UNIT 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF IoT

Evolution of Internet of Things – Enabling Technologies – IoT Architectures:

oneM2M, IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and Alternative IoT models – Simplified IoT

Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack–Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT– Functional

blocks of an IoT ecosystem–Sensors, Actuators, Smart Objects and Connecting

Smart Objects.
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF IoT
 Today the Internet has become ubiquitous, has touched almost every corner
of the globe and is affecting human life in unimaginable ways.
 One year after the past edition of the Cluster book 2012 it can be clearly
stated that the Internet of Things (IoT) has reached many different players
and gained further recognition.
 Industries, Public safety, Energy & environmental protection, Agriculture and
Tourism as part of a future IoT Ecosystem (Figure 1.1) have acquired high
attention.

Figure1.1 IoT Ecosystem.

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We use these capabilities to query the state of the object and to change its state
if possible.
 In common parlance, the Internet of Things refers to a new kind of world
where almost all the devices and appliances that we use are connected to a
network.
 We can use them collaboratively to achieve complex tasks that require a high
degree of intelligence.
 For this intelligence and interconnection, IoT devices are equipped with
embedded sensors, actuators, processors and transceivers.
 Sensors and actuators are devices, which help in interacting with the physical
environment.
 The data collected by the sensors has to be stored and processed intelligently
in order to derive useful inferences from it.
 Note that we broadly define the term sensor; a mobile phone or even a
microwave oven can count as a sensor as long as it provides inputs about its
current state (internal state + environment).
 An actuator is advice that is used to effect a change in the environment such
as the temperature controller of an air conditioner.
 The storage and processing of data can be done on the edge of the network
itself or in a remote server.
 If any preprocessing of data is possible then it is typically done at either the
sensor or some other proximate device.
 The processed data is then typically sent to a remote server.

 The storage and processing capabilities of an IoT object are also restricted by
the resources available, which are often very constrained due to limitations of
size, energy, power, and computational capability.
 As a result the main research challenge is to ensure that we get the right kind
of data at the desired level of accuracy.
 Along with the challenges of data collection, and handling, there are
challenges in communication as well.

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1.2 TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVED IN IOT DEVELOPMENT:
1.2.1 INTERNET/WEB AND NETWORKING BASICS OSI MODEL
 Networking technologies enable IoT devices to communicate with other
devices, applications, and services running in the cloud.
 The internet relies on standardized protocols to ensure communication
between heterogeneous devices is secure and reliable.
 Standard protocols specify rules and formats that devices use to establish
and manage networks and transmit data across those networks.
 Networks are built as a “stack” of technologies. A technology such as
Bluetooth LE is at the bottom of the stack.
 While others such as such as IPv6 technologies (which is responsible for the
logical device addressing and routing of network traffic) are further up the
stack. Technologies at the top of the stack are used by the applications that
are running on top of those layers, such as message queuing technologies.
 This article describes widely adopted technologies and standards for IoT
networking. It also provides guidance for choosing one network protocol over
another. It then discusses key considerations and challenges related to
networking within IoT: range, bandwidth, power usage, intermittent
connectivity, interoperability, and security.

1.2.2 NETWORKING STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGIES

The Open Systems Inter connection (OSI) model is an ISO-standard abstract
model is a stack of seven protocol layers.
 From the top down, they are:application, presentation, session, transport,
network, data link and physical.TCP/IP, or the Internet Protocol suite ,under
pins the internet,and it provides as implied concrete implementation of these
layers in the OSI model.

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 Figure1.2 OSI and TCP/IP networking models

1.3 The TCP/IP model includes only four layers, merging some of the OSI model
1.4 layers:
 Network Access & Physical Layer
This TCP/IP Layer subsumes both OSI layers 1 and 2. The physical
(PHY) layer (Layer1 of OSI) governs how each device is physically connected
to the network with hardware, for example with an optic cable, wires, or radio
in the case of wireless network like wifi IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n). At the link layer
(Layer 2 of OSI), devices are identified by a MAC address,
 Internet Layer
This layer maps to the OSI Layer 3 (network layer). OSI Layer 3 relates
to logical addressing.Protocols at this layer define how routers deliver packet
so data between source and destination hosts identified by IP addresses. IPv6
is commonly adopted for IoT device addressing.
 Transport Layer
The transport layer (Layer 4 in OSI) focuses on end-to-end communication
and provides features such as reliability, congestion avoidance, and guaranteeing
that packets will be delivered in the same order that they were sent. UDP
is often adopted for IoT transport for performance reasons.

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  Application Layer
The application layer (Layers 5, 6, and 7 in OSI) covers application-level
messaging. HTTP/S is an example of an application layer protocol that is widely
adopted across the internet. Although the TCP/IP and OSI models provide you
with useful abstractions for discussing networking protocols and specific
technologies that implement each protocol, some protocols don’t fit neatly into
these layered models and are impractical. For example, the Transport Layer
Security (TLS) protocol that implements encryption to ensure privacy and data
integrity of network traffic can be considered to operate across OSI layers 4, 5,
and 6.

1.3.1 NETWORK ACCESS AND PHYSICAL LAYER IOT NETWORK

TECHNOLOGIES
IoT network technologies to be aware of toward the bottom of the protocol
stack include cellular, Wifi, and Ethernet, as well as more specialized solutions
such as LPWAN, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), ZigBee, NFC, and RFID.
NBIoT is be coming the standard for LP WAN networks, according to
Gardener. This IoT for All article tells more about NB-IoT.
1.3.2 The following are network technologies with brief descriptions of each:
 LPWAN
(Low Power Wide Area Network) is a category of technologies
designed for low- power, long-range wireless communication. They are
ideal for large-scale deployments of low-power IoT devices such as
wireless sensors. LPWAN technologies include LoRa (Long Range
physical layer protocol), Haystack, SigFox, LTE-M, and NB-IoT (Narrow-
Band IoT).
 Cellular
The LP WAN NB-IoT and LTE-M standards address low-power, low-
cost IoT communication options using existing cellular networks. NB-IoTis
the news of These standards and is focused on long-range
communication between large numbers of primarily in door devices.
LTE-Mand NB-IoT were developed specifically for IoT, however
existing cellular technologies are also frequently adopted for long-range
wireless communication.
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 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
BLE is a low-power version of popular Bluetooth 2.4GHz wireless
communication protocol. It is designed for short-range (no more than 100
meters) communication, typically in a star configuration, with a single primary
device that control several secondary devices. Bluetooth operates across both
layer 1 (PHY) and 2 (MAC) of the OSI model.BLE is best suited to devices that
transmit low volumes of detail bursts.
 ZigBee
ZigBee operates-on 2.4GHz wireless communication spectrum.It has a
longer range than BLE by up to 100 meters. It also has a slightly lower data
rate (250 Kbps maximum compared to 270 Kbps for BLE) than BLE. ZigBee is
a mesh network protocol. Unlike BLE, not all devices can sleep between
bursts. Much depends on their position in the mesh and whether they need to
act as routers or controllers within the mesh. ZigBee was designed for building
and home automation applications. Another closely related technology to
ZigBee is Z-Wave, which is also based on IEEE 802.15.4. Z-Wave was
designed for home automation. It has been proprietary technology, but was
recently released as a public domain specification.
 NFC
The near field communication (NFC) protocol is used for very small range
communication (up to 4 cm), such as holding an NFC card or tag next to a
reader.NFC is often used for payment systems, but also useful for check-in
systems and smart labels in asset tracking.
 RFID
RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. RFID tags store
identifiers and data.The tags are attached to devices and read by an RFID
reader.The typical range of RFID is less than a meter. RFID tags can be
active, passive, or assisted passive. Passive tags are ideal for devices with
out batteries, as the Dis-passively Read by the reader. Active tags
periodically broad cast their ID, while assisted passive tags become active
when RFID reader is present.

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  Dash7
Communication protocol that uses active RFID that is designed to be used
within Industrial IoT applications for secure long-range communication. Similar
to NFC, a typical use case for RFID is tracking inventory items within retail
and industrial IoT applications.
 Wifi
Wifi is standard wireless networking based on IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n
specifications. 802.11n offers the highest data throughput, but at the cost of
high-power consumption, so IoT devices might only use 802.11b or g for
power conservation reasons.Although wifi is adopted with in many prototype
and current generation IoT devices, as longer-range and lower-power
solutions become more widely available, it is likely that wifi will be superseded
by lower-power alternatives.
 Ethernet
Widely deployed for wired connectivity with in local area networks,
Ethernet implements the IEEE802.3standard.Not all IoT devices need to be
stationery wireless . For example, sensor units installed within a building
automation system can use wired network in technologies like Ethernet.
Power line communication (PLC),an alternative hard-wired solution,uses
existing electrical wiring instead of dedicated network cables.
INTERNET LAYER IOT NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES
Internet layer technologies (OSI Layer 3) identify and route packets of data.
Technologies commonly adopted for IoT are related to this layer and include IPv6,
6LoWPAN, and RPL.
 IPv6
At the Internet layer, devices are identified by IP addresses. IPv6 is
typically used for IoT applications over legacy IPv4 addressing. IPv4 is limited
to 32-bit addresses, which only provide around 4.3 billion addresses in total,
which is less than the current number of IoT devices that are connected, while
128 38
IPv6 uses 128 bits, and so provides 2 addresses (around 3.4 × 10 or
340 billion billion billion billion) addresses. In practice, not all IoT devices need
public addresses. Of the tens of billions of devices expected to connect via
the IoT over the next few years, many will be deployed in private networks
that use private address ranges networks by using gateways.
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  6LoWPAN
The IPv6 Low Power Wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN)
standard allows IPv6 to be used over 802.15.4 wireless networks. 6LoWPAN
is often used for wireless sensor networks, and the Thread protocol for home
automation devices also runs over 6LoWPAN.

 RPL
The Internet Layer also covers routing. IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-
Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is designed for routing IPv6 traffic over low-
power networks like those networks implemented over 6LoWPAN. RPL
(pronounced “ripple”) is designed for routing packets within constrained
networks such as wireless sensor networks.
RPL can compute the optimal path by building up a graph of the nodes in
the network based on dynamic metrics and constraints like minimizing energy
consumption or latency.

APPLICATION LAYER IOT NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES

HTTP and HTTPS are ubiquitous across internet applications, which is true
also within IoT, with RESTful HTTP and HTTPS interfaces widely deployed. CoAP
(Constrained Application Protocol) is like a lightweight HTTP that is often used in
combination with 6LoWPAN over UDP.Messaging protocols like MQTT, AMQP, and
XMPP are also frequently used with in IoT applications:

 MQTT
Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) is a publish/subscribe-based
messaging protocol that was designed for use in low bandwidth situations,
particularly for sensors and mobile devices on unreliable networks.
 AMQP
Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an open standard
messaging protocol that is used for message-oriented middleware. Most
notably, AMQP is implemented by Rabbit MQ.
 XMPP
The Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) was originally
designed for real-time human-to-human communication
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IOT NETWORKING CONSIDERATIONS AND CHALLENGES
When you consider which networking technologies to adopt with in your IoT
application, be mindful of the following constraints:
 Range
 Bandwidth
 Powerusage
 Intermittentconnectivity
 Interoperability
 Security
Range
Networks can be described the distances over which data is typically
transmitted by the IoT devices attached to the network.
PAN (PersonalAreaNetwork)
PAN is short - range, where distances can be measure diameters, such
as a wearable fitness tracker device that communicates with an app on a
cellphone over BLE.
LAN (LocalAreaNetwork)
LAN is short- to medium-range, where distances can be up to hundreds of
meters, such as home automation or sensors that are installed within a factory
production line that communicate over wifi with a gateway device that is installed
within the same building.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
MAN is long-range (city wide), where distances are measured up to a few
kilometers, such as smart parking sensors installed throughout a city that are
connected in a mesh network topology.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN is long-range, where distances can be measured in kilometers, such
as agricultural sensors that are installed across a large farm or ranch that are
used to monitor micro-climate environmental conditions across the property.Your
network should retrieve data from the IoT devices and transmit to its intended
destination.Select an network protocol that matches the range is required.For
example, do not choose BLE for a WAN application to operate over a range of
several kilometers. If transmitting data over the required range presents a
challenge, consider edge computing.
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 Bandwidth
Band width is the amount of data that can be transmitted per unit of time. It
limits the rate at which data can be collected from IoT devices and transmitted up
stream. Bandwidth is affected by many factors, which include:

 The volume of data each device gathers and transmits

 The number of devices deployed

 Whether data is being sent as a constant stream or in inter mitten
bursts, and if any peak periods are notable
The packet size of the networking protocol should match up with the
volume of data typically transmitted.It is in efficient to send packets added with
empty data.In contrast, there are overheads in splitting larger chunks of data up
across too many small packets.

Powerusage
Transmitting data from a device consumes power. Transmitting data over long
ranges requires more power than over a short range. You must consider the power
source such as a battery, or capacitor of a device and its total life-cycle.Along and
enduring life-cycle will not only provide greater reliability but reduce operating cost.
Steps may be taken to help achieve longer power supply life-cycle. For example, to
prolong the battery life, you can put the device into sleep mode whenever it is idle.
Intermittent connectivity
IoT devices aren’t always connected. In some cases, devices are designed to
connect periodically. However, sometimes an unreliable network might cause
devices to drop off due to connectivity issues. Designs should incorporate
intermittent connectivity and seek any available solutions to provide uninterrupted
service, should that be a critical factor for IoT landscape design.
Interoperability
Devices work with other devices, equipment, systems, and technology; they
are interoperable.With so many different devices connecting to the IoT,
interoperability can be a challenge. Adopting standard protocols has been a
traditional approach for maintaining interoperability on the Internet. Standards are
agreed upon by industry participants and avoid multiple different designs and
directions.With proper standards, and participants who agree to them, incompatibility
issues, hence interoperability issues may be avoided.
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Security
A security model that provides security features that include access control,
message integrity, message confidentiality, and replay protection, which are
implemented by technologies based on this standard such as ZigBee. Consider the
following factors in shaping a secure and safe IoT network
1. Authentication
Adopt secure protocols to support authentication for devices, gateways,
users, services, and applications. Consider using adopting the X.509 standard
for device authentication.

2. Encryption
If you are using wifi, use Wireless Protected Access 2 (WPA2) for wireless
network encryption. You may also adopt a Private Pre-Shared Key (PPSK)
approach. To ensure privacy and data integrity for communication between
applications, be sure to adopt TLS or Data gram Transport-Layer Security
(DTLS), which is based on TLS, but adapted for unreliable connections that run
over UDP. TLS encrypts application data and ensures its integrity.
3. Port protection
Port protection ensures that only the ports required for communication with
the gateway or up stream applications or services remain open to external
connections. All other ports should be disabled or protected by firewalls. Device
ports might be exposed when exploiting Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
vulnerabilities. Thus, UPnP should be disabled on the router.
The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture
In 2014 the IoTWF architectural committee (led by Cisco, IBM, Rockwell
Automation, and others) published a seven-layer IoT architectural reference
model. While various IoT reference models exist, the one put forth by the IoT
World Forum offers a clean, simplified perspective on IoT and includes edge
computing, data storage, and access.

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Figure1.3 The IoT Reference Model defines a set of levels with control flowing
from the center(this could be either a cloud service or a dedicated data center),
to the edge.
It provides a succinct way of visualizing IoT from a technical perspective. Each of
the seven layers is broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses
the entire model. Figure below details
The IoT Reference Model published by the IoT WF.which includes sensors,
devices, machines, and other types of intelligent end nodes. In general, data travels
up the stack, originating from the edge, and goes northbound to the center.
The following sections look more closely at each of the seven layers of the IoT
Reference Model.
Layer1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer
The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers
layer. This layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the
various endpoint devices and sensors that send and receive information. The size of
these “things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant machines in a
factory. Their primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried
and/or controlled over a network.
Layer2: Connectivity Layer
In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity.
The most important function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of
data. More specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the
network and between the network and in formation processing that occurs at Layer 3

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Layer3: Edge Computing Layer
Edge computing is the role of Layer3. Edge computing is often referred to as the
“fog” layer and is discussed in the section “Fog Computing,” later in this chapter. At
this layer, the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows into
information that is ready for storage and processing by higher layers.
One of the basic principles of this reference model is that information processing
is initiated as early and as close to the edge of the network as possible

M2MCommunication

Machine-to-machine communication, or M2M, is exactly as it sounds: two

machines “communicating,” or exchanging data, without human interfacing or
interaction. This includes serial connection, power line connection (PLC), or wireless
communications in the industrial Internet of Things (IoT).

Switching over to wireless has made M2M communication much easier and
enabled more applications to be connected.In general, when someone says M2M
communication, they often are referring to cellular communication for embedded
devices. Examples of M2M communication in this case would be vending machines
sending out inventory information or ATM machines getting authorization to dispense
cash

How M2M Works

As previously stated, machine-to-machine communication makes the Internet
of Things possible.According to Forbes, M2M is among the fastest-growing types of
connected device technologies in the market right now, largely because M2M
technologies can connect millions of devices within a single network. The range of
connected devices includes anything from vending machines to medical equipment
to vehicles to buildings.
Virtually anything that houses sensor or control technology can be connected
to some sort of wireless network. This sounds complex, but the driving thought
behind the idea is quite simple. Essentially, M2M networks are very similar to LAN or
WAN networks, but are exclusively used to allow machines, sensors, and controls, to
communicate. These devices feed information they collect back to other devices in
the network. This process allows a human (or an intelligent control unit) to assess
what is going on across the whole network and issue appropriate instructions to
member devices. 13
M2M Applications

MANUFACTURING
Every manufacturing environment whether it’s food processing or general
product manufacturing relies on technology to ensure costs are managed properly
and processes are executed efficiently. Automating manufacturing processes within
such a fast-paced environment is expected to improve processes even more. In the
manufacturing world, this could involve highly automated equipment maintenance
and safety procedures.

For example, M2M tools allow business owners to be alerted on their

smartphones when an important piece of equipment needs servicing, so they can
address issues as quickly as they arise. Sophisticated networks of sensors
connected to the Internet could even order replacement parts automatically.
1. HOME APPLIANCES
IoT already affects home appliance connectivity through plat forms like
Nest. However, M2M is expected to take home-based IoT to the next level.
Manufacturers like LG and Samsung are already slowly unveiling smart home
appliances to help ensure a higher quality of life for occupants.
For example, an M2M-capable washing machine could send alerts to the
owners’ smart devices once it finishes washing or drying, and a smart refrigerator
could automatically order groceries from Amazon once its inventory is depleted.
There are many more examples of home automation that can potentially improve
quality of life for residents, including systems that allow members of the house
hold to remotely control HVAC systems using their mobile devices. In situations
where a homeowner decides to leave work early, he or she could contact the
home heating system before leaving work to make sure the temperature at home
will be comfortable upon arrival.
2. HEALTH CARE DEVICE MANAGEMENT
One of the biggest opportunities for M2M technology is in the realm of
health care. With M2M technology, hospitals can automate processes to ensure
the highest levels of treatment. Using devices that can react faster than a human
healthcare professional in an emergency situation make this possible. For
instance, when a patient’s vital signs drop below normal, an M2M-connected life
support device could automatically administer oxygen and additional care until a
healthcare professional arrives on the scene.
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The Value Of M2M

Many big cell operators, like AT&T and Verizon, see this potential and are
rolling out their own M2M platforms. Intel, PTC, and Wipro are are all marketing
heavily in M2M and working to take advantage of this major industry growth
spurt. But there is still a great opportunity for new technology companies to
engage in highly automated solutions to help streamline processes in nearly any
type of industry.

However, as the cost of M2M communication continues to decrease,

companies must determine how they will create value for businesses and
customers. In our mind, the opportunity and value for M2M doesn’t lie in the
more traditional layers of the communication world.

Companies shouldn’t think about IoT or M2M for the sake of IoT or M2M.
Instead, they should focus on optimizing their business models or providing new
value for their customers. For example, if you’re a logistics company like FedEx
or UPS, you have obvious choices for automated logistics decisions made by
machines.

Architecture of IoT
Figure below has three layers, namely, the perception, network, and application
layers.
(i) The perception layer is the physical layer, which has sensors for sensing
and gathering information about the environment. It senses some physical
parameters or identifies other smart objects in the environment.
(ii) The network layer is responsible for connecting to other smart things,
network devices, and servers. Its features are also used for transmitting
and processing sensor data.
(iii) The application layer is responsible for delivering application specific
services to the user.

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 Figure 1.4 IoT Architecture

(i) The transport layer transfers the sensor data from the perception
layer to the processing layer and vice versa through networks such
as wireless,3G, LAN, Bluetooth, RFID, and NFC The processing
layer is also known as the middleware layer.
(ii) It stores, analyzes, and processes huge amounts of data that
comes from the transport layer. It can manage and provide a
diverse set of services to the lower layers. It employs many
technologies such as databases, cloud computing, and big data
processing modules.
(iii) The business layer manages the whole IoT system, including
applications, business and profit models, and users’ privacy. The
business layer is out of the scope of this paper. Hence, we do not
discuss it further.
Core IoT Functional Stack
The IoT network must be designed its unique requirements and constraints.
This section provides an overview of the full networking stack, from sensors all
the Way to the applications layer.
Access network sublayer:
The last mile of the IoT network is the access network. This is
typically made up of wireless technologies such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa.
The sensors connected to the access network may also be wired.

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 Gateways and back haul network sub layer:
A common communication system organizes multiple smart objects
Smart objects when necessary button make intelligent decision based on the
information collected and, in turn, instruct the “things” or other systems to adapt to
the analyzed conditions and change their behaviors or parameters. The following
sections examine these elements and help you architect your IoT communication
network.

Layer1: Things:Sensors and Actuators Layer

Most IoT networks start from the object, or “thing,” that needs to be
connected.From an architectural standpoint, the variety of smart object types,
shapes, and needs drive the variety of IoT protocols and architectures. There are
myriad ways to classify smart objects. One architectural classification could be:

 Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on

whether the object carries its own energy supply or receives continuous
power from an external power source. Battery- powered things can be moved
more easily than line- powered objects. However, batteries limit the lifetime
and amount of energy that the object is allowed to consume, thus driving
transmission range and frequency.
 Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should
move or always stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because
it is moved from one object to another (for example, a viscosity sensor moved
from batch to batch in a chemical plant) or because it is attached to a moving
object (for example, a location sensor on moving goods in a warehouse or
factory floor). The frequency of the movement may also vary, from occasional
to permanent. The range of mobility (from a few inches to miles away) often
drives the possible power source.
 Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often
the object should report monitored parameters. A rust sensor may report
values once a month. Amotion sensormay report acceleration
severalhundredtimes persecond. Higher frequencies drive higher energy
consumption, which may create constraints on the possible power source
(and therefore the object mobility) and the transmission range.

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  Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data
exchanged at each report cycle. A humidity sensor in a field may report a
simple daily index value (on a binary scale from 0 to 255), while an engine
sensor may report hundreds of parameters,from temperature to pressure,gas
velocity, compression speed,carbon index,and many others. Richer data
typically drives higher power consumption.
 Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the
gateway is located. For example, for your fitness band to communicate with
your phone, it needs to be located a few meters away at most. The
assumption is that your phone needs to be at visual distance for you to
consult the reported data on the phone screen. If the phone is far away, you
typically do not use it, and reporting data from the band to the phone is not
necessary. By contrast, a moisture sensor in the asphalt of a road may need
to communicate with its reader several hundred meters or even kilometers
away.
 Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart
objects (with a similar need to communicate) over a given area, connected to
the same gateway. An oil pipeline may utilize a single sensor at key locations
every few miles. By contrast, telescopes like the SETI Colossus telescope at
the Whipple Observatory deploy hundreds,and sometimes thousands, of
mirrors over a small area, each with multiple gyroscopes, gravity, and
vibration sensors.

Layer2: Communications Network Layer

Once you have determined the influence of the smart object form
factor over its transmission capabilities (transmission range, data volume and
frequency, sensor density and mobility), you are ready to connect the object
and communicate. Compute and network assets used in IoT can be very
different from those in IT environments. The difference in the physical form
factors between devices used by IT and OT is obvious even to the most
casual of observers. What typically drives this is the physical environment in
which the devices are deployed. What may not be as inherently obvious,
however, is their operational differences. The operational differences must be
understood in order to apply the correct handling to secure the target assets.
Temperature variances are an easily understood metric.
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Access Network Sub layer: There is a direct relationship between the IoT
network technology you choose and the type of connectivity topology this
technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain number of
use cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how much data to
transport at what interval and over what distance).These use cases
determined the frequency band that was expected to be most suitable, the
frame structure matching the expected data pattern. As IoT continues to grow
exponentially, you will encounter a wide variety of applications and special
use cases. For each of them, an access technology will be required. IoT
sometimes reuses existing access technologies whose characteristics match
more or less closely the IoT use case requirements. Whereas some access
technologies were developed specifically for IoT use cases,others were not.
One key parameter determining the choice of access technology is the range
between the smart object and the information collector. Figure 2-9 lists some
access technologies you may encounter in the IoT world and the expected
transmission distances.

PAN (personal area network): of a few meters. This is the personal space
around a person. A common wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.

HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale,
common wireless technologies for IoT include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low
Energy (BLE).

NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The

term NAN is often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is
collected.

FAN(field area network): FAN typically refers to an outdoor area larger than
a single group of house units. The FAN is often seen as “open space” (and
therefore not secured and not controlled). A FAN is sometimes viewed as a
group of NANs, In most cases, the vertical context is clear enough to
determine the grouping hierarchy.

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LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common in
networking, and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when
standard networking technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are
used. Other networking classifications, such as MAN (metropolitan area
network, with a range of up to a few kilometers) and WAN (wide area network,
with a range of more than a few kilometers), are also commonly used.

Network Transport Sublayer:

The previous section describes a hierarchical communication
architecture in which a series of smart objects report to a gateway that
conveys the reported data over another medium and upto a central station.
However,practical implementations are often flexible ,with multiple
transversal communication paths. For example, consider the case of IoT for
the energy grid. Your house may have a meter that reports the energy
consumption to a gateway over a wireless technology. Other houses in your
neighborhood (NAN) make the same report, likely to one or several gateways.
The data to be transported is small and the interval is large (for example, four
times per hour), resulting in a low-mobility, low throughput type of data
structure, with transmission distances up to a mile. Several technologies
(such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4, or LPWA) can be used for this collection
segment. Other neighborhoods may also connect the same way, thus forming
a FAN.

IoT Network Management Sublayer

IP, TCP, and UDP bring connectivity to IoT networks. Upper-
layer protocols need to take care of data transmission between the smart
objects and other systems.
Multiple protocols have been leveraged or created to solve IoT
data communication problems. Some networks rely on a push model (that is,a
sensor reports at a regular interval or based on a local trigger), whereas
others rely on a pull model (that is, an application queries the sensor over the
network), and multiple hybrid approaches are also possible.

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Layer3: Applications and Analytics Layer
Once connected to a network, your smart objects exchange
information with other systems. As soon as your IoT network spans more than
a few sensors, the power of the Internet of Things appears in the applications
that make use of the information exchanged with the smart objects.
Analytics Versus Control Applications Multiple applications can
help increase the efficiency of an IoT network. Each application collects data
and provides a range of functions based on analyzing the collected data. It
can be difficult to compare the features offered.
From an architectural standpoint, one basic classification can be
as follows Analytics application: This type of application collects data from
multiple smart objects, processes the collected data, and displays information
resulting from the data that was processed. The display can be about any
aspect of the IoT network, from historical reports, statistics, or trends to
individual system states.
The important aspect is that the application processes the data
to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained from solely looking at
the information displayed by a single smart object. Control application: This
type of application controls the behavior of the smart object or the behavior of
an object related to the smart object. For example, a pressure sensor may be
connected to a pump.
A control application increases the pump speed when the
connected sensor detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very
useful for controlling complex aspects of an IoT network with a logic that
cannot be programmed inside a single IoT object, either because the
configured changes are too complex to fit into the local system or because the
configured changes rely on parameters that include elements outside the IoT
object.

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Fog Computing

Figure1.5 Fog Computing

The solution to the challenges mentioned in the previous section
is to distribute data management throughout the IoT system, as close to the
edge of the IP network as possible. The best-known embodiment of edge
services in IoT is fog computing. Any device with computing, storage, and
network connectivity can be a fog node. Examples include industrial
controllers, switches, routers, embedded servers, andIoT gateways. Analyzing
IoT data close to where it is collected minimizes latency inside the local
network.
Fog services are typically accomplished very close to the edge
device, sitting as close to the IoT endpoints as possible.One significant
advantage of this is that the fog node has contextual awareness of the
sensors it is managing because of its geographic proximity to those sensors.
For example, there might be a fog router on an oil derrick that is
monitoring all the sensor activity at that location. Because the fog node is able
to analyze information from all the sensors on that derrick, it can provide
contextual analysis of the messages it is receiving and may decide to send
back only the relevant information over the back haul network to the cloud.
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 The defining characteristic of fog computing areas follows:
Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog nodes as close
to the IoT endpoint as possible to deliver distributed computing.

Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the

services and applications targeted by the fog nodes demand widely
distributed deployments.

Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the
presence of a large number of IoT endpoints. For example, typical metering
deployments often see 3000 to 4000 nodes per gateway router, which also
functions as the fog computing node.

Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint: Although
it is possible to connect wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when
dealing with a large number of endpoints, and wireless access is the easiest
way to achieve such scale.

Use for real-time interactions: Important fog applications involve real-time

interactions rather than batch processing. Preprocessing of data in the fog
nodes allows upper-layer applications to perform batch processing on a
subset of the data.

Edge Computing
Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many industries, and efforts to
develop distributed applications and analytics tools are being introduced at an
accelerating pace.

Functional blocks of an IoT ecosystem

IoT don’t exist in a void. A lone sensor isn’t really good for anything, nor is a
bunch of them, for that matter, unless they are all connected to one another and to
platforms that generate data for further use. This is what we call an Internet of
Things(IoT) ecosystem – a broad network of connected and interdependent devices
and technologies that are applied by specialists towards a specific goal, such as the
creation of a smart city.

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 Obviously, there are limitless applications to the IoT and therefore we can
speak of endless coexisting IoT ecosystems. But if you boil what is happening in the
ecosystem down to the bare essentials, you will come up with a simple schema:
advice collects data and sends it across the network to a platform that aggregates
the data for future use by the agent. And so we have the key components to an IoT
ecosystem: devices, networks, platforms, and agents. Let’s discuss them in more
detail.

Figure1.6: Simplified block diagram of the basic building blocks of the IoT
Four things form basic building blocks of the IoT system –sensors,
processors, gateways, applications. Each of these nodes has to have its own
characteristics in order to form an useful IoT system.

Sensors, Actuators, Smart Objects and Connecting Smart Objects.

Sensors: These are devices that detect changes in the environment and convert
them into electrical signals. Examples include temperature sensors, motion sensors,
humidity sensors, and pressure sensors. Sensors are key to smart objects because
they provide real-time data that can be processed to make decisions or trigger
actions.
Actuators: These are components that carry out physical actions in response to
signals they receive. For example, motors, solenoids, and valves can be actuators.
In a smart system, actuators could adjust settings like opening a valve, turning on a
fan, or even adjusting a thermostat based on sensor data.
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 Smart Objects: These are physical objects embedded with sensors, actuators,
and other technology that allow them to collect data, communicate with other
devices, and perform automated actions. Examples include smart thermostats,
connected lights, and wearable health monitors. They can be controlled or monitored
remotely via applications or other systems.
Connecting Smart Objects: This refers to the network that links smart objects
together, often through the internet or other wireless communication methods.
Technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and LoRa are commonly used to connect
smart objects. By connecting them, smart objects can communicate with

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PART A:
1. Define IoT
2. Write evolutionary phase of IoT
3. Deine Bigdata
4. List the application of IoT
5. Mention two examples where Bigdata is generated in IoT systems.
6. Interpret the responsibilities of IT and OT in the IoT reference model .
7. Point out the challenges faced by Internet of Things.
8. Summarize the benefits of convergence of IT and OT as IoT
9. Difference between sensor and actuator
10. Define smart objects

PART B:
1. Summarize the evolutionary phases of the Internet.
2 Illustrate each layer of the oneM2M IoT standardized architecture with neat diagram.
3. Describe the seven layers of IoT Reference model designed by IoTWF.
4. Categorize the Alternative IoT Reference Models.
5. Describe the simplified IoT Architecture.
6. Draw and explain the expanded view of simplified IoT architecture.
7. Describe about components of Core IoT functional stack.
8. Write short notes on access technologies used in IoT.
9. Draw the layered structure of IoT data management and compute stack with fog layer.
10. Justify why fog layer is introduced in it. Also comment about Edge computing.

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