulcrum and the centre of mass

-​ The fulcrum is a point at which the beam pivots. When an effort is applied to one end of the
lever, a load is applied at the other end of the lever, this would move the mass upwards.
Fulcrum can also be described as the point at which the lever turns or balances
-​ The centre of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the unique point where the weighted
relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero. This is the point to which a force may
be applied to cause a linear acceleration without an angular acceleration.
Investigate the relationship between force, distance from the fulcrum and turning effect
-​ Moment = force applied x distance from the pivot, where the unit of moment is newton
metres
Calculate the moments of forces and apply to real world problems

-​
(Unit 3)
Subtopic - Distance and Displacement

Recall that distance is measured in metres (m), and speed in metres per second (m s-1)

Define the terms distance and displacement

-​ Distance is the total movement of an object without regard to the direction (scalar, as it has
only a magnitude)
-​ Displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest distance from the initial position to the
final position (vector, as it has a magnitude and direction)
Apply the relationship average speed = distance/time
-​ Average speed = distance/time, where speed is measured in m/s
State that displacement accounts for direction of travel

Contrast the difference between distance and displacement in real world situations

Subtopic - Speed, velocity and Acceleration

​
Recall that any change in velocity - whether caused by change in speed or in direction - is an
acceleration
 -​ Acceleration formula is (final velocity - initial velocity)/time, hence a change in velocity
would equate to some acceleration. This could be a change in an object's magnitude or
direction as both affect the velocity of the object as it is a vector quantity.
Recall that acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (m s-2)

Define the terms speed, velocity and acceleration

-​ Speed = Speed of an object is the magnitude of the change of its position over time (scalar
quantity)
-​ Velocity = velocity is the directional speed of an object in motion as an indication of its rate of
change in position (vector quantity) (velocity = displacement/change in time)
-​ Acceleration = Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to
time. Acceleration is a vector quantity as it is dependent upon the velocity of an object.
Acceleration formula is (final velocity - initial velocity)/time
Contrast the difference between speed and velocity in real world situations

Solve accelerations from changes in velocity and times

Analyse displacement- time graphs in terms of velocity

-​ In a displacement time graph, the slope or gradient of the line is equal to the velocity of the
object
Subtopic - Speed and Safety

Discuss the dangers of excessive vehicle speeds

​
Outline a range of safety features to reduce the fatality rate in vehicle crashes

Unit 4 - Dynamics

Subtopic - Newton’s first law of motion

Recall that forces cause a change in shape or motion, direction or speed

State Newton’s first law of motion

-​ Newton’s first law of motion states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion
in a straight line unless compelled to change its state of motion by the action of an external
unbalanced force.
Recall the concept of inertia is a resistance to motion
-​ Inertia is the concept that an object will continue in its current motion unless an external
unbalanced force causes its speed or direction to change. Inertia is the property of matter that
causes it to resist changes in velocity.
Apply the concept of inertia to discuss motion of objects in the absence of a net force

Subtopic - Newton’s second law of motion

State Newton’s second law of motion

-​ Newton’s second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two
variables, the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of
an object would depend directly on the net force acting upon the object and inversely upon the
 mass of the object. Newton's second law of motion brings the formula (F = ma, where F is
force, m is mass and, a is acceleration)
Explain how unbalanced forces change motion and so cause acceleration
-​ Unbalanced forces cause an object to change its motion, which changes its velocity and hence
brings acceleration. This can happen in two ways, one way is for unbalanced forces to act
upon an object at rest and the other way is if an unbalanced force acts upon an object in
motion. When unbalanced forces act upon an object at rest it begins to change its velocity in
the form of a change in speed or direction, when this occurs the object accelerates. When
unbalanced forces act upon an object in motion, it changes its motion in either the form of a
change in its speed or changes the direction it is moving in, either way a change of velocity
exists and acceleration occurs.

Outline the changes in displacement, velocity and acceleration for objects in free fall
-​ According to newton's second law of motion when a skydiver jumps out of a plane, the force
with which the person is falling will increase as the acceleration increase, because the force of
the person increases on the air, the air resistance force will also increase and oppose the force
acting by the person with the same magnitude and the second direction (newton's third law)
eventually causing there to be no unbalanced forces acting upon the person allowing him to
fall at a constant velocity also known as terminal velocity.
Outline the effects of resistive forces in gases and liquids
-​ With air resistance, acceleration throughout a fall gets less than gravity (g) because air
resistance affects the movement of the falling object by slowing it down. How much it slows
the object down depends on the surface area of the object and its speed.
-​ As pressure increases as you go deeper in a fluid, the force from pressure exerted downward
on the top of the objects will be less than the force from pressure exerted upward on the
bottom of the objects. Essentially it's that simple. The reason there's a buoyant force is
because of the rather unavoidable fact that the bottom (i.e. more submerged part) of an object
is always deeper in a fluid than the top of the object. This means the upward force from water
has to be greater than the downward force from water.
Describe the concept of momentum
-​ Momentum is defined as the quantity of motion of the body and is measured by mass x
velocity. Formula → Momentum = mass x velocity, momentum is the product of mass and
velocity and is a vector quantity as it takes velocity into account.
Subtopic - Newton’s third law of motion

State Newton’s third law of motion

-​ Newton's third law of motion states that for every action in nature there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Force always comes in pairs.
State that forces occur in action-reaction pairs
-​ Forces come in pairs, and for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Outline the law of conservation of momentum
-​ Law of conservation of momentum states that for two or more bodies in an isolated system
acting upon each other, the total momentum remains constant unless an external force is
applied, hence momentum can neither be created nor destroyed.
Analyse motion in terms of force pairs acting on different bodies

Unit 5 - Energy, Work and Power

 Subtopic - Energy
List different types of energy with examples
-​
Type of Chemical Energy Thermal Energy Electrical Energy Magnetic Energy Nuclear Energy
energy

What is it? Energy of chemical Thermal energy is the Electrical energy is Every magnetic Nuclear energy is
substances that is energy contained a form of energy field contains energy that is
released when those within an object or that is resulted energy which is formed by splitting
substances undergo a system that decides from the flow of called magnetic atoms in a reactor
chemical reaction the temperature of electric charge in energy. Magnetic to heat water into
that system of the form of fields are steam which turns
objects. electrons. generated from turbines and
electric currents generates
which means that electricity.
magnetic energy
is an energy form
of moving
electrons.

Examples of Batteries, biomass, Warmth from the sun, Batteries, outlets, Earphones, Nuclear fusion,
it petroleum, natural gas baking in an oven solar cells, refrigerators, and nuclear medicine
and coal lightning freezers and electricity
-​
Define Kinetic and gravitational potential energy
-​ Kinetic energy is the energy of motion which is observable in the movement of the object or
subatomic particle. In other words, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy it possesses
due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from
rest to its stated velocity. Kinetic energy formula is Kinetic energy = 1/2mv2
-​ Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed or acquired by an object due to a
change in its position when it is present in a certain gravitational field. Gravitational potential
energy = mass x gravitational field x height
Investigate factors affecting kinetic and gravitational potential energy
-​ Factors affecting kinetic energy: an object's mass and speed affect its kinetic energy, the
higher the mass the more kinetic energy and the higher the speed the more kinetic energy
-​ Factors affecting gravitational potential energy: an object's mass, the acceleration of gravity
and the height at which the object is are all directly proportional to the gravitational potential
energy.
Calculate kinetic and gravitational potential energy
-​ Kinetic energy = 1/2mv2
-​ Gravitational potential energy = m*g*h, where m is mass, g is acceleration of gravity and h is
height
Understand conservation of energy
-​ The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant and is conserved over time.
Construct models and mathematical representations that show that the total energy within an isolated
system is constant

Identify situations in which mechanical energy is or is not conserved

 -​ Mechanical energy is not conserved when non- conservative forces are acting upon an object,
for example friction opposes the relative motion of an object and this takes away energy in the
form of thermal energy.
Subtopic - Work

Define work, including when it is positive, negative, or zero

-​ Work is the energy transferred to or from an object via the application of a force along a
displacement. In other words work is the measure of energy transfer that occurs when an
object is moved over a distance by a certain amount of external force. Work formula is work =
force x displacement
-​ POSITIVE WORK: The work done on an object is said to be positive work when force and
displacement are in the same direction.
-​ Example: When an object moves on a horizontal surface, force and displacement acts in same
direction. So, work done is positive.
-​ NEGATIVE WORK: The work done is said to be negative work when force and displacement
are in opposite directions.
-​ Example: When an object is thrown upwards,the force of gravity is in downward direction
whereas displacement acts in upward direction.
-​ ZERO WORK: The work done is said to be zero when force and displacement are
perpendicular to each other or when either force or displacement is zero.
-​ Example: When we hold an object and walk, the force acts in downward direction whereas
displacement acts in forward direction.
Calculate the work done by a specified constant force on an object that undergoes a specified
displacement

Analyse the work done in exercise in relation to the energy consumed in a medium
-​ Energy can be defined as the ability to do work, when you work to move an object, the
object’s energy is changed
Subtopic - Work -Energy theorem

Apply the work energy theorem

-​ Work energy theorem states that the net work done by the forces on an object is equal to the
change in its kinetic energy
Calculate the change in kinetic energy or speed that results from performing a specified amount of
work on an object
-​ Work = change in kinetic energy
Subtopic - Power
Define power and convert between units of power such as Watt and hp
-​ Power is the amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time.
-​ 1 hp is equivalent to 746 watts (W)
​
Calculate the power required to raise an object at a constant rate
-​ It is convenient to calculate the average power. In the straightforward cases where a constant
force moves an object at constant velocity, the power is just P = Fv. In a more general case
where the velocity is not in the same direction as the force, then the scalar product of force
and velocity must be used.
Subtopic - Efficiency
Define efficiency
 -​ Efficiency is a number that measures the effectiveness of a mechanism or machine in
transforming the power input to the device to power output
State and apply the formula for calculating energy efficiency
-​ Efficiency = useful energy out/total energy in

Draw Sankey Diagrams

-​
Unit 6 - Waves

Subtopic - Wave basics

State what is meant by an oscillation

-​ Oscillation is repetitive or periodic variation in time, in other words it is a motion repeating
itself
State that waves transfer energy without any net movement of the medium.
-​ Waves transfer energy through vibrations colliding with particles and hence passing on
energy, without the particles itself moving
Describe wave motion in terms of amplitude, wavelength, frequency and period.
-​ Wavelength is the distance from one peak to the next peak
-​ Frequency is the number of complete waves per second that pass through a certain point. It is
measured in hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is 1 wave per second.
-​ Amplitude is the height of the wave (from rest to crest)
-​ The Speed (v, velocity) is, well, how fast the wave goes
-​ The period (T) is the time it takes (in s) for one complete wave to pass a point. E.g a wave
with a period of 0.002 s has a frequency of 1/0.002 = 500 Hz.

-​
Summarise the properties of longitudinal and transverse wave motion.
 -​ Transverse waves cause the medium to move perpendicular to the direction of the wave, in
transverse waves the particles move up and down as the waves move horizontally
-​ Longitudinal waves cause the medium to move parallel to the direction of the wave, the
movement of particles occurs from left to right and forces other particles to vibrate
Outline the difference between wavefronts and rays.
-​ A wavefront is a particular position where all the points have a constant phase.
-​ A ray at any point is normal to the wavefront, a ray shows the direction of propagation of the
wave.

Solve problems using the formula T = 1 / f.

-​ T = period of time it takes for one cycle to complete
-​ F = frequency
Recall and Solve problems using the formula v = f λ.
-​ V is the speed or velocity of the wave
-​ F is the frequency of the wave
-​ Lamda is the wavelength of the wave
Outline the formation and properties of sound waves.
-​ Sound waves are vibrations that pass through the molecules of a medium. As sound waves are
a type of longitudinal wave they travel as a series of compressions and rarefactions.
Compressions are regions where the vibrating particles are closest together. Rarefactions are
the regions in between where the particles are farthest apart and hence all spread out. Sound
waves travel through a solid by causing particles in the solid to vibrate and hence those
vibrating particles collide with their neighbours and pass on the vibrations. Sound waves can
transmit through these materials. Because sound waves require particles to be transmitted the
more densely packed the particles are the faster the sound travels. This is why sound waves
travel fast in solids, slower in liquids, and very slow in gases. This is why sound waves cannot
travel through a vacuum as there are no particles in a vacuum through which the sound waves
can vibrate through. As sound waves pass through different types of mediums and speed up or
slow down the frequency does not change. Using the wave formula we can denote that as
speed increases and frequency is constant, the wavelength must increase to balance the
equation. Hence wavelengths get longer as sound speeds up, which happens in higher-density
materials like solid compared to lower-density materials like air or water.
-​ Because sound changes speed as it moves from one medium to another, sound can be
refracted like light. Sound can also be reflected and absorbed, with hard flat surfaces
reflecting the most which are why echoes occur.
Outline the meaning of loudness and of pitch in terms of the features of a sound wave.
-​ The pitch of a sound depends on the frequency, as the pitch of the sound is directly
proportional to the frequency, while the loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of
sound waves. Higher the amplitude, the louder the sound is
Demonstrate and Explain why sound cannot be heard in a vacuum.
-​ Sound waves travel through a solid by causing particles in the solid to vibrate and hence those
vibrating particles collide with their neighbours and pass on the vibrations. Sound waves can
transmit through these materials. Because sound waves require particles to be transmitted the
more densely packed the particles are the faster the sound travels. This is why sound waves
travel fast in solids, slower in liquids, and very slow in gases. This is why sound waves cannot
travel through a vacuum as there are no particles in a vacuum through which the sound waves
can vibrate through.
Recall that the speed of sound in air is approximately 330-340 m/s.
Recall that the range for human hearing is approximately 20 Hz to 20 k Hz.

State the meaning of the term ultrasound.

-​ Vibrations that act as sound waves but with frequencies above the range of human hearing
Solve problems involving echoes and sonar.

Subtopic - EM Spectrum

Identify the principal regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

-​ White light is fundamentally made up of a rainbow and a wide range of different colours from
colours like red and orange to blue and purple. However there are other colours of light that
are not visible to the human eye, these include things like ultraviolet UV and infrared light.
There are also other types of radiation like X-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. All these
colours of light are known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
-​ Each part of the electromagnetic spectrum has different characteristics that includes energy
levels, wavelengths and frequencies.
-​ Gamma rays have the highest energy, shortest wavelength and highest frequencies. Radio
waves on the other side of the spectrum have the lowest energies, longest wavelengths and
lowest frequencies of any type of Electromagnetic radiation.
-​ In order from highest to lowest energy, the EM spectrum is gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves.

-​

Outline the changes in frequency and wavelength from one end of the spectrum to the other.
-​ Wavelengths - Highest to lowest: Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
-​ Frequency - Highest to lowest: Gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light,
infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves
Outline the meaning of the term colour in relation to visible light in relation to wavelength and
frequency.
 -​
Recall that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 10^8 m/s and is approximately
the same in air.

Outline some sources and properties of the different regions of the EM spectrum/Describe the useful
applications for each region of the EM spectrum.
-​
EM Wave Use How it works

Radio Waves Radio waves are used for Radio works through transmitting and receiving
communication such as electromagnetic waves. The radio signal can be
broadcasting television and described as an electric current moving back and
radio. forth very quickly. A transmitter would then radiate
this field outwards through an antenna, and then a
receiver picks up the field and translates it to the
sounds that are heard through the radio.

Microwaves Microwaves are widely used Microwaves are produced inside the oven by an
in modern technology, for electron tube called a magnetron. The microwaves
example in point-to-point are reflected within the metal interior of the oven
communication links, where they are absorbed by food. Microwaves
wireless networks, cause water molecules in food to vibrate, producing
microwave radio relay heat that cooks the food.
networks, radar, satellite and
spacecraft communication.

Infra Red Infrared is used in heat An infrared camera detects the thermal energy or
sensors, thermal imaging and heat emitted by the scene being observed and
night vision equipment. converts it into an electronic signal. This signal is
then processed to produce an image. The heat
captured by an infrared camera can be measured
with a high degree of precision.
Visible Light Visible light is used for There are cones in our eyes that are receivers for
humans to see, without light tiny visible light waves. The Sun is a natural source
our eyes would not be able for visible light waves and our eyes see the
to see images of anything. reflection of this sunlight off the objects around us.
The colour of an object that we see is the colour of
light reflected.

UV UV radiation is widely used UV radiation has enough energy to break chemical

in industrial processes and in bonds. Due to their higher energies, UV photons
medical and dental practices can cause ionisation, a process in which electrons
for a variety of purposes, break away from atoms. The resulting vacancy
such as killing bacteria, affects the chemical properties of the atoms and
creating fluorescent effects, causes them to form or break chemical bonds that
curing inks and resins, they otherwise would not.
phototherapy and
suntanning.

X-Rays X-rays use invisible How X-rays function: Radiation that can pass
electromagnetic energy through the body includes X-rays. You cannot feel
beams to produce images of them and you cannot see them with the unaided
internal tissues, bones, and eye. The energy from X-rays is absorbed by various
organs on film or digital bodily components at various speeds as they move
media. through the body.

Gamma Rays Gamma rays are used in High-penetration gamma radiation interacts with
medicine (radiotherapy), matter by ionising it by one of three processes: the
industry (sterilisation and photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, or pair
disinfection) and the nuclear creation. Gamma radiation's effects can be felt
industry. throughout the body due to its great penetration
capability, yet they are less ionising than alpha
particles.

Explain the possible harmful effects of the different regions of the EM spectrum.
-​ Microwaves can cause internal heating of body tissues
-​ Infrared radiation is felt as heat and causes the skin to burn
-​ X-rays damage cells causing mutations (which may lead to cancer) and cell death- this is why
doctors and dentists stand behind protective screens when taking lots of X-rays
-​ Gamma rays can also damage cells causing mutations and cell death
State that all objects above 0 k emit radiation and that the frequency of the emitted radiation depends
on the temperature of the object.
-​ Frequency is directly proportional to temperature as when frequency increases wavelength
decreases and when wavelength decreases temperature increases as frequency increases when
energy increases (vice versa) hence frequency is directly proportional to temperature
Subtopic - Reflection and Refraction

State that waves can be absorbed, reflected or transmitted at a boundary between two media.
Construct and Label diagrams to illustrate the reflection of a wave at a surface using wavefronts and
rays.

-​
State the law of reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
-​ On reflection upon a smooth surface, the angle of the incident ray will equal the angle of the
reflected ray. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the
same plane.
State that the change in speed of light at a boundary causes refraction.
-​ Refraction is the change in the angle of the reflected ray or wave as it passes from one
medium to another. These different mediums would have different refractive indexes. The
redirection of these waves is caused by the change of speed which is caused by the change in
refractive index which changes the amount of light reflected.

Construct and Label diagrams showing the refraction of light at a boundary using wavefronts and
rays.

-​
Outline the meaning of the term "refractive index".
-​ The refractive index of transparent material will show how fast light travels in that material
-​ Refractive index formula, n = (speed of light in a vacuum c)/(speed of light in that material v)
-​ N = C/V
Recall and Solve problems using the formula n = c / v.

Investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
-​ There are 2 laws of refraction
-​ 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at that point of incidence all lie in the
same plane
-​ 2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence i to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant for the pair of given media
Solve problems using Snell’s law: ni sin (i) = nr sin (r).
Describe what is meant by total internal reflection.
-​ Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a ray of light within a medium from
another surface back into the medium. Light going from a medium with a higher refractive
index to a material with a lower refractive index would speed up and bend away from the
normal. If the angle of incidence continues to increase, the angle of refraction would get
closer to 90 degrees. Eventually, the angle of incidence would reach a critical angle when the
angle of refraction would be 90 degrees.This then causes the light to be refracted right along
the boundary. Above this critical angle you will get total internal reflection where no light
leaves the medium.

-​

State the meaning of critical angle.

-​ The critical angle is the angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 90 degrees
Solve problems using the formula n = 1 / sin (c).
-​ You can find the critical angle C, of a material using this equation:
​ Sin C = 1/n
​ Where n is the refractive index of the material
-​ The higher the refractive index the lower the critical angle.
Explain the use of optical fibres particularly in medicine and communications technology.
-​ Endoscopes use optical fibres to produce an image of the inside of the body. A doctor can
insert a bundle of optical fibres into the body. This allows the doctor to see an image of the
inside of the body clearly, and helps them diagnose diseases like cancer, or see what they are
doing during keyhole surgery.
-​ Fibre-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another
by sending pulses of infrared light through an optical fibre. The light is a form of carrier wave
that is modulated to carry information.
Describe the dispersion of light by a glass prism as a result of refraction.
-​ Since a material's refractive index varies for various colours, the speed of light in a material
medium relies on its colour (wavelength). The diverse colours are diverged through different
angles if a white light ray is impacted on a prism. Because of this, white light disperses into
its individual colours, a phenomenon known as dispersion.
Subtopic - Diffraction and Interference

State what is meant by diffraction of a wave and give examples.

 -​ Diffraction occurs when a wave meets a gap in a barrier and the waves carry on through the
gap. The waves would spread until some extent into the area beyond the gap. The waves
would spread out as they move through an aperture or around objects, which is commonly
known as diffraction. This happens when the aperture or obstacles size in the same order of
magnitude as the wave’s wavelength. Examples include x-ray diffraction, or water passing
from a small gap.
State what is meant by interference of waves.
-​ Wave interference occurs when two waves meet while travelling along the same medium. The
medium assumes a shape as a result of the net impact of the two distinct waves on the
medium’s particles due to wave interference
Describe the difference between constructive and destructive interference.
-​ Constructive interference occurs when the crests of two waves cross over, this results in an
increase in wave amplitude
-​ Destructive interference occurs when the crests of one wave cross the troughs of another
wave, destructive interference takes place and the amplitude of both waves is reduced
Construct wave diagrams to show constructive and destructive interference.

-​ ​

-​
Draw and Explain the shape of a resultant wave formed when two waves interfere.

Outline the phenomena of active noise cancelling in terms of wave interference.

-​ A noise cancellation headphone, emits a sound wave with the same amplitude but with
inverted phase to the original sound. The waves combine to form a new wave, in a process
called interference, and effectively cancel each other out an effect which is called phase
cancellation.
Subtopic - Optics

Outline the characteristics of an optical image by a plane mirror.

-​ Images formed by plane mirrors are virtual, upright ,left-right reversed, the same distance
from the mirror as the object’s distance, and the same size as the object.
Describe the formation and characteristics of an optical image by a plane mirror

State the difference between convergent and divergent lenses

 -​ Convergent lenses also known as converging lens are convex lenses where light rays would
converge and focus to meet at a single point
-​ Diverging lens also known as concave lens and these diverge the light that falls on their
surfaces, hence they do not meet at a single point
Outline the uses of convergent and divergent lenses
-​ Converging lens are used in magnifying glass, cameras and microscopes
-​ Correcting farsightedness
Construct ray diagrams to show how an image is formed by converging and diverging lenses

-​
Investigate the behaviour of converging and diverging lenses to find the focal point
-​ If the light rays converge (as in a converging lens), then they will converge to a point. This
point is known as the focal point of the converging lens. If the light rays diverge (as in a
diverging lens), then the diverging rays can be traced backwards until they intersect at a point.
This intersection point is known as the focal point of a diverging lens.
Solve problems using the formula 1/f = 1/u + 1/v
-​ 1/f = 1/u + 1/v
-​ Where, f is the focal length, u is the object distance, v is the image distance
Solve problems using the formula magnification = image height / object height
-​ Magnification = height of image formed/object height
Describe the features of an image formed by a lens using the terms real, virtual, magnified and
diminished.
-​ Real images: An image is defined as the collection of focus points on light rays coming from
an object, a real image is the collection of focus points actually made by converging/diverging
rays
-​ Virtual image: A virtual image is the collection of focus points that are made by extensions of
diverging or converging rays.
-​ A magnified image would be larger than the original image
-​ A diminished image would be smaller than the original image
Explain how lenses and mirrors are used to construct telescopes and magnifying glasses.
-​ They use mirrors and lenses to reflect and refract light and form images. The light microscope
and telescope use convex lenses and mirrors to make enlarged images of very tiny or distant
objects. A camera uses a convex lens to make a reduced image of an object.

Unit 7 - Electricity

Subtopic - Static Electricity

Recall that negative electric charge is carried by electrons, positive electric charge is carried by
protons.
-​ Electrons, negative electricity
 -​ Protons, positive electricity
State that a surplus or deficit of electrons leads to a static electric charge.
-​ Surplus of electrons leads to negative charges
-​ Deficit of electrons leads to positive charges
Outline how objects may become statically charged by rubbing.
-​ Both objects before rubbing are electrically neutral. The rubbing of certain materials against
one another transfers negative charges or electrons. The body from which electrons are
transferred gets deficient in electrons and becomes positively charged.
Explain why insulators can be statically charged more easily than conductors.
-​ Insulators are materials that do not allow electrons to flow through them easily, hence
insulators can be easily charged by friction or rubbing as the extra electrons gained cannot
escape easily.
Investigate the attractive and repulsive forces produced by statically charged objects.
-​ Charges that are opposite will attract, and charges which are same will be repulsed
State that an electric field is the area around an electrically charged object where another charged
object may experience a force.

Draw the electric field lines for a simple, isolated charged object, eg. a sphere.

-​
Interpret electric field diagrams to outline the direction and strength of the electric field at different
points.
-​ Positive electric fields move outwards, and negative electric fields move inward
-​ Magnitude of these electric fields is dependent on the length of the line
Explain some common uses of static electricity including, paint sprayers, photocopying, air filters and
pollution control as well as dangers such as sparking, electrocution and fires or explosions.
-​
Subtopic - Voltage, Current and Electric Circuits

Identify common circuit components from their circuit symbols (see image to the right of the page).
 -​
-​ Difference between cell and battery: A battery usually contains electrical energy, which is
pre-supplied from a factory, or a battery can be charged via an outlet. On the other hand, a cell
consists of a chemical energy source such as natural gas, diesel or propane where it converts
these into electrical energy for power.
-​ Resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, divide voltages
-​ Fuse wire is used in electrical circuits to prevent excess current flowing into the circuit and
damaging appliances
-​ A diode is an electrical component that conducts current in one direction, it has low resistance
in one direction and high resistance in another. A diode is a semiconductor device that
essentially acts as a one-way switch for current. It allows current to flow easily in one
direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite direction.
-​ LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) convert electrical energy directly into light, delivering efficient
light generation with little-wasted electricity.
-​ LDRs are used to detect light levels, and their resistance decreases as the light intensity
increases.
-​ Thermistor is used in temperature sensors, for example in fire alarms. Their resistance
decreases as the temperature increases. At low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is
high and little current can flow through them
-​ At high temperatures the resistance of a thermistor is low and more current can flow through
them
-​ Variable resistors allow you to adjust the value of voltage by changing the resistance and
keeping current constant.
Draw and construct simple circuits.
 -​
State that electric current is caused by the movement of negative charge, ie. electrons.
-​ Electrons move in a circuit due to the electrical pressure as there is a difference in the voltage
between the positive and negative terminals of a battery that causes electrons to move from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal
Distinguish between conventional current and electron flow.
-​ Flow of electrons is from negative terminal to the positive terminal of the cell
-​ Conventional directional of current is taken from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal
State that the direction of conventional current is from positive to negative.

State what is meant by the terms Charge, Voltage and Current and recall their symbols and units of
measurement.
-​ Charge is the electrical charge that is dependent on whether there are more or fewer electrons
compared to protons in an atom. The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb and is represented
by the symbol C
-​ Voltage is the electric pressure from an electric circuit and is also known as the electric
potential difference. The SI unit of voltage is volt (V)
-​ Current is the stream of charged particles like electrons. Current is the rate of flow of electric
charge. The SI unit of measurement for current is Amperes and the symbol for the ampere is
A.
Solve problems using the formula I= ΔQ/ t
-​ Where I is current (coulombs)
-​ Q is amount of charge passing a point (amps)
-​ T is amount of time (seconds)
Explain how the flow of electrons is used to do work by transferring energy into other forms.
-​ A battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy. The
chemical reactions in a battery involve the flow of electrons from one material (electrode) to
another, through an external circuit. The flow of electrons provides an electric current that can
be used to do work.
State that voltage across a component is equal to the amount of energy transferred per coulomb of
charge that moves through that component.
-​ 1 volt is 1 joule of energy per coulomb, hence if something has a voltage of 10 volts it must
have 10 joules of energy transferred per unit of charge passed.
Recall that the unit of voltage is the volt (V).

Outline the meaning of the term Potential Difference.

-​ Potential difference is a measure of how much energy is transferred between two points in a
circuit.
State that voltage of a supply is known as the e.m.f.
-​ Electromotive Force (EMF). This is represented by "ε" and the unit of measurement is the
same as voltage, which is Volt. EMF is the maximum potential difference between two points
of the battery when no current flows from the source in the case of an open circuit.
Recall and solve problems using the formulas V= W / Q and ΔE /Q
-​ V = W/Q
-​ V is potential difference
-​ W is work done
-​ Q is charge in C
-​
Show how to measure Voltage and Current in a circuit with the correct placement of Voltmeters and
Ammeters
-​ Voltmeter

-​
-​ Ammeters

-​
Subtopic - Resistance

State that resistance is the tendency of a material to resist the flow of electric charge and recall that the
unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Outline how the collision of moving charges with the atoms in a material causes resistance.
-​ As electrons move through the material, some collide with atoms, other electrons, or
impurities. It is these collisions that cause resistance. Heat causes molecules of the material to
vibrate. These vibrations effectively increase the areas of possible collisions, thereby
increasing resistance to current flow.
Explain the heating effect of an electric current due to the collision of electrons with atoms within the
material.
 -​ As electrons move through a metal conductor, some collide with atoms, other electrons or
impurities. These collisions cause resistance and generate heat. Heating the metal conductor
causes atoms to vibrate more, which in turn makes it more difficult for the electrons to flow,
increasing resistance.
Calculate resistance using the formula V = I x R

State and explain the factors that affect resistance including length, CSA and resistivity.
-​ When the length of the material is increased, its value of resistance also increases. When the
length of the material decreases, its value of resistance will also decrease.
-​ Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the wire. The more the area
of cross section of the wire,the less is the resistance and the less the area,the more is the
resistance.
-​ Resistivity is a property of a material that measures how strongly it resists electric current.
Resistance is directly proportional to the resistivity, the higher the resistivity the higher the
resistance
Subtopic - Conductors and Insulators
Outline the properties of conductors and insulators and recall some everyday examples.
-​ A conductor allows the movement of electrons and ions in them, the electric field inside a
conductor is zero allowing electrons to flow within them. Charge density inside a conductor is
zero. Only on the surface of the conductor do free charges exist
-​ In insulators valence electrons are tightly held together, Opposite of conductor
Explain the characteristics of semiconductors such as thermistors and LDRs in terms of charge
carriers, resistance and current and recall some uses of semiconductors
-​ Resistivity of semiconductors is less than an insulator but higher than conductor.
-​ Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in
magnitude but opposite in polarity.
Explain how atomic structure affects conductivity in terms of valence electrons.
-​ The conductivity of the atom depends on the number of electrons that are in the valence shell.
When an atom has only one electron in the valence shell, it is almost a perfect conductor.
When an atom has eight valence electrons the valence shell is said to be complete and the
atom is an insulator.
Recall and solve problems the formula resistivity=1/conductivity
-​ Resistivity =1/conductivity
Subtopics - Series and parallel

Outline how to use switches in simple series and parallel circuits.

 -​

-​
Construct and draw simple series and parallel circuits.

Describe how current, voltage and resistance vary in different parts of series and parallel circuits.
-​ In a series circuit the total voltage is equal to the sum of the individual voltages
-​ The total current stays the same across the series
-​ The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances
-​ In a parallel circuit the total voltage is the same across the circuit
-​ The total current is the sum of the individual currents
-​ 1/total resistance = sum of 1/individual resistances
Recall the and solve problems using formulas for series and parallel circuits.
Series: IT = I1 = I2 = I3 ; VT = V1 + V2 + V3 ; RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Parallel: IT = I1 + I2 + I3 ; VT = V1 = V2 = V3 ; 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Calculate the current, voltage and resistance for different points / components in parallel and series
circuits.

State that direct current flows in one direction only while alternating current switches direction
periodically.
-​ In direct current (DC) the electric charge or current only flows in one direction
-​ Electric charge in the alternating current (AC) changes direction periodically. The voltage in
AC circuits also periodically reverses because the current changes direction.
Outline the meaning of "frequency" in relation to A.C.
-​ Number of cycles per second in an ac sine wave. Frequency is the rate at which current
changes direction per second. It is measured in hertz (HZ)
Subtopic - Ohm’s Law

Investigate Ohm's law experimentally to describe the relationship between voltage and current for a
fixed resistor.
-​ For a fixed resistor, the voltage is directly proportional to the current. Doubling the amount of
energy into the resistor results in a current twice as fast through the resistor. This relationship
is called Ohm's Law and is true because the resistance of the resistor is fixed (because the
temperature does not change).
Distinguish between ohmic and non ohmic conductors.
-​ Ohmic conductors are the conductor that obeys ohm's law. A metallic conductor with small
current is an example . Non-ohmic conductors are the conductors which do not obey ohm's
law. A metallic conductor with large amount of current, a pn-junction diode are its example
Describe the V-I characteristics of fixed resistors, thermistors and LDRs.
-​ Fixed resistor: Voltage is directly proportional to the current
-​ Thermistor: The voltage drop across a thermistor increases with an increase in current. It
increases until it reaches the peak value after the peak value, it decreases with the increase in
temperature. This is so because, initially when an increase in the current is small, it is not able
to produce a change in the temperature of the thermistor, therefore, the voltage drop across it
increases. But after the peak value, the value of the current can change the temperature of the
thermistor. It increases its temperature. It results in a decrease in thermistor resistance. And
hence voltage drop across the thermistor decreases.
Show that the gradient of a V-I graph for a fixed resistor gives the resistance.

-​
-​ Resistance = voltage/current as ohm's law mentions
Interpret and draw V-I graphs to describe the characteristics of fixed resistors, thermistors and diodes.
-​ Fixed resistor graph:

-​
 -​ Thermistor

-​
-​ Diode

-​
Show that resistors added in series increase total resistance while resistors added in parallel reduce
total resistance and explain in terms of movement of charge.
-​ In a series circuit, adding more resistors increases total resistance and thus lowers current. But
the opposite is true in a parallel circuit because adding more resistors in parallel creates more
choices and lowers total resistance.
Subtopic - Electricity in the home
State that direct current flows in one direction only while alternating current switches direction
periodically.

Recall some examples of A.C. and D.C. sources.

-​ Most electrical appliances are AC sources
-​ Laptop battery providing DC power, solar panels generating direct current DC
Outline the meaning of "frequency" in relation to A.C.
-​ Number of cycles per second in an ac sine wave. Frequency is the rate at which current
changes direction per second. It is measured in hertz (HZ)
Recall that the standard input voltage for a mains supply is approximately 230 V and the frequency is
50 Hz.

State that electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred into other forms and
recall that the unit of Power is the Watt (W)
Solve problems using the formulas P = IV.
-​ Where P is Power (watts)
-​ Where I is current (Amperes)
-​ Where V is voltage (volts)
Solve problems using the formulas P = I2R and P = V2 / R and be able to derive these formulas.
-​ The power formula can be rewritten using Ohm's law as P =I2R or P = V2/R, where V is the
potential difference, I is the electric current, R is the resistance, and P is the electric power.
State that the work done in an electric circuit is equal to the energy transferred.

Solve problems using the formula P = W / t and recall that W = ΔE.

-​ Where P is power (watts)
-​ Where W is work J
-​ Where t is time (s)
State that the unit for paying electricity is the kilowatt-hour (kWhr).

Calculate the cost of using a range of different appliances over a given amount of time.

Subtopic - Electrical Safety

Outline the dangers of current electricity.

State what is meant by the term "short circuiting" and explain the dangers.
-​ Short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows current to travel along an unintended path with
little to no electrical impedance. This results in an excessive current amount flowing through
the circuit
Label and outline the function for the components of a household plug.

-​
State and explain the safety features of a household plug.
-​ A fuse is an electrical safety device that has the capability to protect an electric circuit from
excessive electric current. It is designed to allow current through the circuit, but in the event
that the current exceeds some maximum value it will open, severing the circuit.
Select and justify the correct fuse rating for different appliances.
-​ For an appliance rated as 700W or less, a 3A fuse should be fitted. For appliances above
700W, a 13A fuse should be fitted.
Outline the function of circuit breakers and compare with fuses as a safety feature.

Unit 8 - Electromagnetism

Subtopic - Magnetic Fields

What is a magnetic field?

-​ A magnetic field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within
which the force of magnetism acts.

Properties of magnetic field lines

-​ The magnetic field lines never cross each other
-​ The density of the field lines indicates the strength of the field
-​ Magnetic field lines always make closed loops
-​ Magnetic field lines always emerge or start from the north pole and terminate at the south
pole
​
Sketch the magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet

-​
-​ Important points: Magnetic field lines in a bar magnet start from the north pole and end at the
south pole (Outside)
-​ Inside the bar magnet the magnetic field lines direction is from south pole to north pole

Describe how to plot the magnetic field of a bar magnet

-​ Method to plot the magnetic field of a bar magnet
1.​ To plot the magnetic field of a bar magnet:
2.​ Place the bar magnet on a non-magnetic surface.
3.​ Position a piece of paper over the magnet.
4.​ Draw a centerline on the paper aligned with the magnet's length.
5.​ Choose measurement points along the centerline.
6.​ Use a compass to measure the direction of the magnetic field at each point.
7.​ Mark the direction of the compass needle with arrows on the paper.
8.​ Connect the arrows smoothly to form field lines, representing the magnetic field
direction.
9.​ Add more field lines as needed to complete the plot.
Sketch magnetic fields for bar magnets with north to north, south to south and north to south
orientation
-​ North to North:

-​
-​ Here field lines form a closed continuous loop.
-​ The field line will emerge from the N pole and end at the S pole.
-​ Since both the magnets are facing the same pole, the field lines will repel each other.
-​ The field lines will never intersect each other.
-​ The magnetic field lines of two bar magnets, the north pole of one facing the north pole of the
other
-​ North to South:

-​
-​ Outward from the north pole and in to the south pole of the magnet

Outline how the magnetic effect of an electric current can be demonstrated

-​ To demonstrate that an electric current (moving electrical charge) generates a magnetic field,
simply place a magnetic compass next to a wire in a circuit. When current is passed through
the wire, the compass will deflect, indicating the presence of a magnetic field circling the
wire.

Draw the magnetic field pattern for a straight wire carrying a current, a single coil and for a solenoid
(showing the direction of the field)
-​ Straight wire carrying a current:
 -​ ​
-​ The magnetic field lines around a long wire which carries an electric current form
concentric circles around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the wire and is in the direction the fingers of your right hand would
curl if you wrapped them around the wire with your thumb in the direction of the
current.
-​ Single Coil
-​
-​ Solenoid
-​ A solenoid is an electrical device that is typically made of a coil of wire wrapped
around a cylindrical core. When an electric current passes through the coil, it creates a
magnetic field. The magnetic field generated by the solenoid can be used to exert a
force on a movable component

-​
-​ A solenoid is a long coil of wire. When a direct electric current is passed through it,
the shape of the magnetic field is very similar to the field of a bar magnet. The field
inside a solenoid is strong and uniform. The small magnetic fields caused by the
current in each turn of the coil add together to make a stronger overall magnetic field.
-​ The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. Which
indicates that the magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. i.e. the
field is uniform inside the solenoid. The magnetic field of a current carrying solenoid
is used in making electromagnets.

Explain how a solenoid arrangement can increase the magnetic effect of the current.
-​ The strength of the magnetic field around a solenoid can be increased by:
-​ Increasing the number of turns on the coil
-​ Increasing the current
-​ Placing an iron core inside the solenoid (the use of an iron core makes the solenoid
into an electromagnet which can be switched on and off)
Interpret diagrams of electromagnetic devices such as electromagnets in order to explain how they
work.
-​ When a magnetic field becomes strong enough to be useful, it is called an electromagnet. A
typical electromagnet consists of a wire coiled around an iron core. The iron core is called a
soft iron core as the iron is magnetically soft, this means that the iron core is easy to
magnetise and easy to demagnetise.

Describe how to build an electromagnet and investigate the factors that affect its strength
-​ The strength of an electromagnetic depends on:
-​ The size of the current
-​ The number of turns in the coil
-​ The material of the core
-​ The strength of the magnetic field increases as:
-​ The current increases
-​ The number of turns in the coil increases
-​ An iron core makes a strong electromagnet which can be easily magnetised and
demagnetised

Subtopic - Electromagnetic Induction (Generator Effect)

State that a current carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force due to the interaction
between the two magnetic fields (The Motor Effect)
-​ The motor effect refers to the phenomenon where a current - carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to both the direction of the current and the
direction of the magnetic field. This occurs due to the interaction between the magnetic field
and the moving charges (electrons) in the conductor.

Apply Fleming's LHF to show the direction of force experienced by a current carrying wire in a
magnetic field.
-​ When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the current flow’s direction. Fleming’s
left-hand rule is used to find the direction of the force acting on the current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field.

-​

Recall the factors that affect the size of the force on a conductor in a magnetic field
-​ Forces acting on the conductor carrying current are directly related to the following:
 1.​ Magnetic field strength
2.​ Magnitude of the current flowing through the conductor
3.​ Length of the conductor

Solve problems using the formula F = BIL

-​ To calculate the force on a wire carrying a current at right angles to a magnetic field, use the
following equation:
-​ Force = magnetic flux density x current x length
-​ F = BIL
-​ Where
-​ F is force in newtons (N)
-​ B is the magnetic flux density (magnetic field strength) in tesla (T)
-​ I is current in amperes, also referred to as amps (A)
-​ L is the length in metres (m)
-​ Example:
-​ 2 A flows through a 50 cm wire. Calculate the force acting on the wire when it is
placed at right angles in a 0.4 T magnetic field
-​ 50 cm = 50/100 = 0.5 m
-​ F = BIL
-​ F = 0.4 x 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.4 N

Describe how to make an electric motor

-​ A simple electric motor can be built using a coil of wire that is free to rotate between two
opposite magnetic poles. When an electric current flows through the coil, the coil experiences
a force and moves. The direction of the current must be reversed every half turn, otherwise
the coil comes to a halt again. This is achieved using a conducting ring split in two, called a
split ring or commutator. A coil of wire is used with lots of turns to increase the effect of the
magnetic field.

-​
Apply Fleming's LHR to describe how the force on a conducting wire causes the rotation of a coil in a
motor

-​
-​ Using Fleming’s left hand rule to explain how a DC motor works:
-​ The current in the left hand part of the coil causes a downward force, and current in
the right hand part of the coil causes an upward force
-​ The coil rotates anti-clockwise because of the forces described above
-​ When the coil is vertical it moves parallel to the magnetic field, producing no force.
This would tend to make the motor come to a stop, but two features allow the coil to
continue rotating:
-​ The momentum of the motor causes it to continue to rotate a little
-​ A split ring commutator changes the current direction every half turn
-​ This means that the current in the left hand part of the coil still causes a downward
force, and current in the right hand part of the coil still causes an upward force.This
means that the motor effect forces continue to cause anti-clockwise rotation of the
coil.
​
Subtopic - Electromagnetic Induction (Generator Effect)

State that a voltage is induced in a conducting wire when it moves relative to a magnetic field (or
when the wire experiences a changing magnetic field)
-​ Electromagnetic induction is a current produced because of voltage production (electromotive
force) due to a changing magnetic field. This happens when a conductor is placed in a moving
magnetic field or when a conductor is constantly moving in a stationary magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction is the production of a potential difference (voltage) when a
conductor, such as a wire, is moved through a magnetic field or exposed to a varying
magnetic field. If the conductor is part of an electric circuit an induced current will flow.
-​ Generator Effect: When motion between a conductor and a magnetic field creates electricity,
for example a magnet is moved into a coil of wire
Apply Flemings RHR to describe the direction of current induced in a moving coil within a magnetic
field
-​ When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an electric current is induced in it.
Fleming’s right hand rule is used to determine the direction of the induced current
 -​
-​ Difference between Fleming’s left hand and right hand rule
-​
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Used for electric motors Used for electric generators

Purpose of this rule is for finding the Purpose of this rule is used for finding
direction of the magnetic force acting in the direction of the induced current in
an electric motor an electric generator

The middle finger represents the The middle finger represents the
direction of the current direction of the induced current

Describe how an AC generator produces an alternating current

-​ An AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The AC
generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and
combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of alternating
voltage and current.
-​ An alternating current (ac) generator is a device that produces a potential difference. A simple
AC generator consists of a coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field.

-​
-​ As one side of the coil moves up through the magnetic field, a potential difference is induced
(created) in one direction. As the rotation continues and that side of the coil moves down, the
 induced potential difference reverses direction. This means that the alternator produces a
current that is constantly changing.

Label the parts of an AC generator and outline their function

-​
-​ Various parts of an AC Generator and its functions:
-​ Field:

Interpret graphs of induced potential difference (voltage) against time for an AC generator

-​

Subtopic - Distributing Electricity

Recall the formula P = IV and apply the formula to solve problems involving electrical power
-​ The equation for electrical power is P=IV
 -​ Where
-​ P is electrical Power
-​ I is current
-​ V is voltage

Identify where energy is wasted in the generation and transmission of electricity

-​ Generation Efficiency: Power plants, whether they are fossil fuel-based or renewable energy
sources like solar or wind, have an inherent efficiency in converting fuel or natural resources
into electricity. No power plant can achieve 100% efficiency, so some energy is lost during
the generation process.
-​ Heat Loss: In many power plants, particularly thermal power plants, energy is lost as heat
during the process of electricity generation. This heat energy is usually dissipated into the
environment through cooling systems, such as cooling towers or heat exchangers. The lost
heat represents wasted energy.
-​ Transmission Losses: When electricity is transmitted over long distances from power plants to
distribution centres or end-users, energy losses occur. These losses are primarily due to
resistance in the transmission lines, which causes a drop in voltage and energy dissipation in
the form of heat. The longer the distance and the higher the current, the greater the
transmission losses.

Apply your knowledge of electromagnetic induction to explain how a transformer works

-​ A transformer is a device that changes the potential difference or voltage of an alternating
current. They have two coils, the primary and the secondary and are joined with an iron core.
When an alternating voltage is applied across the primary coil, the magnetically soft (iron)
core magnetises and demagnetises quickly. This induces an alternating voltage in the
secondary coil. The ratio between the primary and secondary voltages is the same as the ratio
between the number of turns on the primary and secondary coil.
-​ A step up transformer increases the voltage

-​
-​ A step down transformer reduces the voltage
 -​

Apply the transformer formula to calculate input and output voltage based on the number of turns on
the primary and secondary sides

-​

-​
-​ Where
-​ VP is the potential difference in the primary (input) coil in volts (V)
-​ VS is the potential difference in the secondary (output) coil in volts (V)
-​ nP is the number of turns on the primary coil
-​ ns is the number of turn on the secondary coil
-​ In a step up transformer, VS>Vp
-​ In a step down transformer, VS<VP

Explain why transformers are needed in the distribution of electricity to people's homes
-​ Voltage Conversion: Transformers step down the high voltage used for long-distance
transmission to a lower voltage suitable for domestic use. This ensures safety and allows
efficient power distribution.
-​ Efficient Power Supply: Transformers enable power companies to supply electricity to
multiple homes from a single high-voltage transmission line, matching the varying demand
and load requirements of users.
-​ Safety: Lowering the voltage through transformers enhances electrical safety. High-voltage
electricity poses significant risks to human safety due to the potential for electrical shock and
equipment damage.

Unit 9 - Thermal Physics

Subtopic - Heat and temperature

State that the Thermal Energy of an object refers to the energy stored as Kinetic Energy due to the
movement of the particles in the object
-​ Thermal energy is to do with the movement of the particles inside matter. Heating matter
makes the particles vibrate faster or move faster. The hotter the substance, the more its
molecules vibrate or move, so the more kinetic energy they have. Thermal energy comes from
the total kinetic energy of all the particles.
-​ Measured in joules (J)

State that the term Heat / Q refers to the thermal energy which is transferred between objects
-​ Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred between objects or systems as a result of a
temperature difference. It is associated with the kinetic energy of particles (atoms or
molecules) within a substance. When there is a temperature gradient, heat flows from an
object or system at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature until thermal
equilibrium is reached.

State that particles also store Potential Energy due to the intermolecular bonds between particles.
-​ Particles in a substance not only possess kinetic energy but also store potential energy due to
the intermolecular bonds between them. Intermolecular bonds are attractive forces that hold
particles together within a substance, such as covalent bonds in molecules or intermolecular
forces like hydrogen bonding

State that Temperature is a property which is proportional to the average kinetic energy of a particle in
an object.
-​ Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance or
system. It reflects the degree of hotness or coldness of an object. Temperature is a
fundamental property of matter and is measured using various scales such as Celsius (°C),
Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin (K).

State that Internal Energy of an object is the sum of the Kinetic and Potential Energies of all the
particles in that body.
-​ The internal energy of an object refers to the total energy possessed by all the particles within
that object. It is the sum of both the kinetic energy and potential energy of all the particles.
-​ Kinetic energy: is the energy associated with the motion of particles. The particles
within an object are in constant motion, and this motion contributes to their kinetic
energy. The faster the particles move, the greater their kinetic energy.
-​ Potential Energy: is the energy stored within the particles due to their position or
interactions. In the context of internal energy, potential energy arises from the
intermolecular forces and bonds between particles.

Distinguish between the terms Internal Energy, Thermal Energy, Heat and Temperature with reference
to Energy
-​ Internal Energy: The total energy within a system, including the sum of kinetic and potential
energies of particles
-​ Thermal Energy: The energy associated with the random motion of particles within a
substance
-​ Heat: The transfer of thermal energy from one object to another due to a temperature
difference
 -​ Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance, indicating
its hotness or coldness

Recall that the unit for Internal Energy and Heat is the Joule (J).

Recall that the unit for Temperature is degrees Celsius (OC) or Kelvin (k).

Recall that 0 k = - 273 degrees C and Solve problems by converting between temperature scales.
-​ C = K - 273.15
-​ Where C is celsius
-​ K is kelvin

Outline the meaning of the term Absolute Zero in terms of the energy of particles.
-​ Absolute zero refers to the lowest possible temperature that can theoretically be reached, at
which the particles in a substance have the minimum possible energy. It is the point at which
the thermal motion of particles ceases, and they possess no kinetic energy.

Explain how energy is "wasted" as heat in common energy transfer systems like bouncing balls and
electrical appliances by referring to the kinetic energy of particles.
-​ In common energy transfer systems, such as bouncing balls and electrical appliances, energy
is often "wasted" as heat. This waste of energy can be understood by considering the kinetic
energy of particles involved.
-​ When a ball is dropped or thrown, it possesses potential energy due to its position above the
ground. As the ball falls or is propelled upwards, this potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy, causing the ball to move. However, during the bouncing process, some of the
kinetic energy is dissipated as heat. This dissipation occurs due to various factors, such as air
resistance, friction between the ball and the surface it bounces on, and internal deformations
within the ball itself. These factors result in the conversion of some of the kinetic energy of
the ball into thermal energy, manifesting as heat. As a result, the ball does not bounce back up
to its initial height with the same amount of energy it had before the bounce.

Subtopic - Heating and Cooling

State three types of Heat Transfer and Outline how Thermal Energy is transferred in each case.
-​ The three types of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Each type of heat
transfer transfers thermal energy in a different manner
1.​ Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact between particles
or objects. In this process, particles with higher kinetic energy collide with particles
of lower kinetic energy, transferring energy between them. The more energetic
particles transfer some of their energy to the less energetic particles, causing them to
vibrate and gain kinetic energy.
2.​ Convection: Convection is a method of heat transfer that occurs through the
movement of fluids (liquids or gases). It relies on the combined effects of heat
transfer by conduction and the bulk movement of the fluid itself. When a fluid is
heated, its particles gain energy and become less dense. As a result, the warmer fluid
rises while the cooler, denser fluid sinks. This movement sets up a circulation pattern
known as convection currents. During convection, thermal energy is transferred as the
warmer fluid moves to regions of lower temperature, carrying its energy with it. As
 the heated fluid rises, it displaces the cooler fluid, which in turn descends to replace
the rising fluid. This continuous circulation allows for the transfer of heat throughout
the fluid.
3.​ Radiation: Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy through electromagnetic waves,
such as infrared radiation. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not
require a medium for heat transfer. Instead, it can occur in wc vacuum or through
transparent mediums. All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation. The amount and type of radiation emitted depend on the temperature and
emissivity of the object's surface. Thermal energy is transferred when the
electromagnetic waves are absorbed or emitted by another object, increasing or
decreasing its thermal energy.

Recall that thermal energy is transferred as electromagnetic radiation and outline how the wavelength
of the wave depends on the temperature of the object.
-​ The temperature of an object directly affects the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave it
emits. As the temperature increases, the wavelength decreases, resulting in a shift towards
shorter wavelengths.
-​ Higher temperatures result in a shift towards shorter wavelengths, while lower temperatures
result in a shift towards longer wavelengths

Outline how the particleIntermolecular bonds are attractive forces that hold particles together within a
substance, such as covalent bonds in molecules or intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding
s in an object are affected by Heat Transfer (gain and loss) in terms of molecular structure and
energies of particles.
1.​ Heat Gain
-​ Kinetic Energy: Particles gain kinetic energy, leading to more rapid movement.
-​ Molecular Structure: Solids vibrate more intensely, liquids become more fluid, and
gases occupy a larger volume.
-​ Phase Changes: Heat absorption can cause melting or boiling, resulting in a change of
state.\
2.​ Heat Loss
-​ Kinetic Energy: Particles lose kinetic energy, reducing their speed and energy.
-​ Molecular Structure: Solids vibrate less, liquids may solidify (freeze), and gases
condense into liquids or solids.
-​ Phase Changes: Heat loss can trigger freezing or condensation

Outline what is meant by Specific Heat Capacity and show that it has an inversely proportional
relationship to temperature change when the heat transfer is constant.

Solve problems using the formula Q = mc(ΔT) where ΔT = Tf - Ti

-​ Specific heat capacity refers to the amount of heat energy (J) that is absorbed per unit mass
(kg) when the temperature increases per kelvin.
-​ When the heat transfer is constant, the specific heat capacity of a substance demonstrates an
inversely proportional relationship with the resulting temperature change. Mathematically,
this relationship can be expressed as:
-​ Q = mcΔT
-​ Where:
 -​ Q = Heat energy transferred
-​ m = Mass of the substance
-​ c = Specific heat capacity of the substance
-​ ΔT = Temperature change

Subtopic - States of Matter

Recall the four states of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas and Plasma.

Draw diagrams to show the particle structure of solids, liquids and gases.

-​

Compare the Internal Energies of matter for solids, liquids and gases.
-​ Solids, liquids and gases have different internal energies due to variations in the molecular
arrangement and energies of particles
-​ Solids:
-​ In solids particles are tightly packed and arranged in a regular pattern
-​ The internal energy of solids is primarily due to the vibrations of particles
around fixed positions
-​ These vibrations contribute to the kinetic energy of the particles in solids
-​ Solids have potential energy associated with the intermolecular bonds
between particles, which determines the overall internal energy of the solid
-​ Solids have the lowest internal energy among the three states of matter
because their particles have the least amount of kinetic energy
-​ Liquids:
-​ In liquids, particles have more kinetic energy compared to solids
-​ The internal energy of liquids includes both the kinetic energy of the particles
and the potential energy associated with intermolecular forces
-​ Liquids have greater kinetic energy because their particles are more mobile
and have increased freedom of movement compared to solids
-​ The particles in liquids are not arranged in a fixed pattern, allowing them to
flow and take the shape of their container
-​ Liquids have a higher internal energy than solids due to their increased
average kinetic energy
-​ Gases:
-​ Gases have the highest internal energy among the three states of matter
 -​ Gas particles have the highest kinetic because they move rapidly and
independently in random directions
-​ The internal energy of gases is dominated by the kinetic energy of the
particles
-​ Gases have minimal potential energy contribution since the intermolecular
forces between particles are weak, allowing them to occupy a larger volume
and exhibit more freedom of movement
Interpret heating and cooling graphs including changes of state
-​ Heating graph

-​
-​ Cooling graph

-​
Outline what is meant by the term Specific Latent Heat and Identify the latent heat on a heating or
cooling graph.
-​ Changing the internal energy of a material will cause it to change temperature or change state
-​ The energy required for a particular change in temperature is given by the specific
heat capacity
-​ The energy required for a particular change in state is given by the specific latent heat
-​ Specific latent heat is the amount of energy required to change the state of 1 kilogram
(kg) of a material without changing its temperature.

Describe the energy changes that take place during a change of state with reference to Latent Heat.
-​ During a change of state, such as melting, boiling, or condensation, energy changes occur in
the form of latent heat
-​ Melting
-​ Solid to liquid transition
-​ Energy is added to the solid, increasing its internal energy
-​ This energy is used to overcome the intermolecular forces and allow particles
to move freely
 -​ The energy added is called latent heat of fusion
-​ Boiling/Evaporation
-​ Liquid to gas transition
-​ Heat is supplied to the liquid, increasing its internal energy
-​ Particles gain kinetic energy and move more vigorously
-​ Some particles acquire enough energy to escape into the gas phase
-​ The energy added is called latent heat of vaporisation
-​ Condensation
-​ Gas to liquid transition
-​ Gas cools down, losing energy
-​ Particles slow down and come closer together
-​ Intermolecular forces form between particles, leading to liquid
formation
-​ The energy released is called latent heat of condensation

Solve problems using the formula Q = mL

-​ The formula Q = mL represents the relationship between heat energy (Q) and the mass of a
substance (m) undergoing a phase change, multiplied by the latent heat (L) associated with
that specific phase change.
-​ Where
-​ Q represents the heat energy transferred during a phase change
-​ M denotes the mass of the substance undergoing the phase change
-​ L represents the latent heat of the substance, which is the amount of heat
energy required or released during a phase change per unit mass

Explain why the Internal energy of gases is stored as Kinetic Energy only.
-​ In gases, the intermolecular forces between particles are relatively weak compared to solids
and liquids. The spacing between gas particles is large, and they have minimal interactions
with each other. As a result, the potential energy associated with intermolecular forces in
gases is typically negligible compared to the kinetic energy.

Describe the process of evaporation

-​ Heat input causes liquid to evaporate
-​ High-energy particles escape, forming vapour
-​ Evaporation cools the liquid
-​ Equilibrium is reached between evaporation and condensation rates
-​ Factors affecting evaporation: temperature, surface area, humidity, and intermolecular forces

Distinguish between evaporation and boiling with reference to the energy of particles.
-​ Evaporation
-​ Occurs below the boiling point
-​ High energy particles escape from the liquid surface
-​ Energy comes from the surroundings
-​ Takes place throughout the liquid at a slower rate
-​ Boiling
-​ Occurs at the boiling point
-​ Rapid formation of bubbles within the liquid
-​ Energy comes from within the liquid itself
 -​ Occurs throughout the liquid

Subtopic - Thermal Insulation

State some common examples of thermal insulators for preventing each of the three types of Heat
Transfer
-​ Conduction
-​ Wood
-​ Rubber
-​ Styrofoam
-​ Plastic
-​ Convection
-​ Air filled cavities
-​ Insulating foam
-​ Vacuum sealed panels
-​ Cellular shades
-​ Radiation
-​ Reflective materials
-​ Radiant barriers
-​ Ceramic fibre insulation

Outline how different materials prevent heat transfer, referring to conduction, convection and
radiation
-​ Conduction
-​ Insulators reduce heat transfer through direct contact
-​ Materials with low thermal conductivity, like wood or rubber, impede heat flow
-​ Insulating materials, such as foam or fibreglass, trap air to minimise molecular
collisions
-​ Convection
-​ Insulators hinder heat transfer through fluid motion
-​ Materials with low thermal conductivity, like air-filled cavities or insulating foam,
limit air circulation
-​ Cellular shades, vacuum-sealed panels, or blinds create stagnant air layers to reduce
convection
-​ Radiation
-​ Insulators minimise heat transfer through electromagnetic waves.
-​ Materials with high reflectivity, such as aluminium foil or radiant barriers, reflect
thermal radiation.
-​ Heat-reflective coatings or films, ceramic fibre insulation, and multi-layered blankets
reduce absorption and emission of radiation.

Design thermally insulated systems including thermos flasks, houses and clothing to deal with a
variety of different climates and temperature

Unit 10 - Climate Change

Subtopic - Earth’s energy balance

Recall the four main greenhouse gases

 -​ Water vapour (H2O)
-​ Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
-​ Methane (CH4)
-​ Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

State what is meant by a "Black Body".

-​ A black body/blackbody is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation falling onto it,
leaving all wavelengths of light to be absorbed as well. In turn, no light is reflected.

Outline what is meant by the term Albedo

-​ Albedo is the amount of sunlight(solar radiation) and light reflected by a planet’s surface,
and is usually expressed as a percentage or a decimal value, with 1 being a perfect reflector
and 0 absorbing all incoming light. When talking about albedo, the surface is almost always
the surface of a planet like Earth. A surface with an albedo of 0.3 reflects 30% of the solar
energy it receives.

Describe surfaces in terms of their black body emissivity and reflectivity

-​ Emissivity is a measure of a material's ability to emit thermal radiation relative to an black
body radiator at the same temperature. A surface with an emissivity of 1.0 emits radiation as
effectively as a black body at that wavelength. A surface with an emissivity less than 1.0
emits less radiation than a black body at that wavelength.
-​ The emissivity of a surface depends on its material and surface properties such as texture,
colour, and temperature.
-​ Reflectivity is a measure of a surface’s ability to reflect radiation at a given wavelength. A
surface with a reflectivity of 1.0 reflects all incident radiation at that wavelength, while a
surface with a reflectivity less than 1.0 absorbs some of the incident radiation at that
wavelength.

Greenhouse gas effects in terms of absorption and re-emission of radiation:

1.​ Greenhouse gases absorb the solar radiation/electromagnetic radiation reflected from the
Earth’s surface, trapping heat and keeping it within the Earth’s atmosphere.
a.​ Note, this solar radiation was initially in the form of sun's rays that penetrated the
atmosphere and reflected off the surface of the Earth.
b.​ Yes, the ability of the atmosphere to capture the Sun's warmth is essential for life on
earth. However, if significantly more warmth is being captured/the amount of heat
trapped in the Earth's atmosphere is increasing, then the planet will warm at a faster
rate than it would naturally. This can lead to a variety of negative impacts, including
more frequent and severe heat waves, droughts, and wildfires, as well as melting ice
caps, rising sea levels, and more intense storms and flooding.
i.​ Nonetheless, the greenhouse effect is important for keeping the Earth's
temperature at a habitable level

Outline the effects of the greenhouse effect on the Earth's climate

-​ Greenhouse effect is a natural process that has the effect of regulating the temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere. It occurs when certain gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, and
 methane, trap heat radiated from the Earth's surface and re-emit it back towards the surface,
keeping the planet's temperature within a range that is suitable for life.
-​ However various human activities such as deforestation, increased livestock agriculture and
burning fossil fuels have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
causing the warming of the planet
-​ Effect of greenhouse gases on Earth’s climate:
-​ Rising Global Temperatures: The increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere traps more
heat and causes the Earth's surface temperature to rise. The average global temperature has
already increased by about 1°C (1.8°F) since the pre-industrial era, and is projected to
increase further in the coming decades.
-​ Extreme weather phenomena: More frequent and severe weather events, such
as heatwaves, droughts, floods, hurricanes and wildfires. Happens through
ways such as:
-​ Increased atmospheric moisture: As the Earth's temperature rises,
more water evaporates from the oceans, lakes, and land surfaces,
leading to an increase in atmospheric moisture. This increased
moisture can fuel more intense and prolonged rainfall events, as well
as snowstorms in colder regions.
-​ Changes in atmospheric circulation: Warming of the planet’s surface
alters the atmospheric circulation patterns by altering jet streams (fast
flowing air currents in the atmosphere of planets)
-​ Increased intensity of storms: The warmer atmosphere can provide
more energy to storms, leading to more intense and destructive
events, such as hurricanes and tornadoes.
-​ Melting of ice caps and glaciers: The warming of the planet causes the
melting of ice caps and glaciers, leading to sea-level rise and changes in
ocean currents.
-​ Changes in precipitation patterns: The warmer atmosphere can alter the
distribution and timing of precipitation, leading to changes in water
availability and agricultural productivity.
-​ Problems within ecosystems and with biodiversity: The changes in
temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns can have significant impacts
on ecosystems and biodiversity, including changes in the distribution and
abundance of species, and increased risks of extinction.

Primary and secondary sources of energy:

●​ Primary energy sources are found in nature and have some stored energy capacity
○​ Def- Energy sources found in the natural environment
●​ To be a primary energy source, there must be:
○​ No processing or refining
○​ Stored energy must occur naturally in the source
●​ Secondary energy sources come from the use or processing of primary energy sources
○​ The definition of a secondary energy resource is: Useful transformations of the
primary resources into energy for our consumption
○​ Often the secondary energy source is electricity
■​ It can also be petrol, biofuel and heat
○​ Examples include:
 ■​ Stored gravitational energy from water is converted into electricity in a
hydroelectric plant.
■​ Oil is refined to produce petrol that can be used to power a car
■​ Coal is burnt to produce heat on a fire

Compare the energy density of different fuel sources

-​ Energy density is a measure of how much energy can be obtained from a given amount of
fuel.
-​ Comparison:
-​ Crude Oil
-​ 40-50 megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg)
-​ Coal
-​ 24-35 MJ/kg
-​ Natural Gas
-​ 55 to 56 megajoules per cubic metre

Identify renewable and non-renewable energy sources:

Outline the key features of a non-renewable fuel source power station
-​ Fuel Source: Utilises non-renewable energy sources such as coal, oil, or natural gas.
-​ Combustion: Burns the fuel to produce heat energy.
-​ Boiler: Converts the heat energy from combustion into high-pressure steam.
-​ Turbine: Steam rotates the turbine blades, converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.
-​ Generator: The rotating turbine drives the generator, converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
-​ Cooling System: Removes excess heat from the power station to prevent overheating.
-​ Transmission Lines: Transfers generated electricity to the grid for distribution.
-​ Emissions Control: May include pollution control measures to mitigate environmental
impacts

Outline the key features of renewable energy sources: wind generators, hydroelectric, tidal, and solar
systems.
-​ Wind Generators:
-​ Turbines: Convert wind energy into mechanical energy.
-​ Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
-​ Transmission Lines: Transfer electricity to the grid.
-​ Hydroelectric Systems:
-​ Dam: Creates potential energy from stored water.
-​ Turbines: Convert potential energy into mechanical energy.
-​ Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
-​ Transmission Lines: Transmit electricity to the grid.
-​ Tidal Systems:
-​ Tidal Barrage: Captures tidal energy.
-​ Turbines: Convert tidal energy into mechanical energy.
-​ Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
-​ Transmission Lines: Transmit electricity to the grid.
-​ Solar Systems:
-​ Photovoltaic Panels: Convert sunlight into electrical energy.
 -​ Inverter: Converts DC electricity into AC electricity.
-​ Mounting System: Positions and secures solar panels.
-​ Battery Storage (optional): Stores excess energy.
-​ Grid Connection (optional): Feeds surplus electricity into the grid

Evaluate renewable and non-renewable energy sources as a means of producing electricity

-​ Renewable Energy Sources:
-​ Advantages: Renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric, tidal, and solar
systems have the advantage of being sustainable and abundant. They produce
electricity without depleting natural resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and
contribute to mitigating climate change.
-​ Disadvantages: The intermittency and variability of renewable energy sources pose
challenges for consistent electricity generation. They may require backup systems or
energy storage solutions. Initial installation costs can be higher compared to
non-renewable sources.
-​ Non-Renewable Energy Sources:
-​ Advantages: Non-renewable energy sources like fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
and nuclear power offer reliable and consistent electricity generation. They have
well-established infrastructure and can produce large amounts of electricity.
-​ Disadvantages: Non-renewable energy sources contribute to environmental issues
such as air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and habitat destruction. They rely on
finite resources, leading to concerns about resource depletion and geopolitical
challenges. Nuclear power raises concerns about safety and radioactive waste
disposal.

Subtopic - Human Impact on Earth’s climate

Classify climate phenomena in terms of positive and negative impacts for humans
-​ Positive impacts:
-​ Adequate rainfall: Supports agriculture and water supply.
-​ Moderate temperatures: Promote comfort and agricultural productivity.
-​ Beneficial wind patterns: Support wind energy generation
-​ Negative impacts:
-​ Drought: Leads to water scarcity and reduced crop yields.
-​ Heatwaves: Pose health risks and increase energy demand.
-​ Storms and hurricanes: Cause property damage and infrastructure disruption.
-​ Flooding: Results in property damage and displacement.
-​ Sea-level rise: Threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.

Identify the chief sectors of human activity that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
-​ Energy sector: Includes power generation, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial processes.
-​ Transportation sector: Involves emissions from cars, trucks, aeroplanes, ships, and trains.
-​ Industrial sector: Includes emissions from manufacturing, construction, and chemical
production.
-​ Agriculture and livestock: Emissions from livestock, rice cultivation, and the use of synthetic
fertilisers.
-​ Deforestation and land-use changes: Conversion of forests for agriculture, logging, and
urbanisation
Outline the effects of changing albedo on climate
-​ Effects of changing albedo on climate:
-​ Increased albedo: When the albedo of a surface increases, more solar radiation is
reflected back into space, resulting in cooling effects on the climate.
-​ Decreased albedo: When the albedo of a surface decreases, more solar radiation is
absorbed, leading to warming effects on the climate.
-​ Changes in albedo can have significant impacts on climate due to the role of solar radiation in
Earth's energy balance. For example:
-​ Melting ice and snow: As ice and snow melt due to higher temperatures, the exposed
darker surfaces (such as land or water) have lower albedo, leading to increased
absorption of solar radiation and further warming.
-​ Deforestation: Clearing forests reduces the albedo of the land, resulting in more solar
radiation absorption and localised warming.
-​ Urbanisation: Urban areas with darker surfaces like asphalt and concrete have lower
albedo compared to natural environments, contributing to the urban heat island effect.

Describe the effects of changing solar irradiation on climate

-​ Effects of changing solar irradiation on climate:
-​ Increased solar irradiation: When solar irradiation increases, more solar energy is
reaching the Earth's surface, leading to warming effects on the climate.
-​ Decreased solar irradiation: When solar irradiation decreases, less solar energy is
reaching the Earth's surface, resulting in cooling effects on the climate.
-​ Changes in solar irradiation can have significant impacts on climate patterns and
temperatures. For example:
-​ Solar cycles: Variations in solar activity, such as the 11-year sunspot cycle, can cause
fluctuations in solar irradiation. Periods of higher solar activity can contribute to
slight warming, while periods of lower solar activity can lead to slight cooling.
-​ Volcanic activity: Large volcanic eruptions can inject particles and gases into the
atmosphere, which can reflect solar radiation back into space, resulting in a temporary
cooling effect.
-​ Human-induced factors: While natural variations in solar irradiation play a significant
role in climate, human-induced factors such as greenhouse gas emissions have a
much larger impact on long-term climate change.

Evaluate the evidence that short-term global warming is a consequence of human activity

Unit 11 - Radioactivity

Subtopic - Atoms and Isotopes

Describe the structure of the atom.
 -​
Recall the properties of protons, electrons and neutrons
-​
Particle Mass Charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0

Electron 0.0005 -1

Identify the atomic number and mass number for an element and recall what is meant by each value.
-​ Mass Number (A): The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus
(Goes on top of the element)
-​ Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in the element’s atomic nucleus (Goes below the
element)

-​
State what is meant by an isotope.
-​ Isotopes are atoms that retain the same chemical properties and atomic number of an element
but have a different atomic mass due to change in the number of neutrons. Different number
of neutrons affects the physical properties of the atom, some isotopes of different elements are
radioactive, such as Carbon - 14
Distinguish between atoms and ions.
-​ Atoms are neutral; they contain the same number of protons as electrons. By definition, an ion
is an electrically charged particle produced by either removing electrons from a neutral atom
to give a positive ion or adding electrons to a neutral atom to give a negative ion.

Subtopic - Radioactivity

State that radioactive decay is a process by which unstable nuclei give off radiation in order to become
stable.

State that radioactive decay occurs randomly.

State that Activity is the rate at which a radioactive source decays.

Recall that the unit of Activity is the Becquerel (Bq) and that 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.

Outline how the activity of a radioactive source can be measured using a Geiger-Muller tube.
-​ The ionising effect of radiation is used in the Geiger Muller (GM) Tube as a means of
detecting radiation. The GM tube is a hollow cylinder filled with gas at low pressure. The
tube has a thin window made of mica at one end. There is a central electrode inside the GM
tube. A high voltage supply is connected across the casing of the tube and the central
electrode as shown in the following diagram. When alpha, beta or gamma radiation enters the
tube it produces ions in the gas. The ions created in the gas enable the tube to conduct. A
current is produced in the tube for a short time. The current produces a voltage pulse. Each
voltage pulse corresponds to one ionising radiation entering the GM tube. The voltage pulse is
amplified and counted. The greater the level of radiation, the more ionisation in the tube so
the greater the number of counts.

-​

-​

Recall sources of natural and artificial radiation.

-​ Cosmic radiation
-​ Building and road construction materials, combustible fuels, including gas and coal
Outline the effect of background radiation on the count rate when measuring the Activity of a source.
-​ Comes in between calculations

Subtopic - Nuclear Decay Reactions

Outline what is meant by ionising radiation and state how atoms become ionised.
-​ Ionising radiation consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have
sufficient energy to ionise atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them.
Recall the four types of radiation: Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Neutron radiation.
-​
A Z N Medium Products Ionising Ability Penetrating Ability
Alpha Decay -4 -2 -2 Paper Helium High Low

Beta Decay 0 +1 -1 Metal Electron Low Moderate

Gamma Decay 0 0 0 Lead Gamma Ray Moderate High

-​ Neutron radiation is a form of ionising radiation where there are free neutrons; this could act
as nuclear fission or fusion and cause the release of free neutrons.
-​ Nuclear fusion
-​ A reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more
different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles.

-​
-​ Nuclear fission
-​ Reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei
Describe the structure and properties of each type of radiation in terms of penetrating ability, ionising
ability and deflection in both electric and magnetic fields.
-​ Alpha Decay: Alpha particles can easily be shielded by a single sheet of paper. Alpha
particles are highly ionising because of their double positive charge.
-​ Gamma decay: Extremely high penetration, can be stopped by thick or dense enough layer
material.
-​ Beta decay: more penetrating than alpha particles, can be stopped by a few millimetres of a
substance like aluminium. Less ionising power compared to alpha particles
-​ Alpha and beta radiations are charged particles. Alpha is positively charged and beta is
negatively charged. Hence these are deflected in an electric or magnetic field whereas gamma
radiations are uncharged particles and therefore cannot deflect in an electric or magnetic field.
Calculate the atomic numbers and mass numbers of decay products and reactants for nuclei
undergoing each type of radioactive decay.

Subtopic - Half - Life

State what is meant by the Half-Life of a radioactive sample

-​ Half life of a radioactive sample is the time required for a quantity to reduce to half of its
initial value
Investigate the Activity of a radioactive sample with time and present the findings in an appropriate
table and graph.
 -​

Determine the Half-Life of a radioactive sample using graph analysis

-​
Subtopic - Uses and Dangers of Radioactivity

Explain the useful applications of radiation including industrial and medical uses.
-​ X-Rays are one of the most common uses of radiation in medicine, providing valuable
information to doctors and other medical professionals on patient injuries or maladies
Discuss the dangers of radiation in terms including the effects of exposure to radiation on living
things.
-​ Radiation can damage the DNA in our cells. High doses of radiation can cause Acute
Radiation Syndrome (ARS) or Cutaneous Radiation Injuries (CRI). High doses of radiation
could also lead to cancer later in life.
Distinguish between irradiation and contamination.
-​ Irradiation - The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons,
and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumours.
-​ Contamination - Radioactive contamination occurs when radioactive material is deposited on
or in an object or a person. Radioactive materials released into the environment can cause air,
water, surfaces, soil, plants, buildings, people, or animals to become contaminated.

Unit 12 - Astrophysics

Subtopic - Solar System

Compare in terms of relative factors of scale: size of Solar System, size of galaxy, size of known
Universe
-​ Solar System: Smallest scale, extends from the Sun to the outer edges of the Oort Cloud, with
a diameter of about 7.5 billion kilometres.
 -​ Galaxy: Intermediate scale, the Milky Way is much larger than the Solar System, with a
diameter of approximately 100,000 light-years (9.5 × 10^17 kilometres).
-​ Known Universe: Largest scale, encompasses all observable matter, energy, and space.
Estimated diameter of about 93 billion light-years (8.8 × 10^26 kilometres).

Outline the principal constituents of our Solar System: Sun, rocky planets, gas planets, satellites,
asteroids, comets
-​ Sun: The central star of the Solar System, composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. It
provides heat, light, and energy to the entire system.
-​ Rocky planets (Terrestrial planets): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the inner planets
characterised by solid surfaces, relatively high densities, and composed primarily of rocks and
metals.
-​ Gas giants (Jovian planets): Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus are the outer planets known as
gas giants. They are predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium, with thick
atmospheres and no solid surfaces.
-​ Satellites (Moons): Numerous moons orbit the planets in the Solar System. Earth's moon
(Luna) is a prominent example, along with Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn's moon Titan,
among many others.
-​ Asteroids: Rocky objects that orbit the Sun, primarily found in the asteroid belt located
between Mars and Jupiter. They vary in size, composition, and shape, ranging from small
rocky fragments to larger bodies.
-​ Comets: Comets are icy bodies composed of water, dust, and other volatile compounds. They
typically have elongated elliptical orbits, with a nucleus, coma (a cloud of gas and dust), and a
tail that develops when near the Sun.

Calculate the orbital speed of celestial bodies at different distances from the sun
-​ The formula for orbital speed (v) is:
-​ V = 2(pie)(r)/T
-​ Where
-​ V is the orbital speed
-​ r is the average distance from the Sun
-​ T is the time

Subtopic - Planetary motion

Summarise the astronomical bases for the calendar: the day, the month, the year
-​ Day: Based on the Earth's rotation on its axis, completing one full rotation in approximately
24 hours.
-​ Month: Based on the lunar cycle, which is the time it takes for the Moon to complete one
orbit around the Earth, lasting about 29.5 days.
-​ Year: Based on the Earth's orbit around the Sun, taking approximately 365.25 days for one
complete orbit (tropical year).

Describe planetary orbits in terms of centripetal force and gravitational attraction

-​ Planetary orbits can be explained using the concepts of centripetal force and gravitational
attraction. The centripetal force, provided by the gravitational attraction between a planet and
the central body it orbits, keeps the planet moving in a circular or elliptical path. The
 gravitational force acts as the centripetal force, continuously pulling the planet inward while
the planet's inertia maintains its motion in orbit.

Describe Kepler’s laws for planetary motion

-​ Kepler's First Law: Planets move in oval-shaped paths called ellipses around the Sun. The
Sun is located at one of the points inside the ellipse.
-​ Kepler's Second Law: When a planet moves closer to the Sun, it speeds up, and when it
moves farther away, it slows down. This means that the planet covers equal areas in equal
amounts of time.
-​ Kepler's Third Law: The time it takes for a planet to complete one orbit (its year) is related to
its distance from the Sun. The farther a planet is from the Sun, the longer its year will be.

Outline Newton’s law of universal gravitation

-​
-​ G is gravitational constant
-​ M1 and M2 are the masses of the objects
-​ R or D is the distance between their centres

Calculate gravitational forces and gravitational field strengths at different positions in space.

Draw diagrams to represent the magnitude and direction of gravitational forces and gravitational field
strength vectors

Subtopic - Observational Instruments

Apply understanding of lenses to outline the phenomena of magnification and resolution

-​ Magnification
-​ Magnification refers to the apparent size of an object when viewed through a lens
compared to its actual size.
-​ In converging lenses (convex lenses), a magnified image can be formed when the
object is placed closer to the lens than its focal length.
-​ A magnification greater than 1 indicates an enlarged image, while a magnification
less than 1 indicates a reduced image
-​ Resolution
-​ Refers to the ability of a lens to distinguish between two closely spaced objects or
details
-​ It depends on the quality of the lens and the wavelength of light used
 -​ The resolution of a lens is limited by diffraction, which causes the light to spread out
as it passes through a small aperture (lens opening)
-​ The smaller the aperture the better the resolution, as it reduces the diffraction effects
and increases the depth of field

Recall the principle domains of the electromagnetic spectrum and their relative positioning in terms of
wavelength and frequency

-​

Subtopic - Life cycle of a star

Describe the principal stages in the life of a star, and the magnitude of their duration
-​ Stellar Nebula (Duration: millions of years): A massive cloud of gas and dust collapses due to
gravity, forming a protostar.
-​ Protostar (Duration: tens of thousands of years): The protostar contracts and heats up as it
accumulates mass from the surrounding gas and dust.
-​ Main Sequence (Duration: billions of years): Nuclear fusion ignites in the core, where
hydrogen atoms combine to form helium. This stage lasts for the majority of a star's life.
-​ Red Giant or Supergiant (Duration: millions to billions of years): In this stage, a main
sequence star expands and becomes larger and cooler. This stage occurs for stars with
different masses.
-​ Planetary Nebula or Supernova (Duration: thousands to millions of years): Low to
medium-mass stars shed their outer layers as a planetary nebula, while more massive stars
explode in a supernova.
-​ White Dwarf, Neutron Star, or Black Hole (Duration: billions of years): The remaining core
of a low to medium-mass star becomes a white dwarf, while more massive stars become
neutron stars or black holes.

Outline the properties of some deep space objects: nebulae (both star-forming and supernova
remnant), pulsars, other galaxies
-​ Nebulae:
-​ Star-forming Nebulae: Clouds of gas and dust where new stars are born.
-​ Supernova Remnants: Shells of gas and dust from exploded stars.
-​ Pulsars:
-​ Highly magnetised, rapidly rotating neutron stars emitting beams of radiation.
-​ Other Galaxies:
-​ Spiral Galaxies: Disk-shaped with spiralling arms (e.g., Milky Way).
-​ Elliptical Galaxies: Elliptical or spherical shape, containing older stars.
-​ Irregular Galaxies: Lack a distinct shape, with young stars and gas.
 -​ Active Galaxies: Emit large energy, possibly due to a supermassive black hole.
-​ Distant Galaxies: Provide insight into the early universe.

Subtopic - Expanding universe

​
Calculate time of travel for light over cosmological distances including km, ly and au
-​ Km is Kilometres
-​ Ly is light years
-​ Distance light travels in one year
-​ Approximately 9.46 trillion kilometres
-​ AU is astronomical units
-​ Average distance from the Earth to Sun
-​ Approximately 149.6 million kilometres
State the definition of the light year
-​ Defined as the distance light travels in one year in a vacuum.
-​ Approximately 9.461 trillion kilometres

Describe different cosmological models: steady state, expansion

-​ Steady State Model:
-​ The Steady State Model suggests that the universe has always existed and will
continue to exist indefinitely without any significant changes
-​ It proposes that new matter is continuously created to maintain a constant average
density as the universe expands
-​ This model assumes that the universe appears the same at all times and in all
locations
-​ Expansion model:
-​ The Expansion Model, also known as the Big Bang Model, describes the universe as
having originated from a hot, dense state and has been expanding ever since.
-​ According to this model, the universe began with a singularity and has been
undergoing expansion, cooling, and evolving over billions of years.
-​ The Expansion Model is supported by various pieces of evidence, such as the
observed redshift of distant galaxies, the cosmic microwave background radiation,
and the abundance of light elements.

Outline the physical problems created by an invariant speed of light

-​ Time Dilation: Time appears to slow down for objects moving at high speeds relative to an
observer.
-​ Length Contraction: Objects in motion appear shorter in the direction of their motion when
observed from a stationary frame.
-​ Simultaneity: Events that appear simultaneous to one observer may not be simultaneous for
another observer in relative motion.
-​ Causality and Communication: The speed limit of light restricts the transfer of information
faster than light, challenging the notion of instant communication.
-​ Mass-Energy Equivalence: Mass can be converted into energy and vice versa, leading to the
understanding that mass and energy are different forms of the same entity.

State Einstein’s postulates for special relativity

-​ Principle of Relativity: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames. There
is no preferred or absolute reference frame. The laws of nature remain consistent regardless of
an observer's constant velocity.
-​ Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light in a vacuum is constant for all observers,
regardless of their relative motion. The speed of light is approximately 299,792 kilometres per
second (km/s) and is denoted by the symbol 'c'.