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Unit 4-Memory

The document provides an overview of various types of memory and storage systems in computing, including RAM, virtual memory, cache memory, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, optical memory, and RAID configurations. It explains concepts such as paging, segmentation, and the operation of different storage media, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, it details RAID levels and their respective functionalities for data storage and protection.

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Prachi Shinde
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12 views

Unit 4-Memory

The document provides an overview of various types of memory and storage systems in computing, including RAM, virtual memory, cache memory, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, optical memory, and RAID configurations. It explains concepts such as paging, segmentation, and the operation of different storage media, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, it details RAID levels and their respective functionalities for data storage and protection.

Uploaded by

Prachi Shinde
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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RAM has two types

1.Static RAM
2.Dynamic RAM – It has two types
Asynchronous and Synchronous DRAM

Difference between SDRAM and DDR-RAM

Virtual memory
• Virtual memory is a technique that provides an “illusion” of a large main
memory.
• It hides the real organization of main memory from the processes.
• The operating system uses a portion of the hard disk to emulate the computer’s
RAM.
• This increases the capacity of the main memory and facilitates multitasking.
How does virtual memory work?
• The working mechanism of virtual memory involves a process called
‘swapping’. data from the RAM is temporarily moved to the hard disk’s
storage space. This makes room for other data in the RAM. When the original
data is needed again, it is swapped back into the RAM. This swapping process
happens so quickly that users do not notice any delay.
What is paging?
• Paging is a storage mechanism used to retrieve processes from the secondary
storage into the main memory in the form of pages.
• The main idea is to divide each process in the form of pages.
• The main memory will also be divided in the form of frames.
One page of the process is to be stored in one of the frames of the memory

Example
• Let us consider the main memory size 16 Kb and the Frame size is 1 KB
therefore the main memory will be divided into the collection of 16 frames
of 1 KB each.
• There are 4 processes in the system that is P1, P2, P3, and P4 of 4 KB each.
• Each process is divided into pages of 1 KB each so that one page can be
stored in one frame
After some time P2 and P4 are moved to a waiting state after some time. Now, 8
frames become empty

Now 8 non-contiguous frames available in the memory paging provides the


flexibility of storing the process at different places.
What is Segmentation in OS?
• Segmentation divides memory into logical chunks called segments.
• Each segment has a unique identifier called a segment number.
• The segment number is used to locate the segment in memory.
• The operating system uses segment tables to store the information about
each segment.
Cache Memory
• The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU
are stored in the cache memory so that the processor can easily access that
data in a shorter time.
• Whenever the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache
memory.
• If the data is not found in cache memory, then the CPU moves into the
main memory.
• Cache memory is placed between the CPU and the main memory.

The basic operation of a cache memory is as follows:


 When the CPU needs to access memory, the cache is examined. If the word
is found in the cache, it is read from the fast memory.
 If the word addressed by the CPU is not found in the cache, the main
memory is accessed to read the word.
 A block of words one just accessed is then transferred from main memory
to cache memory. The block size may vary from one word (the one just
accessed) to about 16 words adjacent to the one just accessed.
 The performance of the cache memory is frequently measured in terms of
a quantity called hit ratio.
 When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in cache, it is said to
produce a hit.
 If the word is not found in the cache, it is in main memory and it counts as
a miss.
 The ratio of the number of hits divided by the total CPU references to
memory (hits plus misses) is the hit ratio.
Magnetic Disk
• Magnetic disk provides the bulk of secondary storage for modern computer
systems. Conceptually, disks are relatively simple. Each disk platter has a flat
circular shape, like a CD.
• Common platter range from 1.8 to 5.25 inches. The two surfaces of a platter
are covered with a magnetic material. We store information by recording it
magnetically on the platters.
• It is magnetically recorded and can be re-recorded over and over. Disks are
rotating platters with a mechanical arm that moves a read/write head between
the outer and inner edges of the platter's surface.

The disk surface is divided into concentric tracks (circles within circles). Tracks are
further divided into sectors, the sector which is typically 512 bytes, is the smallest
unit that can be read or write.
• No Removable Disk: is permanently mounted in a disc drive. Eg. Hard
disk in a personal computer
• Removable Disk: Can be removed and replaced with another disk. Such
a disk can be moved from one computer system to another. E.g. Floppy
disks
• Single Sided Disks: Magnetizable coating is applied to single side of the
platter.
• Double Sided Disks: Magnetizable coating is applied to both sides of the
platter.
• Single Platter: Single platter is present in disk.
• Multiple Platters: Some disk drives accommodate multiple platters
stacked vertically.

Magnetic Tape
• It was used as an early secondary storage medium. Although it is
relatively permanent and can hold large quantities of data, its access time
is slow in comparison to that of main memory.
• Tapes are used mainly for backup and as a medium for transferring
information from one system to another.
• Magnetic tape is generally consisting of a thin magnetizable coating
on a long and narrow strip of plastic used for recording audio or video
or for computer data storage.
• Tape recorders and video tape recorders are the Devices that record and
playback audio and video using magnetic tapes.
• A device which stores computer data on magnetic tape is called tape drive.

Advantages:
• Less expensive when storing large amount of data.
• Data stored permanently.
Disadvantages:
• The major drawback of tape is its sequential format. Locating a specific
record requires reading every record in front of it or searching for markers
that identify predefined partitions.
• Updating requires copying files from the original tape to a blank tape
(scratch tape) and adding the new data in between.
• Access time is slow in magnetic tape.

OPTICAL MEMORY
In optical memory , data is stored in optical form(CDROM or DVD)
CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory)
• CD-ROM is a compact disc that contains data accessible by a
computer.
• The CD can store more than 60 minutes of audio information on one side.
• It is low cost optical-disk for storage.
• Discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic, with a
thin layer of aluminum to make a reflective surface.
• The most common size of CD-ROM disc is 120 mm in diameter,
• CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including
games and multimedia applications.
• While the compact Disc format was originally designed for music storage
and playback, the format was later adapted to hold any form of binary data.
• Capacity: A standard 120mm CD ROM holds 650 to700MB data.

Advantages of CD-ROM:
• The optical disk together with the information stored on it can be mass
replicated inexpensively - unlike a magnetic disk.
• The optical disk is removable.
• It is highly reliable and efficient information storage system.
• It provides high capacity read only memory.
• It is light in weight & can be easily carried from one comp to another.
Disadvantages of CD-ROM:
• It is read-only and cannot be updated.
• It has an access time much longer than that of a magnetic disk
• Needs careful handling, because dust, finger prints, and crashes on reading
surface may affect.

Digital Versatile Disc –DVD


• DVD, also known as "Digital Versatile Disc" or "Digital Video Disc" is
an optimal disk storage media format.
• Its main uses are video and audio data storage.
• DVD's are of same dimension as CD's, as but more than six times as
much data storage capacity.
• DVD disks are more durable &portable than laser disc and more resistant
to scratches than CDs.
• Unlike floppy discs and videotapes, DVD discs are optimal media and
cannot be damaged by magnet fields. They are also less sensitive to
extreme temperature.
• The DVD's Greater Capacity
• Bits are packed more closely on DVD.
• The DVD ROM can be two sided whereas data is recorded on only one
side of a CD.

RAID
(Redundant array of independent disks) is a setup consisting of multiple disks for
data storage.
• They are linked together to prevent data loss and/or speed up
performance.
• Having multiple disks allows the employment of various techniques
like disk striping, disk mirroring, and parity.
• The following list explains the standard RAID levels (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6)

RAID 0 : Disk striping


• RAID 0- is based on data striping.
• Data is divided into multiple segments or blocks and each of those
blocks is stored on different disks.
• So, when the system wants to read that data, it can do so simultaneously
from all the disks and join them together, to reconstruct the entire data
stream.

RAID 1: Disk mirroring


• RAID 1 uses the concept of data mirroring.
• Data is mirrored or cloned to an identical set of disks so that if one of
the disks fails, the other one can be used.
• It improves read performance since different blocks of data can be
accessed from all the disks simultaneously

RAID 10: Disk mirroring and striping


• It is also called RAID 1+0, is a nested RAID level that combines disk
mirroring and striping.
• Data is spread across two or more drives, and multiple read/write heads
on the drives can access portions of the data simultaneously, resulting in
faster processing.
• Because it uses RAID 1, RAID 10 data is fully protected. If a disk
within the set fails or becomes unavailable, the mirror copy can take
over.
RAID 3: Parity disk
• RAID 3 uses a parity disk to store the parity information generated by a
RAID controller on a separate disk from the actual data disks instead of
striping it with the data.
• RAID 3 requires a minimum of three physical disks.

RAID 4: Parity disk and block-level striping


• RAID 4 uses a dedicated parity disk along with block-level striping
across disks to protect data.
• With RAID 4, the number of bits on multiple disks is added together,
and the total is kept on the separate parity disk.
• Those stored bits are used to help with data recovery when a drive fails.
RAID 5: Disk striping with parity
• RAID 5 uses disk striping with parity.
• Like other RAID levels that use striping, the data is spread across all
disks in the RAID set.
• The parity information needed to reconstruct the data in case of disk
failure is also spread diagonally across disks in the RAID set.
• RAID 5 is one of the most used RAID levels because it achieves a good
balance between performance and availability.
• RAID 5 requires at least three physical disks.

RAID 6: Disk striping with double parity


• RAID 6 increases reliability over RAID 5 by spreading parity data across
multiple disks and enabling I/O operations to overlap to improve
performance.
• RAID 6 uses two parity stripes, which enable two disk failures within the
RAID set before data is lost.
• RAID 6 enables data recovery during simultaneous drive failures, which is
more common with larger capacity drives with longer rebuild times.
• RAID 6 requires at least four drives.

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