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The smallest unit that can be written to or read from the disk is a sector. Once a read or write request has
been received by the disk unit, there is a delay involved until the required sector reaches the read/write
head. This is known as rotational latency, and on average is one half of the period of revolution. The
storage capacity of the disk is determined as (number of tracks * number of sectors * bytes per sector *
number of read/write heads). Thus, the data is stored as magnetized spots arranged in concentric circles
(tracks) on the disk. Each track is divided into sectors. The arrangement of tracks and sectors on a disk is
known as its 'format'.
High data rates demand that the disk rotates at a high speed (about 80,000 rpm). As the disk rotates
read/write heads move to the correct track and fetch the desired data. The storage capacity of a hard disk
can be Gigabytes (GB). i.e. thousands of Mega bytes of information.

Magnetic Tape
This recording medium contains a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic strip, used for recording
digital data. The tape itself is a strip of plastic, coated with a magnetic recording medium. Bits are recorded
as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks. Usually, seven or nine bits are recorded simultaneously
to form a character together with a parity bit. Read/write heads are mounted one in each track so that
data can be recorded and read as a sequence of characters.
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Floppy Disk

Magnetic Tape Reader

Data is stored in frames across the width of the tape. The frames are grouped into
blocks or records whichata is stored in frames across the width of Magnetic tape is a serial access
medium, similar to an which are separated from other blocks by gaps Meated. This characteristic
has prompted its use in the regular backing up of hard disks.

Floppy Disk
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The floppy drive uses a thin circular disk for data storage. It is a soft magnetic disk. It is a thin magnetic-
coated disk contained in a flexible or semi-rigid protective jacket. The disk rotates at 360rpm (Rotations
per minute). A read/write head makes physical contact with the disk surface. Data is recorded as a
series of tracks sub-divided into sectors. The floppy disks are usually 3.5" in size. However, older floppy
disks may be in use; these would be 5.25" in size or even 8" in size. A 3.5" floppy disk can hold 1.44 MB
of data. Once data is stored on a floppy disk it can be 'write protected' by clicking a tab on the disk. This
prevents any new data being stored or any old data being erased. Disk drives for floppy disks are called
floppy drives. Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity. It is less
expensive and is portable. It can be accessed randomly.

Optical Disk
Optical disks are the storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. The
optical disk is random access storage medium; information can be easily read from any point on the
disk. CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only Memory.

Compact Disk
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It is now possible to have CD-ROMs where tracks of information can be written on to them by the user.
These are called read/write CD-ROMs and these are becoming a popular and economical method of
storage.
Optical track
Optical track is a recording unit of data on the disc. The information stored on CD-ROM is arranged
according to certain rules, and is shaped like an "Optical track", called "light rail" in spiral shapes. The
data from the directory inside the CD-ROM (TOC, Table of Contents) is recorded in the starting address
of the number of consecutive logical sectors of an Optical track. The audio CD in a song is
corresponding to a light rail, therefore, there are many light rails. CD-ROM light rails are at most 99 in
number. The minimum length of each light rail is indicated by Time: 4 seconds, or 300 sectors. This
value is sometimes referred to as "threshold." Less than 4 seconds, light rail, if it cannot be used as
light rail, it might be a "bad Optical track". The depression part on the Optical track is called
information pit and the flat part is called land. Pit and land are used to record information. CD-R disc
has been pressed with spiral groove, known as the "pre-groove", instead the pit of optical track. When
burning, CD-R disc in a trench in an organic dye laser irradiation, the formation of bubbles, this is the
"pit". Bubbles, once formed, will not be able to restore the status quo, therefore, CD-R can only be
written once. These "pit" and "land" is the signal after "8-14 coded modulation" (EFM, Eight to
Fourteen Modulation), plus three interval code could access code to form inside the burning to disc.
This treatment can guarantee the accuracy of reading.
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Optical track
DVD Digital Video Dise, that is, "digital video disc." With the advances in optical disc technology, it
can not only store video program, but also store music, data, along with increased use, it will be this type
of CD-ROM referred to as "Digital Versatile Disc", and the English name is the Digital Versatile Disc. BLUE
ray disk
Blue-ray Disc, referred as BD. BD disc features are: It consists of a thickness of 1.1mm of the recording
layer and a thickness of only 0. Imm composite made of a transparent protective layer. The work of the
shorter wavelength light source, in the recording layer surface can be comparable with the operating
wavelength of fingerprints, with storage capacity.
Recording capacity : 23.3GB/25GB/27GB
Portable storage device
A portable storage devie (PSD) is a small hard drive designed to hold any kind of digital data. This is slightly
different from a portable media player, which stores and plays music and movies. Some are fixed size hard
drives of 256GB, 320GB, 500Gb, 1Tb, 2Tb etc. Newer units are expandable using 2.5" laptop hard drives,
allowing for an unlimited storage capacity, which is useful for video and images. When travelling, a
portable storage device may be a useful alternative to backing up or purging memory cards if a computer is
unavailable for downloading.
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HDD Flash Drive Secure Disk USB Floppy

Cache Memory

Cache memory
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The cache is a small amount of high-speed memory, present between the primary memory and CPU
(processor). There are two levels of cache memory L1 and L2, L1 cache memory will present inside the
CPU, whereas the L2 cache will be present on the mother board, cache memory holds the most recent
data/instructions. Usually with a memory cycle time comparable to the time required by the CPU to fetch
one instruction. The cache is usually filled from main memory when instructions or data are fetched into
the CPU. Often the main memory will supply a wider data word to the cache than the CPU requires, to fill
the cache more rapidly. The amount of information which replaces at one time in the cache is called the
line size for the cache. This is normally the width of the data bus between the cache memory and the
main memory. A wide line size for the cache means that several instruction or data words are loaded into
the cache at one time, providing a kind of perfecting for instructions or data.
COMPUTER MEMORY

Computer Memory :
Computer memory stores data and instructions required during the processing of data and
output results. It also relates to many devices that are responsible for storing data on a temporary or a
permanent basis.

Types of Memory Primary Memory

The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called main memory or internal memory or
primary memory.
The primary memory allows the computer to store data for immediate manipulation and to
keep track of what is currently being processed. It has limited storage capacity.
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Main memory is volatile in nature, it means that when the power is turned OFF, the contents of this
memory are lost forever.
Primary memory can be further classified in two types which are as follows :

1. Random Access Memory (RAM) It is also known as read/write memory, that allows CPU to read
as well as write data and instructions into it.
RAM is used for the temporary storage of input data, output data and intermediate results.
The two categories of RAM are as follows :
(i) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) It is made up of memory cells where each cell is composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.
DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information. DRAM is slower, less expensive and
occupies less space on the computer's motherboard.
(ii) Static RAM (SRAM) It retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory chip.
SRAM needs not be refreshed periodically. It uses multiple transistors for each memory cell. It does
not use capacitor. SRAM is often used cache memory due to its high speed. SRAM is more
expensive and faster than DRAM.
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2. Read Only Memory (ROM) It is also known as non-volatile memory or permane -nt storage. It does not
lose its contents when the power is switched OFF.
ROM can written data and instructions to it only one time. Once a ROM chip is programmed at the
time of manufacturing, it cannot be reprogrammed or rewri -tten. So, it has only read capability, not
write.
The three categories of ROM are as follows :
(i) Programmable ROM (PROM) It is also non-volatile in nature. Once a PROM has been programmed, its
content can never be changed. It is one-time programma
-ble device. This type of memory is found in video game consoles, mobile phones, implantable medical
devices and high definition multimedia interfaces.
(ii) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) It is similar to PROM, but it can be erased by exposure to
strong ultraviolet light, then rewritten. So, it is also known as Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM
(UVEPROM).
(iii) Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) It is similar to EPROM, but it can be erased
electrically, then rewritten electrically and the burning process is reversible by exposure to electric pulses.
It is the most flexible type of ROM and is now commonly used for holding BIOS.
Some Special Memories
Apart from above memories, there are also some other memories that help to primary memory, which
are as follows,
Cache Memory
It is a storage buffer that stores the data which is used more often, temporarily and makes it available to
CPU at a fast rate. Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU. It
increases the speed of processing.
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Flash Memory
It is a kind of semiconductor based non-volatile rewritable memory, used in digital camera, mobile phone,
printer, etc.
Virtual Mernory
It is a technique that allows the execution of processes that are not completely in main memory. One
major advantage of this memory is that programs can be larger than main memory.
Secondary Memory/Storage
This memory stores much larger amount of data and information for extended periods of time. Data in
secondary memory cannot be processed directly by the CPU, it must first be copied into primary memory,
i.e. RAM. It is the slower and cheaper form of memory than primary memory.
Secondary storage is used to store data and programs when they are not being processed. It is also
non-volatile in nature. Due to this, the data remain in the secondary storage as long as it is not overwritten
or deleted by the user. It is a permanent storage.
Secondary memory devices include following types of memory :
1. Magnetic Storage It is the manipulation of magnetic fields on a medium in order to record audio, video
or other data. It includes hard disk drive, floppy disk and magnetic tape, which are described below
(i) Hard Disk Drive (HDD) It is a non-volatile and random access digital data storage device. HDD is a data
storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using rotating disks (platters) coated
with magnetic material.
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All programs of a computer are installed in hard disk. It is a fixed disk, i.e. cannot be removed from the
drive. It consists of a spindle that holds non-magnetic flat circular disks called platters, which hold the
recorded data. Each platter requires two read/write heads, that are used to write and read inform-tion
from a platter.
All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move independently.
Tracks and Sectors

The information is recorded in bands, each band of information is called a track. Each platter has the same
number of tracks and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. The tracks are divided
into pie-shaped sections known as sectors.
(ii) Floppy Disk (Diskette) Floppy disk is round in shape and a thin plastic disk coated with iron oxide. It is
used to store data but it can store small amount of data and it is slower to access than hard disks.
Data is retrieved or recorded on the surface of the disk through a slot on the envelope. Floppy disk is
removable from the drive. Floppy disk is available in three sizes; 8 inch, 5 inch and 3 inch.
(iii) Magnetic Tape These tapes are made of a plastic film-type material coated with magnetic materials to
store data permanently. Data can be read as well as write. It is usually 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide and 500 m
to 1200 m long.
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Magnetic tapes hold the maximum data, which can be accessed sequentially. They are generally
used to store backup data or that type of data, which is not frequently used or to transfer data
from one system to another.
2. Optical Storage It is any storage type in which data is written and read with a laser. It includes
CD, DVD and Blu-ray disc, which are described below
(i) Compact Disc (CD) It is the most popular and the least expensive type of optical disc. A CD is
capable of being used as a data storage device alongwith storing of digital audio.
CD is categorised into three main types as follows :
CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory)
CD-R (Compact Disc- Recordable)
CD-RW (Compact Disc- Re-Writable)
(ii) Digital Video Disc (DVD) It is also known as Super Density Disc (SDD) or Digital Versatile Disc
(DVD). It is an optical disc storage device. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than CDs while having
the same dimensions.
Depending upon the disc type, DVD can store several gigabytes of data (4.7 GB-17.08 GB). DVDs are
primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or computer too.
They are not rewritable storage device.
•DVDs come in three varieties are as follows :
•DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc-Read Only Memory)
•DVD-R (DVD-Recordable)
•DVD-RW (DVD-Re-Writable)
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•DVD-RW (DVD-Re-Writable)
(iii) Blu-ray Disc It is an optical disc storage medium designed to re-capture the data normally in DVD format.
Blu-ray disc (BD) contains 25 GB (23.31 GB) per layer space. The name Blu-ray disc refers to the blue laser
used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than the longer-
wavelength red laser used in DVDs.
Blu-ray can hold almost 5 times more data than a single layer DVD.
The variations in the formats are as follows :
•BD-ROM (Read only)
•BD-R (Recordable)
•BD-RW (Rewritable)
•BD-RE (Rewritable)
3. Solid State Storage It is a type of storage technique that employs storage devices built using silicon
microchip based storage architecture. It includes pen/flash drive. memory card, which are described below

(i) Pen/Thumb Drive It is also known as flash drive. A flash drive is a data storage device that consists of flash
memory (key memory) with a portable USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically
removable, rewritable and much smaller than a floppy disk.
Today, flash drives are available in various storage capacities as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 4GB, 16GB upto 64 GB.
They are widely used as an easy and small medium to transfer and store the information from the
computers.
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(ii) Memory Cards These are the data storage devices in chip shaped. They are commonly used in many
electronic devices, including digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop, computers. They are small, re-
recordable, easily portable and very light weighted.
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Cloud Computing
It is a general term for anything that involves hosted services over the internet. The name comes from
the use of clouds as an abstraction for the complex infrastructure it contains in system diagrams.
It entrusts services with a user's data, software and computation over a network. It has considerable overlap
with Software as a Service (SaaS).
Types of Cloud Deployments
The three types of cloud deployments categorised based on an organisation's ability to manage
and secure assets are as follows
1. Public Cloud These are managed by third party which provides cloud services over the Internet to public.
They offer solutions for minimising IT infrastructure costs and act as a good option for handling peak loads
on the local infrastructure. A public cloud is meant to serve multiple users, not a single customer.
2. Private Cloud These are distributed systems that work on a private infrastruct-ure and providing the users
with dynamic provisioning of computing resources.
3. Hybrid Cloud It is heterogeneous distributed system resulted by combining facilities of public cloud and
private cloud. For this reason, they are also called heterogeneous clouds.
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Cloud Computing Services

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) It is a cloud computing model where virtualised infrastructure is offered
to and managed for business by external cloud providers. Some examples of the wide usage of laaS are
automated policy-driven operations such as backup, recovery, etc.
2. Software as a Service (SaaS) It is a method for delivering software applications over the Internet as per
the demand and on a subscription basis. Most common examples of SaaS are Microsoft Office 360, Oracle
CRM, Marketo, etc.
3. Platform as a Service (PaaS) It refers to the supply an on-demand environment for developing, testing,
delivering and managing software applications. Some key players offering PaaS are Bluemix, CloudBees,
Salesforce.com, etc.
Several Next Generation Memories :
•FeFET or FeRAM A next generation ferroelectric memory.
•Nanotube RAM In R & D for years, nanotube RAM is targeted to displace DRAM. Others are developing
carbon nanotubes and next generation memories on the same device.
•Phase Change Memory After shipping the first PCM devices, Intel is readying a new version. Others may
enter the PCM market.
•ReRAM Future versions are positioned for Al apps.
•Spin Orbit Torque-MRAM (SOT-MRAM) A next generation MRAM targeted to replace SRAM.
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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Programmer
Program can be defined as a set of instructions that need to be executed to accomplish a computing
task. A person who writes or performs the program is known as programmer.
Programmer uses some specific languages to write program which is known as programming languages,
e.g. C++, Java, etc.
Note Ada Lovelace is regarded as the world's first programmer.
Programming Language
It is a set of commands, instructions and other syntax use to create a software program. Programming
language must be simple, easy to learn and use. It must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.
Programming languages are mainly categorised into three parts, which are as follows
Low Level Language (LLL)
These programming languages are more difficult to understand. It is designed to operate and handle the
entire instruction set of a computer system directly which are generally used to write the system software.
There are two types of low level language, which are as follows :
1. Machine Language It is the only language understood by the computers. Sometimes, it referred to as
machine code or object code or binary language.
It is a collection of binary digits (0 or 1) or bits that the computer reads and interprets.
2. Assembly Language It is a low level programming language which is used as an interface with computer
hardwares.
It uses structured commands as substitutions for numbers, allowing humans to read the code easier than
looking at binary codes.
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Medium Level Language (MLL)
It serves as the bridge between raw hardware and programming layer of a computer system. It is designed
to improve the translated code before it is executed by the processor. e.g. C.
High Level Language (HLL)
It is an advanced computer programming language that is not limited to one computer, designed for a
specific job and is easier to understand.
The main advantages of high level languages over low level languages is that they are easier to read, write
and understand. e.g. BASIC, C, FORTRAN, Java, Python, etc.
Some High Level Languages and Their Application Area

Terms Related to Programming

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Program Documentation
It is a kind of documentation that gives a comprehensive procedural description of a program. It shows as to
how software is written. The program documentation describes what exactly a program does by mentioning
about the requirements of the input data and effect of performing a programming task.
OOP
OOP stands for Object Oriented Programmings in which programs are considered as a collection of objects.
Each object is nothing but an instance of a class.
De-Bugging
It is the process of locating and fixing or bypassing bugs (errors) in computer program code.
Language Translator
It converts programming language into machine language.
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The translated program is called the object code. Depending upon used programming languages, language
translator is divided into three categories, which are as follows
1. Assembler It converts a program written in assembly language into machine language. Assembly language
consists of mnemonic code, which are difficult to learn and are machine dependent.
2. Interpreter It converts a HLL program into machine language by converting it line-by-line. If there is any
error in any line, it stops the execution of the program immediately and reports to the user at the same
time.
Program execution cannot resume until the error is rectified by the user. Interpreter is very useful for
de-bugging and suitable for novice programmer. This is a slow process and consumes less memory space.
3. Compiler It converts HLL program into machine language, which can be understood by the processor. For
each high level language, the machine requires a separate compiler.
A compiler creates a unique object program, Le. if a source program is compiled, there is no need of
that source program because output can be obtained by executing that object program.
Compiler converts the entire HLL program in one go and reports all the errors of the program along with the
line numbers.

Generation of Languages :
The concept of language generations, sometimes called levels, is closely connected to the advances in
technology that brought about computer generations.
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The five generations of language are as follows :
(i) The first generation languages or 1 GLs are low level languages like machine language.
(ii) The second generation languages or 2 GLs are also low level languages that generally consist of assembly
language.
(iii) The third generation languages or 3 GLs are high level languages such as Java.
(iv) The fourth generation languages or 4 GLs are the languages that consist of statements similar to the
statements of human language.
4 GLs are commonly used in database programming and scripting programming.
(v) The fifth generation languages or 5 GLs are programming languages that contain visual tools, which help
to develop a program. A good example of 5 GLs is Visual Basic.
Algorithm
An algorithm is a step-by-step method of solving a problem. It is commonly used for data processing,
calculation and other related computer and mathematical operations.

Flow Chart
A flow chart is a visual representation of the sequence of steps and decisions needed to performa process.
Each step in the sequence is noted within a diagram shape. Steps are linked by connecting lines and
directional arrows.

Error
An error in a program is called bug. It is a term used to describe any issue that arises unexpectedly that
cause a computers not function properly.
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Types of Error :
The types of error are classified into four categories which are as follows
1. Syntax Error When the rules of the programming language are not followed, the compiler will show
syntax error.
2. Semantic Error Semantic errors are reported by the compiler when the statements written in the
program are not meaningful to the compiler.
3. Logical Error Logical errors are those errors that occur in the output of the program. The presence of
logical errors leads to undesired or incorrect output.
4. Runtime Error Runtime errors are those errors that occur during the execution of a program. It
generally occurs due to some illegal operation performed in the program.
GENERAL AWARENESS ABOUT INTERNET
Introduction to the Internet
Today, almost every person is affected by the Internet, directly or indirectly. Millions of people use the
Internet to share information as well as ideas and search for information on any topic. All these
activities are possible because tens of thousands of computer networks are connected to the Internet.
The Internet is an interconnection of a large number of computers from different computer networks
spread across the world. It is a global network of computer networks.
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Internet is a global network of networks

In this chapter, we will learn about some Internet-related terminologies and certain sets of rules that are
followed in providing and using Internet services.
INTERNET TERMINOLOGY
The Internet is a very complex structure which involves a variety of tools and technologies. To
understand the core of the Internet, it is necessary to be familiar with the key terms used in relation to the
Internet. Some of the most important terms are discussed in the following sections.
World Wide Web
World Wide Web or WWW or simply the Web is an Internet-based network of servers that are
interconnected through hypertext. Hyper Text is a method of presenting information in which selection of a
highlighted text or item displays more information on a particular topic. These highlighted items, called
hyperlinks, allow the users to navigate from one document to another that may be located on the same or a
different server.
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Web Page
The World Wide Web comprises a large collection of documents called Web Pages. A Web Page is an
electronic document written in a computer language called Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). Each
web page has a unique address, called Uniform Resource Locator (URL), which identifies the location of
the web page on the network.
Website
A Website is a collection of one or many related web pages, images, videos, and other digital
assets hosted on web servers. Web pages on a website are linked together through a system of
hyperlinks, enabling a user to navigate between them by clicking on the hyperlinks.

Home Page
The first web page of a website is called its Home Page. A company or an individual tells you how
to get to their website (having one or many web pages) by giving you the address of their first web
page- the home page. Like the table of contents of a book or a magazine, the home page gives an
overview of what you will find on the website. From the home page of a website, you can go to all the
other pages of that particular site. For example, the website for Google has the home page address
http:// www.google.com The hyperlinks placed on the home page lead to other related pages on the
website.
A website, at its most complex level, may consist of thousands of files, spread over many
servers located at different parts of the world. If there is not much information to show on a website, its
home page may be the only page on it. However, usually, websites consist two or more pages.
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Web pages of a particular website may vary widely in design and content, but very often they use a
traditional magazine format. At the top of the page is a graphic banner followed by a list of items
similar to the contents page of a magazine, usually with a brief description for each item. The items in
the list usually link to other pages on the same website or to other websites. These links generally
appear in the form of highlighted words either in the body of the text, or arranged in a list-like index,
or both. A web page may also contain images hyperlinked to other contents.
Web Browser
To surf the Web, one needs a web browser. A Web Browser is a program that enables a user to
access and interact with text, images, sound, and other information located on a web page of a
website on the World Wide Web.
A web browser is a special communication program that reads and interprets HTML
documents. Text or images on a web page contain hyperlinks. Web browsers enable a user to access
information provided on web pages on websites quickly and easily by traversing these hyperlinks.

Some popular web browsers available to us are:

•Microsoft Internet Explorer
•Mozilla Firefox
•Opera
•Google Chrome
•Apple Safari
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Web Server
A Web Server is a computer program installed on a networked computer that serves requested
HTML pages or files. A Web Client is the requesting program installed on the user's machine. In your
computer, the web browser, that you are using to access the Web, is the requesting program. Therefore, a
web browser is a web client. Web servers and web clients are based on the client/server model. A web
client sends a request to a web server for a web page of a website hosted on the web server. The web
server sends the requested file to the requesting web client.
Every computer on the Internet that contains a website must have a web server program running
on it to serve the pages of the website. Some examples of web server programs are Apache, Microsoft's
IIS (Internet Information Server), and the Sun System's web server. Web servers often come as a part of a
larger package of Internet and Internet-related programs that also contain e-mail services, messaging
services, file transfer services, and services for designing and publishing web pages.
While choosing a web server, one must consider compatibility with the operating system and
other servers, its ability to handle server-side programming, security characteristics, search engines, and
site building tools that may come with it.
Blog
A blog is a type of website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of content on a
particular subject, description of events, graphics, or videos. A typical blog contains text, images, videos,
and links to other blogs/web pages related to the topic of the blog. Many people use a blog just to
organize their own thoughts. It is a place to collect and share things that one finds interesting. An
important feature of a blog is the facility it provides for readers to leave their comments in an interactive
format.
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The act of authoring a blog, maintaining a blog, or adding an article to an existing blog, is called blogging.
Individual articles on a blog are called blog posts or simply entries. A person who posts these entries is called
a blogger.
Newsgroup
A newsgroup is a discussion forum about a particular subject consisting of notes written to a central
Internet site and redistributed through a world-wide network of discussion groups.
A newsgroup is similar to an e-mail except that instead of sending a message to someone's mail box,
the message is posted on a bulletin board where anyone can read and respond to it. This facilitates a
discussion to take place among several people. A newsgroup may have multiple active discussions going on
at a given time. These discussions happen as threads and groups of related articles that generally have the
same subject line.
HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
The information on websites is specially coded using the Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). It is a
language that has revolutionized the presentation of information and data on the World Wide Web,
providing a user-friendly experie
-nce. Let us understand what each letter in the acronym HTML stands for.

HyperText (HT) refers to an ordinary text that has some additional features such as formatting images,
inserting multimedia, and links to other documents.
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Markup (M) is the process of adding extra symbols and tags to an ordinary piece of text. Each of the symbols
and tags used for markup in HTML is actually a command that tells the browser how to display the text.
Language (L) denotes that HTML is a computer language. It has well defined syntax, terminology, and rules
for proper usages.
Publishing a web page
Publishing a Web page refers to the transfer of a web page to a computer or a site on the Internet from
where it can be served by a web server, so that people all over the world may access and read it. Till the
time a web page is not transferred to a web server, it remains as a local HTML file or document.
Web address
The Internet has millions of computers attached to it. In order to communicate, every computer connected
to the Internet needs to have a unique address whose format is defined by the Internet Protocol (IP)
addressing system. Each computer on the network is called a host. Every host computer has a unique name
and a number that identifies it. The IP addressing system uses two methods for identifying hosts. They are
described ahead.
Letter Addressing System
The web address of any computer or a network can be expressed using letters of the alphabet of a language,
such as English, Chinese, and Hindi. This is called the letter addressing system. It is also popularly known as
the Domain Name System (DNS). Some examples of web addresses in the letter addressing system are
cbse.nic.in, yahoo.com, hotmail.com, and oup.com.
The three letters that appear after the period at the end of the address provide information on the kind of
organization (commercial, government, educational, etc.) the address belongs to. Some of the abbreviations
used in the DNS are listed below:
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edu Educational institutions com Commercial organizations

org Non-profit organizations gov Government departments
net Networking organizations int International organizations
mil Military
The letter addressing system also uses country codes comprising of two letters. Examples of country codes
are listed below.
ca Canada jp Japan
in India uk United Kingdom
US United States of America au Australia
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Contact No: 9164209164
E-mail address
We all know that it takes days to send a letter across a country and weeks around the world. In
order to save on time and money, electronic mail (e-mail) has been used for quite some time
now. This is one of the most widely used applications on the Internet.
An Electronic mail or E-mail is an electronic message sent/received from one computer to
another. It is fast and easy to use. You can send messages composed of text, pictures, and sound
across the globe.

Ray Tomlinson is generally recognized as sending the first electronic mail,

between two different computers on the ARPANET, in 1971.
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Contact No: 9164209164

The first thing you need to have in order to send or receive an e-mail is an e-mail address. An e-mail
address identifies a location to which e-mail messages can be delivered. The username, combined with
the computer's unique fully qualified domain name, provides the user's unique e-mail address.
An e-mail address typically has the following format:
user name
@
host name
.
Domain name

user name is unique for every e-mail address on a host in a given domain.
host name is the e-mail server's host name.
domain name is the name of the domain in which the e-mail server lies.

The at or at the rate symbol (@) joins the user name and the host name, whereas, a period or dot (.)
joins the host name with the domain name. For example, in the e-mail address alsan@gmail.com

alsan is the user name

gmail is the host name of the e-mail server
com is the domain name in which the e-mail server is located
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The user name, the host name, and the domain name may be compound words as well. For
example, in alsan.books@wmail.co.in
alsan.books is the user name
wmail is the host name of the e-mail server
co.in is the domain name

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is an address by which a document or a web page or any
addressable resource is identified on the Web. Just as every computer and network has a unique
address, every resource on the Web has a unique URL too to help locate it. A URL typically contains
the following information:
•The name of the service protocol that the resource is served by (HTTP, FTP, etc.).
•The website address (e.g., www.oup.com) where the resource lies.
•The Internet port number of the service (if this is omitted, the browser assumes a commonly
accepted default value).
•The location of the resource in the directory structure of the server.
•The name of the resource.
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The following is an outline of the most common form of a URL: http://www.mysite.com:123/path/abc.html
•http This is an Internet service protocol. It indicates the access rule to obtain the resource. It also
indicates the type of the server which will process the request. This is the part written before the colon and
the pair of forward-slashes. Other Internet service protocols include https and ftp.
•www.mysite.com This is the web address of the website on which the resource being addressed is
stored.
•123 This is the port number of the service where the server listens for an incoming request. This is an
optional part. If it is there, it is prefixed with a colon (:).
•path This is the directory where the resource being requested is located on the server.
•abc.html This is the resource (an HTML/web page) being addressed.
Resource Location
The forward slash after the host and port specifications indicates the end of the address and the
beginning of the specification for the file/resource to be accessed. The resource is specified by a path
relative to the root directory of the server. A resource can be addressed inside a server in two ways:
•Absolute URL is a fully qualified URL that specifies the exact location of a resource (file/directory) residing
on the Internet. An absolute URL is independent of location where it is referenced. For ex:
http://www.alsan.com/images/book.gif specifies the image file book.gif located in the images directory on
the www.alsan.com website. You write this URL anywhere, it will always refer to this resource.
•Relative URL is a partially qualified URL. It specifies a resource (file/directory) on the Internet whose
location is relative to a specified file/directory. The resource this URL refers to depends on where this URL is
written.
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Suppose we want to include the image file book.gif stored in the images directory of website www.
alsan.com on the web pages named first.htm and second.htm.
Let us suppose that the file book.gif is located as shown in the diagram given alongside. The
website may have many directories but only two of them-design and images-are shown here for
simplicity.

To access book.gif file from first.htm page using a relative URL, we put ../images/book.gif in the
src attribute. We, thus, instruct the browser to first go to the directory one level up (i.e., ../ which indicates
parent directory) and then move to the images directory and pick up the file book.gif.
The two periods (..) instruct the server to move up one directory (which is, here, the root directory), then
to the images directory (/images) and finally point at book.gif. This provides an easy way to build sets of
hypertext documents. If sets of hypertext documents are in the same directory, they can be referred to
(through a hyperlink) by just their filenames.
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Thus, in the page first.htm:

•Absolute address: "http://www.alsan.com/Images/book.gif"
•Relative address: "../Images/book.gif"
and in the page second.htm:
•Absolute address: "http://www.alsan.com/Images/book.gif"
•Relative address: "../../Images/book.gif"
The absolute address of the resource book.gif does not change no matter where you write it. But its relative
address depends on its relative position with respect to the page.
Downloading Files
Downloading files refers to transferring files from a remote computer to a local computer. From the
Internet client's/user's point of view, to download a file is to request it from another computer (or from a
web page on another computer) and then receive or retrieve it.

Uploading Files
Uploading files refers to transferring files from a local computer to a remote computer. From an
Internet user's point of view, uploading is sending a file to computer that is set-up to receive it from a local
computer. An attachment file in an e-mail is uploaded to the e-mail server.
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Contact No: 9164209164

INTERNET PROTOCOLS
You already know that the Internet is a network of tens of thousands of computer
networks. They all may use different hardware and software. Communication among these different
computers and computer networks is not possible unless they all follow the same rules throughout. A
protocol is a se of rules that computers need to follow to communicate meaningfully with each other.
Thus, two computers, despite having different hardware and running different operating systems, can
communicate if they follow the same protocol.

TCP/IP
Two protocols that are commonly used on the Internet are Internet Protocol (IP) and Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). You will often see these mentioned together as TCP/IP, especially when references are made
to the software needed to establish an Internet connection.
TCP/IP works on the principle of packet-switching. When data is passed from one computer system
to another, it is broken up into pieces called packets using TCP. Each packet contains 1500 bytes (or
characters). IP adds the IP addresses of the sender computer and that of the destination computer along
with other relevant information to each packet.