COMPUTER

FUNDAMENTALS
COMPUTER
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic machine that can be programmed to
accept data (input), process it into useful information (output), and store
it in a storage device for future use

Characteristics of a Computer
•It’s a machine.
•It is electronic.
•It is automatic.
•It can manipulate data.
•It has memory
•It has logical function
 Capabilities of a Computer
• Speed
• Accuracy
• Repetitiveness
• Storage
• Programmable
 Limitations of a Computer
• Cannot operate without a set of

instructions.
• Cannot derive from objects.
• Can detect errors but cannot correct
them.
• Computer are subjects to occasional
breakdowns.
• Cannot run without electric power.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
(General and Specific)

General-purpose computers- capable of dealing with

a variety of different problems.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Special-purpose computers

- designed to perform
specific task, with
limited capabilities, and
the program of
instructions is built into
the machine

Program is a sequence of instructions that

determine the operations to be carried out by
the machine
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
ACCORDING TO DATA HANDLED
(Analog, Digital, Hybrid)

Analog computer – used for scientific,

engineering and process-control purposes-
operations that result to approximate values.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Digital computer – used for business applications,
and also scientific operations, and are ideal when
100% accuracy is desired, thus resulting to data that
are exact in values.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Hybrid computer – incorporate in a single machine the
capabilities of the analog and digital computers. They
are used in space vehicle simulations and training of
astronauts.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
ACCORDING CAPACITY
(Microcomputers, Minicomputers,
Mainframes, & Supercomputers)

Microcomputers - Small computers which are portable

that use microprocessor. Ex: Desktops, Laptop, Notebooks,

PocketPC and Pen Computers

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Minicomputers
- Machines, which are in the middle of
microcomputers and mainframes in terms of cost
and capability. These acts as “servers” w/c are
connected to several workstations or terminals.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Mainframes
- The oldest category, these are air-cooled
computers bigger in sizes. Used mostly by
banks, airlines, and insurance companies
that handles millions of transactions.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Super computers
- the biggest and the fastest computers. They can
perform 50 million instructions/sec and are used in
applications such as nuclear weapon dev’t and accurate
weather forecasting. The fastest calculating device ever
invented.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

Pre-modern Era

Manual-mechanical device
- device powered by hand and
physical effort from the user.

Electro-mechanical device
- powered by electronic motors
and use switches and relays.

Electronic devices
- use only electrical switches and
circuitry instead of mechanical
relays. Principal components; circuit
boards, transistors or silicon chips.
MANUAL-MECHANICAL

Abacus
- The first man-made
computing device that uses
beads. Invented in
Mesopotamia, and
commercially used in China.
 MANUAL-MECHANICAL

John Napier

Napier’s Bones
- An arrangement of bones wherein numbers are
printed
 MANUAL-MECHANICAL

William Oughtred

Oughtred’s Slide Rule

- Consists of movable bars with a precise scale,

which uses approximations for solving problems
 MANUAL-MECHANICAL

Blaise Pascal

Pascaline

- The first mechanical calculator (adding machine)

that uses cogged wheels.
 MANUAL-MECHANICAL

Wilhelm Gottfried Leibnitz

Leibnitz Calculator

- The improved Pascaline which could multiply and

divide
 MANUAL-MECHANICAL

Charles Babbage

Babbage’s Difference and Analytical

Engines
- These engines embodied most of the design
modern computers. The Difference engine, which
can compute tables and the Analytical engine
which is completely automatic and capable of
calculating any mathematical problems
 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES

Herman Hollerith

Hollerith’s Punch Card Machine

- The first use of punched cards to store data

 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES

Joseph Marie Jacquard

Automatic Weaving Loom

- Uses the concept of punched card to control his

looms
 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES

Howard Aiken

Automatic Sequence Controlled

Calculator (MARK I)

- The first general purpose electromechanical

computer
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

John Atanasoff / Clifford Berry

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

- The first special-purpose digital computer that

stores simultaneous equations
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

John Presper Eckert / John Mauchly

Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Calculator (ENIAC)

- The first fully electronic general-purpose digital

computer ever completed
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

John Presper Eckert / John Mauchly

Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic

Computer (EDVAC)

- The completely internally programmed machine,

it is simply the enhancement of ENIAC to
overcome its limitations
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Maurice Wilkes

Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic

Computer (EDSAC)

- Also known as Electronic Binary Digital computer

that uses binary representation of data and
internally stored program.
 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

First Generation Computers ( 1951 – 1958 )

Major Hardware Features: Vacuum tubes

and Magnetic Drums
Processing Speed: 1, 000 instructions per
second
Size: Mainframes only

Examples:
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) – the first
commercial business computer developed by J.
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

IBM 701 – the first generation computer of IBM

IBM 650 – the most popular first generation

computer.
 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Second Generation Computers ( 1959 – 1963)

Major Hardware Features: Transistors and

Magnetic Cores
Processing Speed: 1, 000, 000 instructions
per second
Size: Mainframes only

Examples:
Tradic – first transistorized computer

UNIVAC II

IBM 7070, 7090, and 1400 series

 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Third Generation Computers ( 1964 – 1971 )

Major Hardware Features: Integrated

circuits or “chips”
Processing Speed: 10,000,000 instructions
per second
Size: Mainframes only

Examples:
IBM System 360 – the most significant 3rd
generation computer

Burroughs B5500
 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Fourth Generation Computers ( 1971 – 1979 )

Major Hardware Features: Microprocessors

or Large – scale IC
Processing Speed: 100,000,000 instructions
per second
Sized: Mainframes, Minicomputers, and
Microcomputers

Examples:
Apple II; TRS 80
IBM System 360, System 3090
IBM PC – XT base computers
IBM PC – AT base computers
Motorolla 68030 based computers
 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Fifth Generation Computers ( 1980 - present )

Major Hardware Features:

 
Circuitry based on gallium arsenide?
Superconductors?
Optical circuitry?
 
Processing Speed?
Personal Computers

What are Personal Computers?

Personal computers are a general-
purpose computer, whose size, capabilities
and original sale price makes it useful for
individuals, and is intended to be operated
directly by an end-user with no intervening
computer operator.
 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

System - is an organized group of related and interdependent

elements, parts, or components interacting in performing the individual
and specific tasks for the purpose of meeting one or more goals and
objectives.

Components of a Computer System

Hardware
Software
People ware
Data ware
 is the physical components of
Hardware
the computer system whether
internal or external that are
tangible in nature.

Components of the internal hardware

1.CPU
- this is known as the processor.
Parts of CPU
a. Control unit(CU) - Interprets program instructions
and directs the other parts of the CPU, and communicates with
the external input/output devices and secondary storage media
b. Arithmetic logic(ALU) – it does all the
calculation, comparison or logical operation, s
directed by the CU.
Hardware

CPU – Central Processing Unit

Hardware

Components of the internal hardware

2. Memory
- It stores data and instructions before the execution and the processed
data as well
Types of Memory
• Internal Memory
• Random-Access Memory (RAM) – It is a volatile type of memory
- refers to as Main Memory or Primary
Memory
• Read-Only Memory (ROM) – contains permanently stored instructions
that cannot be changed.

• External Memory
• Secondary Memory - Also known as Auxiliary Memory.
- It is a non-volatile type of memory that is
responsible foe keeping files permanently.
Hardware

Memory
Hardware

Components of the internal hardware

3. Input and Output Unit

it allows communication between the computer and its outside world via
input and output devices.

Other parts that go along with the Processor:

Bus - It is an electronic circuit that sends data and messages between the other
components.

Ports - It attach input and output devices to the computer.

Expansion slots - It allow the addition of extra features.

Registers - Are special temporary storage which quickly accepts, stores, and
transfers data and instructions for immediate use.
Hardware

Motherboard
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

•Input hardware

•Processing hardware

•Storage hardware

•Output hardware

•Communication hardware
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Input Hardware
- it accept or collect data and convert it into a form suitable for
processing.
TYPES
• Keyboard- Entry Devices
• Keyboards. It is the most commonly used input device.
• Terminals. It consists of keyboard, video display screen and a
communication line to a mainframe computer.
THREE TYPES OF TERMINAL
•Dumb – can be used only to input data to and receive information
from a computer system.
• Smart – can do input and output and has some limited processing
capability.
• Intelligent – a full fledge microcomputer with a communication
link.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Input Hardware
TYPES
• Direct-Entry Devices
• Pointing Devices
• Mouse – a pointing device that allows you to control an on-
screen cursor.
• Trackball – the upside-down version of the mouse. A ball
mounted in box is rolled with the fingers to move the cursor.
• Joystick – a video display screen that picks up input from the
user through the touch of a finger.
• Light pen –it is a point and draw input device that allows you
to draw directly on screen.
• Digitizing tablet – a pen-like device with which the user
“sketches” an image or puck
• Pen based systems – a pen like stylus to enter handwriting
and marks into a computer.
 Hardware

JOYSTICK

MOUSE TRACKBALL

LIGHT PEN DIGITIZING TABLET PEN BASED SYSTEM

Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Input Hardware
TYPES
• Scanning Device - It translates images of text, drawing, and photos and the
like into forms of data that can be understood by the computer.

•Bar code readers – photoelectric scanner that translate the bar code
symbols into digital forms.

• Mark and Character recognitions devices

MICR (Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition) – it reads the strange-
looking numbers printed at the bottom of bank checks
• OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) – it reads pencil marks
• OCR(Optical Character Recognition) – it reads special preprinted
characters
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Input Hardware
• Fax Machine (Facsimile Transmission Machine) – it scans an image and
sends it as an electronic signals over telephone lines

•Imaging Systems/Image Scanner/ Graphics Scanner – it converts text,

drawings, and photographs into forms

• Smart Cards and Optical cards

• Smart cards – it contain a microprocessor and a memory chip.
• Optical Cards – it s a plastic, laser-recordable card used with an
optical card reader.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Input Hardware
•Other Devices

• Voice Recognition Systems – they convert human speech into

digital code.
• Audio- Input Device – they record or play analog sounds
• Video- Input Devices – signals that come from VCR o r a camera
recorder
• Electronic cameras – they capture images in electronic form
Sensors – it collects specific kinds of data directly from the
environment
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Processing Hardware
- It is used to retrieve and execute the instructions provided by the
computer
Main Components
•CPU
•Main Memory
•System Unit –it contains electrical components that make the computer
works.
•Power supply – is a device that converts AC to DC power to run
the computer.
•Motherboard – it is the main circuit board in the system unit.
•CPU – the microprocessor chip.
•Specialized Processor chips – used to speed up your computer system
•System clock – it controls how fast all operations within a computer are
performed.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Processing Hardware
 System Unit (continue)
• RAM chips - chips that temporarily hold data and instructions
• ROM chips – chips containing programs that are built into the computer
• Cache memory – is the special high-speed memory that the CPU can access
quickly.
• Expansion slots and boards- are sockets on the motherboard into which you
can plug expansion cards or boards.
• Bus line – the electrical pathways through which nits are transmitted within
the CPU and between the CPU and other devices in the system unit.
• Port – the sockets on the outside of the system unit that each connected to
an expansion board on the inside of the system unit.
• PCMICIA slots and cards – it represents a new bus standard for notebooks,
subnotebooks and pocket computers.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Storage Hardware. It temporarily or permanently store data used for processing

and the output of such processing.
 Two types:
• Primary Storage – refers to main memory (RAM).
•Secondary Storage- refers to storage devices that retain data and instruction
in a relatively permanent (non-volatile) form.

•Diskettes
•Hard disks
•Optical storage – use a laser beam to pack information densely on are
movable disk
•Magnetic tapes – a sequential file storage represented by various
arrangements of magnetized spots along the width of the tape
•Magnetic disk – a metal plotter where data is represented by
magnetized spots on the tracks.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Storage (continue)

• Magnetic strip – a recording of a data cell device capable of

storing 400 million of data
•Paper tape – a continuous strip of paper wound on a reel where
data is represented by holes punched on the paper.
•Drum – a recording medium of data represented by magnetized
spots that is coated with a magnetically sensitive material divided
into tracks.
•Continuous forms – a long sheets of paper where data is
represented thru print out.
•Computer Output Microfilm (COM)- stores large volume of
information printed or photographed as a very small images on
sheets or roll of film called Microfiche.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Output Hardware - It provide a means for the user to view information

produced by the computer system.

Two forms:
•Hardcopy – it is when an information has been recorded in a tangible
medium, such as paper or microfilm
•Softcopy – it is when an output is temporarily displayed on the screen
• Hardcopy Output Hardware:
•Printer – it is capable of printing characters, symbols and graphics.
Categories:
•Impact printer – it has contact with papers like daisy wheel printers, dot-
matrix printers and line printers
•Non-impact printers –it has no contact with the paper like laser printer,
ink-jet printers and thermal printers.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Output Hardware (continue)

• Hardcopy Output Hardware:
• Plotter – they are specialized output devices that can produce high quality
graphics in a variety of colors.
  3 types:
• Pen plotter – the most popular type of plotter
• Electrostatic plotter – electrostatic charges create tiny dots on specially
treated paper.
• Thermal plotter – its pins are electronically heated and are used with
heat-sensitive paper to produce images.

• Softcopy Output Hardware:

• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) – the most popular softcopy output device used on
microcomputers
• Flat Panel Displays – they are used with portable computers.
Hardware

Components of the external hardware

Communication Hardware
It facilitate the connection between computers connected with a network of
computers over phone lines and other channels.
Includes:
Modems - it converts digital signals to analog signals.
Cable – commonly used in networking, to facilitate the communication
between those computers.
Fax modems – a modem with fax capability installed as a circuit board in
the motherboard of a computer
Multiplexers – it combines several low-speed transmission into one high-
speed transmission.
Concentrator- it collects data in a temporary storage area, then send it
forward when enough has been accumulated.
Front-end Processor- a computer that handles communications for
mainframes.
Software

Categories of Software
1. System software- facilitating applications programs.
Types of system software
a. operating system - refers to a group of related programs that supervise
the execution of an application program
b. operating environment - refers to programs that sit on top of OS
c. utilities - a single term for all types of programming aids
d. programming languages - the programs used to write other programs
e. language processor - used to convert source program into a form
suitable for execution
• compilers
• assemblers
• interpreters
Software

Categories of Software

2. Application software- use program designed to solve problem.

Types of application software Types of Package Programs

Package program
- commonly called application
package.
Custom program
- specifically written for an
organization.

Levels of programming languages

1. Machine language
2. Symbolic language
3. High level language
Peopleware

refers to the personnel involved in data processing operations

• Functional Areas of Peopleware:

• Systems Programming
•System analysts
• Application programming
• Computer Operations
• Personnel:
• Data Entry Operator
• Computer Operator
• Computer Programmer
• System Analysts
• Computer Center Director
Dataware

refers to rules and policies that govern the operations of the

whole computer system

Examples of Dataware:
• Instruction Manuals
• Operating Procedures
• Processing Procedures
• Recipe Cooking
Number system
- is any
prepositional Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
notation were in 10 2 8 16
(10)A
each digit has it
(11)B
own wait and value. (12)C
(13)D
(14)E
(15)F
Radix *Note:
- Base on a number N- any number
n- radix or base of any number
system. system
I. Conversion from decimal to binary
Note:
N = number
R = Remainder
Example #1: convert the decimal number 523 to binary form. (52310N2)
Solution :
Q R
2 /523 1
2 /261 1
2 /130 0 Answer:
2 /65 0 52310 = 100000100112
2 /32 0
2 /16 0
2 /8 0
2 /4 0
2 /2 0
2 /1 1
0
Fractional Part
Example #1: Convert 0.562510 to binary.
Solution:
0.5625 0.1250 0.2500 0.5000
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
1.1250 0.2500 0.5000 1.0000

1 0 0 1
Read in this direction
to form the answer
Answer: 0.562510 = 0.10012
Example #2: Convert to 0.86210 to octal. (up to 5 precision)
Solution:
0.862 0.896 0.168 0.344 0.752
x 8 x 8 x 8 x 8 x 8
6.896 7.168 1.344 2.752 6.016

6 7 1 2 6

Read in this direction to

form the answer
Answer: 0.86210 = 0.671268
II. Conversion from decimal to number system
Example #1: convert 4638 to decimal.
Solution:
4 6 3
0

3 x 8 =3
1

6 x 8 = 48
2

4 x 8 = 256

Answer: 4638 = 30710

Binary Subtraction (1’s Complement)
Case I. The minuend is greater than the subtrahend.
Example: 1110012 – 110112
1110012 minuend
- 110112 subtrahend
Step 1: 111112
-110112
001002 1’s complement (subtrahend)
Step 2: 1110012
+001002 1’s complement (subtrahend)
1111012

EAC
Step 3: + 1
111102 Answer
 Case II. The minuend is less than the subtrahend.

Example: 110112 – 1110012

0110012 minuend
- 1110012 subtrahend
Step 1: 1111112
- 1110012
0001102 1’s complement (subtrahend)
Step 2: 0110112
+ 0001102 1’s complement (subtrahend)
1000012
Step 3: 0111102 1’s complement (sum)
- 111102 Answer
Binary Subtraction (2’s Complement)

Case I. The minuend is less than the subtrahend.

2’s Complement
Example: 110112 – 1110012
Example: Get the 2’s
complement of 10101102 1111112 minuend
- 1110012 subtrahend
11111112 Step 1: 1111112
-10101102 - 1110012 subtrahend
1010012 0001102 1’s complement (subtrahend)
+ 1
+ 1
1010102
0001112 2’s complement (subtrahend)

1’s Complement Step 2: 0110112 minuend

2’s Complement + 0001112 2’s complement (subtrahend)
1000102 binary sum

Step 3: 0111012 1’s complement (subtrahend) + 1

+ 1
- 111102 Answer
Case II. The minuend is greater than the subtrahend.
Example: 1110012 – 110112
1110012 minuend
- 110112 subtrahend
Step 1: 111112
-110112 subtrahend
001002 1’s complement (subtrahend)
+ 1
Step 2: 1110012 minuend
+ 001012 2’s complement (subtrahend)
dropped 1111102 Binary Sum

111102 Answer
SUMMARY OF
FINALS
 E-mail

E-mail or the Electronic Mail is mean of sending messages via computers.

Internet
Internet is a vast network of networks that electronically connects to
billions of people nationwide.

Web
The web presents information through multimedia formats, graphics, sound,
animation & video.
Acronyms to remember

ARPA – Advance Research Project Agency

ARPANET – Advance Research Project Agency Network
NSFNET – National Science Foundation Network
WWW – World Wide Web
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
FTP – File Transfer Protocol
SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Terminologies to remember

Computer Virus
- A program designed to attach itself to a file, reproduce and spread from one file
to another, destroying data, displaying an irritating message or otherwise
disrupting computer operations.

Crackers
-People who break into a computer system with intent to damage files or steal data.

Cyberpunks
– People who break into computers, especially Internet computers, to steal data
modify files or plant viruses

Hackers
-People who are once meant as computer hobbyists or computer novice. Today they are
referred to as people who has gained illegal access in a computer system.
 Types of Viruses

File virus/ File infectors

- A computer virus that infects executable files, that is programmed with exe filename
extensions.
Boot sector virus
- A computer virus that infects the boot sectors on a disk that contain the data a
computer uses during the boot process. The virus spreads every time the infected disk
is in the computer when it boots.
Macro virus
- A computer virus that infects the macros that are attached to documents and
spreadsheets.
Payload
- The disruptive instructions or message delivered by a computer virus.

Trojan Horse
-A computer program that appears to perform one function while actually doing
something else such as inserting a virus into a computer system of stealing a

password.

Worm
- It is designed to enter a computer system, usually a network, through security “holes” and
replicates itself.
Other terminologies

Time bomb
– a type of computer program that stays in a computer system undetected until it is
triggered at a certain date or time.
Antivirus
– A computer program used to scan a computer’s memory and disks to identify,
isolate, and eliminate viruses.
Data security
- Techniques that provide protection for data.
Biometrics
– Biological measurements, such as fingerprinting, that are used in the context of
computers to verify a person’s identity.
User rights
-Rules that specify the directories and files that an individual user can access.
Key
-In the context of data encryption, a key is the method used to encrypt or decipher
information as in which numbers in a code match each letters of the alphabet.
Trap door
-A way to bypass the normal security precautions and enter a computer system.
It is often created during computer installation and testing but should be
removed before the computer is placed into service.
Encryption
-The process of scrambling or hiding information so that it cannot be
understood without the key necessary to change it back into it’s original
form.
-A popular public

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)

- key encryption system.

Public key encryption (PKE)

-An encryption method that uses a pair of keys, a public key (known to
everyone) that encrypts the message and a private key (known only to the
recipient) that decrypts it.
Firewall
- A method for preventing hostile pro – grams, such as Java applets, from
entering a network usually by installing firewall software that filters out
suspicious packets.
 Spreadsheets

A spreadsheet is a program that can represent data in

column-and-row format and can manipulate and present that data in a
number of ways.
In paper form, spreadsheets have been used by accountants
for centuries.

Using Spreadsheets

A spreadsheet is divided into boxes, known as cells. Each cell is

identified by its address e.g., A1, C4, D3 and etc.
 Formulas
Data entered into a cell can
be:
• text that describes some of
Formulas can contain the
the other entries in the
mathematical operators:
spreadsheet. -(+) Addition
• a number that is keyed in -(-) Subtraction
• a formula which instructs -(*) Multiplication
-(/) Division
the spreadsheet to calculate
- Anything in parenthesis () is
a value for this cell by
calculated first followed by
using the values in other
multiplication & division, then
cells. addition and subtraction.
v
• The = sign tells the spreadsheet that you are
putting a formula into this cell.
• Once a formula has been entered in a cell, the cell
displays the result of the calculation.
• A formula bar or cell status line displays
information about the contents of the active cell, so
that you can see and edit any formulas you have
entered.