Chapter 2

Mathematical Language and Symbols

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

Chapter 2 – Mathematical Language and Symbols

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to
Explain the nature of mathematics as a language,
Write mathematical expressions and sentences
using symbols,
Solve practical problems involving the language
of sets, relations and functions, and logic, and
Appreciate the usefulness of mathematical
language.
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 Chapter Outline

2.1 The Nature of Mathematics as a Language 2.4 The Language of Relations and Functions
1.1.1 Characteristics of mathematical language 2.4.1 Relations
2.1.2 The grammar of mathematics 2.4.2 Functions
2.2 Mathematical Expressions and Sentences 2.4.3 Domain of a Function
2.2.1 Expressions versus sentences 2.5 The Language of Logic
2.2.2 Conventions in the mathematical language 2.5.1 Logic
2.3 The Language of Sets 2.5.2 Logical connectives
2.3.1 Set 2.5.3 The truth table
2.3.2 Relations and operations on sets
2.3.3 The Venn diagram

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1 Nature of Mathematics as a
Language
In this lesson, you will be introduced to a
mathematical way of thinking that can serve
you in a wide variety of situations. In dealing
with any situation, you need to understand and
use a language to express your ideas.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Precision refers to the quality, condition of being exact and accurate.

For instance, when you state the expression “the set of positive
integers”, you are referring to a particular set of numbers without
explaining what these numbers are. This set of positive integers refers
to the numbers {1, 2, 3,…}.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Conciseness involves using the most appropriate and minimal amount

of effective words to make one’s point understood.

“A regular pentagon is a polygon with 5 equal sides and angles.” It

is already enough to define a regular pentagon that satisfy the two
conditions (1) has 5 equal sides, and (2) has 5 equal angles. There is no
need to provide more information to say that they have equal sides and
equal angles for a pentagon to be a regular polygon.
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.1.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Powerful. The language of mathematics is considered to be

powerful when it is able to express complex thoughts with
relative ease.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics can be learned, but requires the

efforts needed to learn any foreign language. Thus, we need
to get extensive practice with mathematical language ideas, to
enhance the ability to correctly read, write, speak, and
understand mathematics.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1.2 Grammar of Mathematics

Mathematics has its own grammar, vocabulary, syntax, word

order, synonyms and antonyms, conventions, idioms,
abbreviations, negations, and sentence and paragraph structures.

The grammar of mathematics refers to the structural rules

governing the use of symbols representing mathematical objects.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1.2 Grammar of Mathematics

Different uses of a number; to express quantity (cardinal), to indicate the

order (ordinal), and as a label (nominal)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.1.2 Grammar of Mathematics

The word "is" could mean equality, inequality or membership in a set

Example. Express the following using mathematical symbols
1. 5 is the square root of 25
2. 5 is less than 10
3. 5 is a prime number

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

2.2 Mathematical Expressions
and Sentences

In this lesson, you will learn to

differentiate and translate expressions
and sentences using mathematical
symbols.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.1 Expressions Versus Sentences

A mathematical expression is a name given to a mathematical object

 

of interest.

Ideas regarding expressions

1. Expressions have different names.
Example. The number 5 can be written in many ways as follows:
2+3
102
1+1+1+1+1
(6 - 2) + 1
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.2.1 Expressions Versus Sentences

 2. Common in solving expressions is to simplify.

 Fewer symbols, Fewer operations, Better suited to current use, and Preferred style/format.

Example.
1. 3 + 1 + 5 and 9 are both names for the same number but 9 uses fewer symbols.
2. 3 + 3+ 3 + 3 + 3 and 5x3 are both names for the same number, but 5x3 uses
fewer operation
3. 1.33 and have the nearly the same values, but for some learners it may be suited
to consider as this is easier for them to understand its value.
4. We write ½ instead of 13/26. We usually write reduced form or simplest form.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.1 Expressions Versus Sentences

A mathematical sentence is a correct assignment of mathematical

symbols that states a complete thought.

Ideas regarding sentences

1. Mathematical Sentences have verbs and connectives.
For instance, in the mathematical sentence 3 + 4 = 7. The equal sign is actually the verb and
indeed one of the most popular mathematical verbs. The symbol “+” in 3 + 4 = 7 is a connective
which is used to connect objects of a given type.

2. Truth of Sentences. Sentences can be true or false.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematical conventions are particular symbols, facts, names, and

notations used by mathematicians, engineers, scientists, and other users
of mathematics in their writings, studies, and work.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language
Types of Numbers

Natural Numbers (N), (also called positive integers, counting numbers, or natural numbers);
They are the numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}

Whole Numbers (W). This is the set of  natural numbers, plus zero, i.e., {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}.

Integers (Z). This is the set of all whole numbers plus all the negatives (or opposites) of the natural numbers, i.e., {… ,
⁻2, ⁻1, 0, 1, 2, …}

Rational numbers (Q). This is all the fractions where the top and bottom numbers are integers; e.g., 1/2, 3/4, 7/2, ⁻4/3,
4/1 [Note: The denominator cannot be 0, but the numerator can be].

Real numbers (R), (also called measuring numbers or measurement numbers). This includes all numbers that can be
written as a decimal. This includes fractions written in decimal form e.g., 0.5, 0.75 2.35, ⁻0.073, 0.3333, or 2.142857.
It also includes all the irrational numbers such as π, √2 etc. Every real number corresponds to a point on the number
line. Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

1. The equal sign “=” is one of the most common mathematical symbol used to express equality of
two expressions written on both sides of the symbols.

2. When dealing with order of operations, it is a convention to perform the order of operations as
follows: parentheses, exponentiation, multiplication and division (from left to right), and addition
and subtraction (from left to right). We can use the mnemonic PEMDAS to perform the order of
operations.

3. Addition of numbers when done vertically is performed from right to left.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

 4. The arithmetic operations are implied by the following words/terms:

a. Addition “+” : plus, add, sum, total, more than, increase by,…

b. Subtraction “–”: minus, subtract, difference, less than, take away, decrease by, deduct, …

c. Multiplication “x”: times, multiply, product, groups of, …

d. Division “”: divide, quotient, split, share, …

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

 5. To denote an unknown, use variables like x, y, z, a, b, c…

6. Multiplication may be denoted by a dot “.”, a parenthesis (), or asterisk “”.

7. Division may be denoted by the following forms: ” or “a/b”

15 , can be written as or .

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

 8. A variablesuch as x is usually placed to the left of the equal sign and the expression that
defines the variable is on the right of the equal sign.
For example: Let x = the set of even integers between 10 and 20.

9. A bar is placed over the digits that repeat in writing decimals such as 1. for expressing
1.33… or 4/3.

10. One dozen means 12.

11. Any number divided by zero is undefined.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

12. When a number line is drawn horizontally, the convention is that the positive direction is to the
right; and when the number line is drawn vertically, the positive direction is upward.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

13. A set of consecutive numbers is expressed by the first and last numbers.
Example. “the integers from 5 to 10” would indicate that there is actually 6 integers,
even without using the word inclusive.
On the other hand, the expression as “the integers between 5 and 10” indicates that
there are actually four integers only which means that 5 and 10 are excluded in the set.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.2.2 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

The following are standard symbols used as conventions in mathematics:

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

Exercises

1. The sum of a number x and 10

Exercises

2. Twice of k
 Exercises

3. A number t, less 8
 Exercises

4. One –half times the sum of r and s

 Exercises

5. Five take away z

 Exercises

6. One-half of d is 5.
 Exercises

7. The square of the sum of 5 and a number n

 Exercises

8. The distance d traveled by a moving car is the product of its speed s and time t.
 Exercises

9. There are twice as many boys (b) as there are girls (g).
 Exercises

10. The length (l) of a rectangle is 7 more than its width (w).
2.3 The Language of Sets

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Sets

 A setis a well-defined collection of distinct objects. A set is well-defined if an object can be

classified clearly whether or not it belongs to a set.

Example. the set of positive even integers less than 10

We use capital letters of the English alphabet to name sets.

The members of a set are called elements.

We use the symbol to denote that an element belongs to or member of a set

while if an element does not belong to a set.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Sets

 Example. Let V the set of the vowels in the English Alphabet. Write symbolically to
describe u and w with respect to the given set V.

u V since the elements of V are a, e, i, o, and u.

w V since w is not a vowel. It is actually a consonant.

The cardinality of a set A refers to the number of elements of A. It is denoted by n(A).

Given set V above, n(V) = 5.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Sets

Methods of Writing Sets

1. Roster Method – this is done by listing the elements of the set, enclosed in curly brackets.
Example. Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

2. Rule Method – this is done by describing the elements

Example. Z = {the set of the first five positive integers}

3. The set-builder notation in the form A = {x|𝑥 𝑖𝑠…┤} read as “A is the set of all x such that x
is…} can be used to write a set by describing each element of the set.
Example. Z = {x | x is one of first positive integers}
or Z = {x | x 𝜖 N, x ≤5}, (note that N is the set of natural numbers)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Sets

Types of Sets

1. Universal set refers to all sets under investigation that are assumed to be contained in some
large fixed set, which we denote by U.

2. Empty set is a set that contains no elements. An empty set can be name using {} or ∅. An
empty set is also called a null set.

3. Finite set is a set consisting of elements in which the number of element is countable.
Consider the sets: A = {5, 7, 9, 11} and B = { 4 , 8 , 16, 32, 64, 128}
 
Obviously, A, B contain a finite number of elements, i.e. 4 elements in A and 6 in B. Thus they
are finite sets.
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Sets

 Types of Sets

4. Infinite set is a set consisting of elements in which the number of element is not countable or
indefinite Consider the sets:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
D = {x

In N, there are infinite numbers in the set.

Note that D is also an infinite set since the numbers between 1 and 10 have no definite
number of elements. Unless you specify that x is an integer, then it becomes a finite set.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Sets
Types of Sets

5. A subset is a set taken from another set.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B  ⊂  A

A subset is classified into two:

a. Proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set – it contains fewer elements.
We use the symbol “⊂”.

b. Improper subset is a subset whose elements are identical to the original set and the empty
set.

6. The power set is the set that contains all subsets. Denoted by P(A)
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Sets
 Listing Subsets

To determine the number of subsets of set A, denoted by s(A), use the formula: s(A) = , where n
is the number of elements of A.

Example. Let C = {red, blue, yellow}. List the proper and improper subsets of C.
Solution. C has n = 3 elements. Using the formula, Hence it has 8 subsets: 6 proper subsets and
2 improper subsets.
Improper subsets:
{red, blue, yellow}, { }
Proper subsets:
{red}, {blue}, {yellow}, {red, blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue, yellow}
Power Set or P(C)
{red, blue, yellow}, { }, {red}, {blue}, {yellow}, {red, blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue, yellow}
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Sets

Example. Let A = {1, 3, 5}, List the improper subsets, proper subsets, and the power set of A

Improper subsets:
{1, 3, 5}, { }
Proper subsets:
{1}, {3}, {5}, {1,3}, {1,5}, {3,5}
Power Set or P(C)
{1, 3, 5}, { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1,3}, {1,5}, {3,5}

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets

Relationships Among Sets

1. Equal sets. Two or more sets are equal if they have the same elements.

Example. Let A = {a, c, t} and B = {c, a, t}

Since the A and B have exactly the same elements regardless of the order of the elements, A
and B are equal sets.

We write A = B.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets

 Relationships Among Sets

2. Equivalent sets. Two or more sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements.

Example. Let C = {4, 7, 10} and D = {x, y, z}

Both C and D have 3 elements, that is, n(C) = n(D) = 3. Therefore, C and D are equivalent
sets.

We write C D.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets

Relationships Among Sets

3. Joint sets. Two or more sets are joint sets if they have at least one common element.

Example. Let E = {the letters of the word “math”}

and F = {the letters of the word “music”}.

Examine the common elements found in both E and F. We see that they have a common
element, m.

Therefore, E and F are joint sets.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets

Relationships Among Sets

4. Disjoint sets. Two or more sets are disjoint sets if they do not have at least one common
element.

Example. Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and H = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

Since we do not see any element common to G and H, then G and H are disjoint sets.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets

 Operations on Sets

1. The union of two sets denoted by A ⋃ B contains all the elements contained in either set (or both
sets).  More formally, x ∊ A ⋃ B if x ∈ A or x ∈ B (or both).
 
2. The intersection of two sets denoted by A ⋂ B contains only the elements that are in both sets. 
More formally, x ∈ A ⋂ B if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
 
3. The difference of two sets denoted by A – B contains the elements found in A but not in B.
Conversely, B – A contains the elements found in B not in A. More formally,
x ∈ (A – B) if x ∈ A and x B. Moreover, x ∈ (B – A) if x ∈ B and x A.
 
4. The complement of a set A contains everything that is not in the set A. The complement is
notated A’, or Ac, or sometimes ~A. Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Operations on Sets

Example. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}

Perform the following operations:

a. A ⋃ B d. B – A

b. A ⋂ B e. Ac

c. A – B f. Bc
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Operations on Sets

Example. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}

Perform the following operations:

a. A ⋃ B d. B – A

b. A ⋂ B e. Ac

c. A – B f. Bc
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets using enclosed areas in the plane. The
universal set U is represented by the points in a rectangle, and the other sets are represented by
circles lying within the rectangle.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Venn Diagram

Example. Show a Venn Diagram for U = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}, A = { 1, 2, 3}, and B = {5, 7, 9}

A and B are Disjoints Sets

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Venn Diagram

Example. Show a Venn Diagram for U = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}, C = {3, 5, 7}, and D = {7, 9, 11}

C and D are Joints Sets

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Venn Diagram

Example. Show a Venn Diagram for

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, E = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, and F = {4, 5, 7}

F is a subset of E (F ⊂ E)
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.3.1 Relationships and Operations on Sets
Venn Diagram

Example.
A survey asks 200 people on what beverage they drink in the morning. Suppose 30 report tea only,
80 report coffee only, 40 report both. 
 
1. How many people drink tea in the morning?
2. How many people drink coffee?
3. How many people drink neither tea or coffee?

 
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.4 The Language of Relations
and Functions
In this lesson, you will learn the concepts of
relations and functions which are useful for
solving many application problems in
Mathematics.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.1 Relations

Objects in mathematics may be related in various ways.

A set A may be said to be related to a set B.

For example: A is a subset of B,

A and B have at least one common element,
or A and B have the same elements.

A number x may also be related to a number y.

For example: x < y, x is a factor of y, or x2+y2=1.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.4.1 Relations

A relation is a correspondence between two things or quantities.

It is a set of ordered pairs (x, y).

Two important factors connected with a relation are the domain and range.

The set of all values of x is called the domain while the set of values of y is called the
range.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.1 Relations

A relation may also be expressed as a statement, arrow diagram, table, equation, set-builder
notation and graph.

Example. The relation is given by R= {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10), …}

1. By Statement 2. By Arrow Diagram

R is the set of ordered pairs
where the ranges are twice of
the domains.

 
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.4.1 Relations

 2. By Table

3. By Set-builder Notation
R=

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 2.4.1 Relations

4. By Graph

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 2.4.1 Relations
 Cartesian Product

Consider two arbitrary sets A and B. The set of all ordered pairs (a,b) where: a and b B is
called the Cartesian Product.

By notation, A x B = {(a, b)}

Example
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Find A x B.
 
Solution:
A x B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1, 3), (2,1), (2, 2), (2,3)}
 
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.4.1 Relations
Cartesian Product

 Example

Let M = {a, b, c} and N = {1, 7}. a.) Find M x N and b.) Find N x M.

Solution:

a.) M x N = {(a, 1), (a, 7), (b, 1), (b, 7), (c, 1), (c, 7)}
 
b.) N x M = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (7, a), (7, b), (7, c)}

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.1 Relations
 Cartesian Product

Example. Let J = {0, 1, 2} and K = {1, 2, 3}. Find J x K.

J x K = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}

In J x K, can you identify a relation R = ?

  = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
R

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.1 Relations
Formal Definition for Relations

Let A and B be sets. A relation from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A x
B, x is related to y by R, if and only if (x, y) is in R.

To find a relation from A to B, follow these steps:

1st step: Define A x B

 
2nd step: Examine each ordered pair that satisfies the given relation.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.1 Relations
Example.

Find a relation R such that y is twice of x if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6}.

Solution:
1st step: Define A x B.
A x B = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2,4), (2, 6), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3,6)}

2nd step: Examine each ordered pair.

  R = {(1, 2), (2,4), (3,6)}

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.1 Relations
 Example.
Find a relation R such that is an integer if A = {1, 2,} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
Solution:
1st step: Define A x B
A x B = {(1,1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
2nd step: Examine each ordered pair.
R = {(1,1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}

since: (1,1) → , which is an integer  Allthe other three ordered pairs cannot
  be part of the relation because the
(1,3) → = -1, which is an integer results are not integers. For example, (1,
2) → = which is NOT an integer.
(2,2) → , which is an integer
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.4.2 Functions

The concept of function provides the essential tool in applying mathematical formulations in
solving problems. For example, the distance (d) a car travels is related to the product of its speed (s)
and the time (t) of travel in the equation d = st.

The statement “the area (A) of a circle depends on its radius (r)” can be denoted as A= f(r), where
A represents the area and r, the radius. This is read as “Area is a function of its radius”. In fact, the area
of a circle is given by the formula: A = πr2. Hence, a function may be considered as a formula or
equation.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Definition:
Let D and R be two sets. A function from D to R is a rule that associates or assigns to each element
in D a single element in R. We then say that a quantity y is a function of another quantity x if a rule
exists such that a unique value of y is assigned a corresponding value of x. To denote this relationship,
we use the functional notation:

y = f(x)

where f indicates that a function exists between variables x and y.

  Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

In the equation y = 2x – 3, every value of x gives only one value of y. Then y is a function of x. this
may be written as
f(x) = 2x – 3

The functional notation y = f(x) allows us to denote specific values of a function. To evaluate a
function is to substitute the specified values of the independent variable in the formula and simplify.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Example. When f(x) = 2x – 3, find

a. f(0)
  b. f(1)

c. f(-1)

d. f(5-x)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Graph of a Function

For a given function y = f(x), we can set up ordered pairs of values (x, y) or (x, f(x)). These ordered
pair can be plotted in the xy- plane to show how the relation looks like.
 
To graph a given function, follow these steps:
1. Take representative values of x in the domain of the function and solve for f(x). Then construct a
table of values for x and f(x).
2. Plot the points whose coordinates are the ordered pairs (x, f(x)) from the table of values.
3. Join the plotted points in the plane with a straight line or smooth curve. Label the graph.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Graph of a Function

Example.
Illustrate the graph of f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8
 
Solution:
You should be able to recognize that the given function is a quadratic function whose graph is
represented by a parabola.
Construct a table of values as follows

Then, plot each point (x, f(x)) from the table above
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.4.2 Functions

Graph of a Function

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 2.4.2 Functions

Operations on Function

a. The sum of two functions, f + g, is the function defined by

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
b. The difference of two functions, f - g, is the function defined by
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
c. The product of two functions, f . g, is the function defined by
(f . g)(x) = f(x) . g(x)
d. The quotient of two functions, f /g, is the function defined by
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Operations on Function

Example. Let f(x) = 5x – 2 and g(x) = x – 1. Find the following:

1. (f + g)(x)

2. (f - g)(x)

3. (f . g)(x)

4. (f / g)(x)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Composition of Functions

This pertains to the combinations of two or more functions. The new function is called a
composite function.

Let two functions be f and g. The composition of f with g, denoted by f ₒ g (read as “f circle g”),
is the function defined by
(f ₒ g)(x)= f(g(x))

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Composition of Functions

Example 26. Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = 1 – x.

a. Find (f ₒ g) (x) b. Find (g ₒ f) (x)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Domain of a Functions

For the function y = f(x), we call the set from which we take values of the independent
variable x the Domain of the function. The set of all possible values of y as x varies over the
domain is called the Range of the function.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Domain of a Functions

When we define functions, we should be aware of two restrictions.

The first restriction concerns rational expressions: we should never divide by zero. The domain
of functions involving rational expressions excludes those values of the independent variable that
will make the denominator zero.

The second restriction involves radical expressions: we never take the square root of a negative
number. Therefore, the domain of this type of function does not include those values of the
independent variable that will make the radicand negative.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Domain of a Functions

Example. f(x) = 2x + 1

f(x) = 2x + 1 is a linear function. Its domain is the set of real numbers.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions

Domain of a Functions

Example. g(x) = x2

g(x) = x2 is a quadratic function. Its domain is the set of real numbers.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions
 Domain of a Functions

Example. h(x) =

h(x) = is a rational function. Note that x can not assume a value of x that makes the
denominator equal to zero. The only exemption to the domain of the function is x = - 4 since x + 4
= - 4 + 4 = 0.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.4.2 Functions
 Domain of a Functions

Example. k(x) = is a square root function.

Note that x cannot assume values of x that make the radicand less than zero. To find the
domain are the values of x that satisfy the quality 0 x . Hence, the domain is the set {x }.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5 The Language Logics
This lesson introduces the basic concepts of
elementary logic to determine the truth or
falsity of statements.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.1 Logic

Logic is the study of correct thinking and reasoning.

In logic, assertions are made by combining words and symbols in the form of sentences. Such
assertions are called statements or propositions, which are declarative sentences that are either true
or false – but not both.

A statement or proposition may be denoted by a variable like P, Q, R,…

Examples. P: University of Northern Philippines is in Vigan City.

Q: Light travels faster than sound.
R: 1 + 3 = 4.
S: 7 is an even number.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.1 Logic

Simple and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a
statement that conveys two or more ideas. It is formed by connecting simple statements with words
and phrases such as and, or, if…then, if and only if, etc.

Example. 1. 20 is divisible by 4.
2. Taylor Swift is a singer and Stephen Curry is a basketball player.
3. If a polygon has three sides, then it is a triangle.
4. Mark goes to gym or stays at home every Friday.

Statement 1 is a simple statement while statements 2, 3, and 4 are examples of compound

statements.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.2 Logical Connectives

Logical Connectives and Symbols

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.2 Logical Connectives

Logical Connectives and Symbols

Example.
Let p: I review my lessons.
q: I play video games.
r: I go to the beach.
s: I get a reward.
The following are compound statements formed by using logical connectives. Write the following
statements:
a. q ˄ p
b. q ˅ r
c. ⁓ r
d. p → s
e. s ↔ p
Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.5.2 Logical Connectives

Logical Connectives and Symbols

Example.
Indicate the simple statements by p and q and express the compound statement in symbolic form
of the following compound statements.
1. John can program in C++ and he can program in Java.
2. If x is an even number then it is a multiple of 2.

Solution:
1. p: John can program in C++.
q: John can program in Java.
p ˄q
2. p: x is an even number.
q: x is a multiple of 2.
p→s Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.5.3 The Truth Table

The truth values of a compound statement are respectively determined by the truth values of the
original statements and the connectives used to form them. The decision of accepting or rejecting a
statement depends on the truth values of a proposition. An acceptable statement is given a truth
value “true” and unacceptable statement is given a truth value “false”

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table

a. Negation.
If a proposition p is true, then the proposition ⁓ p is false.
However, if p is false, then ⁓ p is true.

For example:
Let p: “I study at University of Northern Philippines.” be a true statement. Then, ⁓ p is stated
as “I do not study at the University of Northern Philippines.” or “It is false that I study at the
University of Northern Philippines.” Which is a negation of the original proposition p.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table

b. Conjunction
The conjunction of two statements p and q denoted by p ⋀ q is defined by the following truth
table
The only condition for p ⋀ q to
be a true statement is when both
p and q are true.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table

c. Disjunction
The disjunction of two statements p and q denoted by p q is defined by the following truth
table.

This means that the disjunction of two

statements is true if and only if at least
one of the statements is true.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table

d. Implication or Conditional
In a conditional statement, the truth of p implies the truth of q. If p is true, then q must be true.
The only way that this can fail (or be false) is when p is true while q is false. The truth table of p →
q is given in the following table.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table

 e. Biconditional
The biconditional statement p, is defined by the following truth table.

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

2.5.3 The Truth Table

Summary of truth values of compound statements using logical connectives

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table

Example. Given the truth values of the propositions A, B, C, and D.

If A is true, B is false, C is true, and D is false, give the truth value of the following:
a. [(⁓A ⋀ B) → C] ⋁ D
b. [(A → B) → ⁓ C] ↔ [⁓ B → ⁓ (C ⋀ D)]
 We simply substitute the truth value of each proposition, i.e.
a. [(⁓A ⋀ B) → C] ⋁ D  b. [(A B) ⁓ C] [⁓ B ⁓ (C ⋀ D)]
[(⁓T ⋀ F) T] ⋁ F [(T F) ⁓ T] [⁓ F ⁓ (T ⋀ F)]
[(F ⋀ F) T] ⋁ F (F F) (T ⁓ F)
(F T) ⋁ F T (T T)
T⋁F T T
T T Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS
 2.5.3 The Truth Table

Example. Construct a truth table for [⁓ p → ( p ⋀ q)]

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS

 2.5.3 The Truth Table
 Example. Construct a truth table for [(p q) ⋁ (p r)] ⁓ (q ⋀ r)

Emerson Jay Bellon, DMNS