DIGITAL LOGIC

DESIGN
•Lecture#1
Digital Logic Design
Recommended Text Book
Digital Logic Design
By
M. Morris Mano
(2nd Edition)
Course Description
• This course presents the basic tools for
the design of digital circuits and provides
methods and procedures suitable for a
variety of digital design applications.
 Why is it named ‘digital’?
• Early computers were used mainly to
perform numeric computations
• They used discrete elements of
information: digits
• DIGITAL SYSTEMS: manipulate discrete
elements of information (finite sets)
• E.g. the 10 decimal digits, the 26 letters of
the alphabet, 64 squares of chess board)
TODAY
• Computers are used in a variety of
applications such as scientific calculations,
commercial, and business data
processing, air traffic controls, space
guidance, educational field among others.
• Digital computers have made possible
many scientific, industrial, and commercial
advances that would have been
unattainable otherwise.
 Digital Computers and Digital Systems

Computers can follow a sequence of instruction

called program, that operates on given data.

General-purpose digital computer is the best-

known example of a digital system.
Others are:
– Telephone switching exchanges, digital
voltmeters, digital counters, electronic
calculators, and digital displays.
Digital Computers and Digital Systems

Introduction:
Characteristic of a Digital system is its
manipulation of discrete elements of information.

Such discrete elements maybe:

electric impulses, decimal digits, letters of an
alphabet, arithmetic operations, punctuation
marks, or any set of meaningful meanings.
 Digital Computers and Digital Systems

Discrete elements of information are represented in a

digital system by physical quantities called SIGNALS.

Voltages and currents are the most common

electrical signals.

Signals in the present day of electronic digital

systems have only two discrete values and
are said to be BINARY.
 Beyond the digital computer…
• Digital devices (camcorders, DVDs, TV, phones,
microprocessor-based devices)

Why Digital Circuits?

• Digital devices are programmable – by simply
changing the program the same hardware can be
used for different applications
• Advances in digital integrated circuits technology
– accuracy, reliability (DVD)
• Digital systems are interconnections of digital
modules
 Digital circuits
• What digital modules in digital systems are
made of
• Each digital circuit implements a logical function
• Combination of digital circuits form a more complex logical
function (of the module)
• Combinations of modules – function of devices
• We will study different types of digital circuits
and learn to analyze their functionality and
ultimately how to design digital circuits that
accomplish a desired logical function
Digital Computers and Digital Systems
Control Unit Processor, or
Arithmetic Unit

Storage, or
Memory Unit

Input Output
Devices Devices
and and
Figure 1.1 Control Control
Block diagram of a digital computer
 How does a computer work?
• Memory unit:
– Stores program as well as input, output, and
the intermediate data.

• Processor unit:
– Performs the arithmetic and other data
processing tasks as specified by a program
 How does a computer work?
• Control unit:
– Supervises the flow of information between the
various units
– It retrieves the instructions, one by one, from the
program that is stored in the memory
– For each instruction, the control unit informs the
processor to execute the operation specified by
the instructions & the processor manipulates the
data as specified by the program.
 How does a computer work?
• The program and data prepared by the
user are transferred into the memory unit
by means of the input device such as
keyboard

• Output device such as printer receives

the results of the computations & printed
results are presented to the user.
DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

•Lecture#
2
 DECIMAL NUMBERS
Decimal
Decimal number 7392 is represented by: 7 x 103+
3 x 102 + 9 x 101 + 2 x 100

Represented in series of coefficients:

a5a4a3a2a1a0.a-1a-2a-3
 DECIMAL NUMBERS
Decimal
The aj coefficients are one of the ten digits (0, 1, 2,
…,9)
105a5 + 104a4 + 103a3 + 102a2 + 101a1 + 100a0 + + 10-1a-1+
10-2a-2 + 10-3a-3

The decimal number system is said to be of base, or

radix, 10 because it uses ten digits and the
coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10.
 BINARY NUMBERS
• The binary system is different with the decimal system
having only two possible values: 0 and 1.

• Each coefficient aj is multiplied by 2j.

• For example: 11010.11 is 26.75 in decimals, shown from

the multiplication of the coefficients by powers of 2:

• 1x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 1x2-2 = 26.75

 Binary Numbers
• In general, a number expressed in base-r
system has coefficients multiplied by
powers of r:
• The coefficients aj range in value from 0 to
r - 1.
• Example: (4021.2)5 = 4x53 + 0x52 +2x51 +
1x50 +2x5-1 = (511.4)10
• Note that coefficients for base 5 can be
only 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
 Binary Numbers
• For hexadecimal, the letters of the
alphabet are use to supplement the ten
decimal digits when the base of the
number is greater than 10.

• Letters A, B, C, D, E and F are used for

digits 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively.
 Binary Numbers
As an example:
(B65F)16 = 11 x 163 + 6 x 162 + 5 x 16 + 15

• Arithmetic operations with numbers in base r

follow the same rules as for decimal numbers.

• When other than the familiar base 10 is used,

one must be careful to use only the r allowable
digits.
 Addition and Multiplication of
Binary
Addition:
Augend: 101101
Addend: 100111
Sum: 1010100
 Addition and Multiplication of
Binary
Subtraction:

Minuend: 101101
Subtrahend: 100111
Difference: 000110
 Addition and Multiplication of
Binary
Multiplication:
Multiplicand: 1011
Multiplier: x 101
1011
0000
1011
110111
 Number Base Conversions
• A binary number can be converted to a decimal
by forming the sum of the powers of 2 of those
coefficients whose value is 1.
Example:
(1010.011)2 = 23+ 21+ 2-2+ 2-3
= (10.375)10
• The binary number has four 1’s and the decimal
equivalent is found from the sum of four powers
of 2.
 Number Base Conversions
• The following is an example of Octal-to-
decimal conversion:
(630.4)8 = 6 x 82 + 3 x 8 + 4 x 8-1

• The conversion from decimal to binary or

to any other base-r system is more
convenient if the number is separated into
an integer part and a fraction part and the
conversion of each part done separately.
 Number Base Conversions
• Convert decimal 41 to binary.
– Follow these simple steps:
• To do this, divide 41 by 2 to give an integer quotient
of 20 and a remainder of ½.
• The quotient is again divided by 2 to give a new
quotient and remainder.
• This process is continued until the integer quotient
becomes 0.
(The process should be shown on the board)
 Number Base Conversions
• Convert decimal 153 to octal.
– Follow these simple steps:
• The required base r is 8.
• First, divide 153 by 8 to give an integer quotient of
19 and a remainder of 1.
• Then divide 19 by 8 to give a quotient of 2 and a
remainder of 3.
• Finally, 2 is divided by 8 to give a quotient of 0 and
a remainder of 2.
(Process continued on the board)
 Number Base Conversions
• Convert (0.513) to octal.
– 0.513 x 8 = 4.104
– 0.104 x 8 = 0.832
– 0.832 x 8 = 6.656
– 0.656 x 8 = 5.248
– 0.248 x 8 = 1.984
– 0.984 x 8 = 7.872
• The answer, to seven significant figures, is
obtained from the integer part of the products:
(0.513)10 = (0.406517…)8
 Number Base Conversions
• Convert (0.6875)10 to binary.
INTEGER FRACTION COEFFICIENTS

– 0.6875 x 2 = 1 + 0.3750 a-1 = 1

– 0.3750 x 2 = 0 + 0.7500 a-2 = 0
– 0.7500 x 2 = 1 + 0.5000 a-3 = 1
– 0.5000 x 2 = 1 + 0.0000 a-4 = 1
Answer: (0.6875)10 = (0.a-1a-2a-3a-4)2 = (0.1011)2
 OCTAL Numbers
• Conversion of binary to octal:
– 10110001101011.111100000110)2
– 10 110 001 101 011 . 111 100 000 110 =
2 6 1 5 3 7 4 0 6

– (26153.7460)8
 Hexadecimal Numbers
• Conversion of binary to octal:
– 10110001101011.111100000110)2
– 10 1100 0110 1011 . 1111 0010 =
2 C 6 B F 2

– (2C6B.F2)16
 COMPLEMENTS
• Complements are used in digital computers for
simplifying the subtraction operation and for
logical manipulation. There are two types of
complements for each base-r system:
• RADIX COMPLEMENT (or R’s Complement)
• DIMINISHED RADIX COMPLEMENT (or (R-1)’s
complement).
– Also, it could be the 2’s and 1’s complement for the
binary system.
– And, 10’s and 9’s complement for decimal numbers.
 COMPLEMENTS
• DIMINISHED RADIX Complement for DECIMAL
– Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r-1)’s
complement of N is defined as (rn – 1) – N.
– For decimal numbers, r = 10 and r – 1 = 9, so the 9’s
complement of N is (10n – 1) – N.
– 10n represents a number that consists of a single 1
followed by n 0’s.
– 10n – 1 is a number represented by n 9’s.
• For example, if n=4, we have 104 = 10,000 and 104 -1 = 9999
 COMPLEMENTS
• It follows that the 9’s complement of a
decimal number is obtained by
subtracting each digit from 9.
– Example:
• The 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999 –
546700 = 453299
• The 9’s complement of 012398 is 999999 –
012398 = 987601
 COMPLEMENTS
• For binary numbers, r = 2 and r – 1 = 1,
so the 1’s complement of N is (2n – 1) –
N.
• 2nis represented by a binary number
that consists of a 1 followed by n 0’s.
• 2n– 1 is a binary number represented
by n 1’s.
 COMPLEMENTS

• For example, if n = 4, we have 2 = (10,000) and

4
2
24– 1 = (1111)2.
• Thus the 1’s complement of a binary number is
obtained by subtracting each digit from 1.
• But when subtracting binary digits from 1, we can
have either 1 – 0 = 1 of 1 – 1 = 0, which causes
the bit to change from 0 to 1of from 1 to 0.
• Therefore, the 1’s complement of a binary number
is formed by changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s.
 COMPLEMENTS
• Example
– The 1’s complement of 1011000 is
0100111.
– The 1’s complement of 0101101 is
1010010.

The (r – 1)’s complement of octal or

hexadecimal numbers is obtained by
subtracting each digit from 7 or F (decimal
15), respectively.
 COMPLEMENTS
• RADIX Complement
– The r’s complement of an n-digit
number N in base r is defined as rn – N
for N = 0 and 0 for N=0.

– The r’s complement is obtained by

adding 1 to the (r – 1)’s complement
since rn – N = [(rn – 1) – N] + 1.
 COMPLEMENTS
• Example (Decimal)
–10’s complement of 012398 is
987602.
–10’s complement of 246700 is
753300.
 COMPLEMENTS

• Radix Complements
–Example for BINARY:
• The 2’s complement of 1101100 is
0010100.
• The 2’s complement of 0110111 is
1001001.
 COMPLEMENTS

• Subtraction with complements

– Similar to the subtraction done in
elementary, in this method, we
borrow a 1 from a higher
significant position when the
minuend digit is smaller than the
subtrahend digit.
Boolean Algebra
 Introduction
 1854: Logical algebra was published by George
Boole  known today as “Boolean Algebra”
 It’s a convenient way and systematic way of
expressing and analyzing the operation of
logic circuits.
 1938: Claude Shannon was the first to apply
Boole’s work to the analysis and design of logic
circuits.
 Boolean Operations & Expressions
 Variable – a symbol used to represent a logical
quantity.
 Complement – the inverse of a variable and
is indicated by a bar over the variable.
 Literal – a variable or the complement of
a variable.
 Boolean Addition
 Boolean addition is equivalent to the OR operation
0+0 = 0 0+1 = 1 1+0 = 1 1+1 = 1

 A sum term is produced by an OR operation with no

AND ops involved.
 i.e. A + B, A + B, A + B + C , A + B + C + D
 A sum term is equal to 1 when one or more of the literals in
the term are 1.
 A sum term is equal to 0 only if each of the literals is 0.
 Boolean Multiplication
 Boolean multiplication is equivalent to the AND
operation
0·0 = 0 0·1 = 0 1 ·0 = 0 1 ·1 = 1

 A product term is produced by an AND operation with no

OR ops involved.
 i.e. AB, AB , ABC , ABCD
 A product term is equal to 1 only if each of the literals in
the term is 1.
 A product term is equal to 0 when one or more of the literals
are 0.
Laws & Rules of Boolean Algebra
 The basic laws of Boolean algebra:
 The commutative laws
 The associative laws
 The distributive laws
 Commutative Laws
 The commutative law of addition for two
variables is written as: A+B = B+A
A
B A+B  B
A
B+A

 The commutative law of multiplication for

two variables is written as: AB = BA
A
B AB  B
A
B+A
 Associative Laws
 The associative law of addition for 3 variables
is written as: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C


A A A+B
A+(B+C)
B B
(A+B)+C
C B+C C

 The associative law of multiplication for 3 variables

is written as: A(BC) = (AB)C

A A AB
A(BC)
B B
(AB)C
C BC C
 Distributive Laws
 The distributive law is written for 3 variables as follows:
A(B+C) = AB + AC

B A AB
B+C
C

B
X
X A
A C AC

X=A(B+C) X=AB+AC
 Rules of Boolean Algebra

1.A+ 0 = A 7.A • A= A
2.A +1 = 1 8.A• A = 0
3.A • 0 = 0 9.A = A
4.A •1 = A 10.A + AB = A
5.A + A = A 11.A + AB = A + B
6.A + A = 1 12.(A + B)( A + C) = A + BC

A, B, and C can represent a single variable or a combination of

variables.
 Useful laws and theorems
Identity: A+0=A A•1=A
Null: A+1=1 A•0=0
• Idempotent: A+A=A A • A = A Involution: (A')' = A
• Complementarity:A + A' = 1 A • A' = 0
• Commutative: A+B=B+A A•B=B•A
• Associative: (A+B)+C=A+(B+C) (A•B)•C=A•(B•C)
• Distributive: A•(B+C)=(A•B)+(A•C) A+(B•C)=(A+B)•(A+C)
• Absorption: A+A•B=A A•(A+B)=A
• Absorption (#2): (A+B')•B=A•B (A•B')+B=A+B
 DeMorgan’s Theorems
 DeMorgan’s theorems provide mathematical
verification of:
•the equivalency of the NAND and negative-OR gates

•  the equivalency of the NOR and negative-AND gates.
 DeMorgan’s Theorems
 The complement of two NAND Negative-OR
more
or ANDed variables is
equivalent to the OR of
the complements of the
X•Y=X+Y
individual variables.

 The complement of two or NOR

more ORed variables is Negative-AND
equivalent to the AND of
the complements of the X+Y=X•Y
individual variables.
 DeMorgan’s Theorems (Exercises)
 Apply DeMorgan’s theorems to the expressions:

X•Y•Z
X + Y +Z
X+Y+Z
W•X•Y•Z
 DeMorgan’s Theorems (Exercises)
 Apply DeMorgan’s theorems to the expressions:

( A + B + C)D
ABC + DEF
AB + CD + EF

A + BC + D(E + F )
 Proving theorems
 Example 1: Prove the uniting theorem-- X•Y+X•Y'=X
Distributive X•Y+X•Y' = X•(Y+Y')
Complementarity = X•(1)
Identity =X

 Example 2: Prove the absorption theorem-- X+X•Y=X

Identity X+X•Y = (X•1)+(X•Y)
Distributive = X•(1+Y)
Null = X•(1)
Identity =X
 de Morgan’s Theorem
 Use de Morgan’s Theorem to find complements
 Example: F=(A+B)•(A’+C), so F’=(A’•B’)+(A•C’)

A B C F A B C F’
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Example of logic simplification
 Ex1: x+x’y = (x+x’) (x+y) distributive
=1.(x+y) complementary
=x+y
 Ex2: x(x’+y)= xx’+xy distributive
=0+xy complementary
=xy
 Ex3: xy+x’z+yz=xy+x’z+yz(x+x’) complementary
=xy+x’z+xyz+x’yz distributive
=xy(1+z)+x’z(1+y)
=xy+x’z Null
 One more example of logic
simplification
 Example:
Z = A'BC + AB'C' + AB'C + ABC' + ABC

= A'BC + AB'(C’ + C) + AB(C' + C) distributive

= A'BC + AB’ + AB complementary
= A'BC + A(B' + B) distributive
= A'BC + A complementary
= BC + A absorption #2 Duality

(X •Y')+Y=X+Y with X=BC and Y=A

 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
 Boolean algebra provides a concise way to
express the operation of a logic circuit
formed by a combination of logic gates
 so that the output can be determined for various
combinations of input values.
 Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit

 To derive the Boolean expression for a given

logic circuit, begin at the left-most inputs and
work toward the final output, writing the
expression for each gate.
C CD
D
B+CD
B

A(B+CD)
A
 Constructing a Truth Table for a
Logic Circuit
 Once the Boolean expression for a given logic
circuit has been determined, a truth table that
shows the output for all possible values of the
input variables can be developed.
 Let’s take the previous circuit as the example:
A(B+CD)
 There are four variables, hence 16 (24) combinations
of values are possible.
Constructing a Truth Table for a
Logic Circuit
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C D A(B+CD)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
 Boolean Expression
 Any logic circuit, no matter how complex, can be completely
described using the three basic Boolean operations: OR, AND,
NOT.
 Example: logic circuit with its Boolean expression
 Parentheses
(Often needed to establish precedence;
sometimes used optionally for clarity)
 How to interpret A•B+C?
 Is it A•B ORed with C ?
 Is it A ANDed with B+C ?
 Order of precedence for Boolean algebra: AND before OR. Parentheses make the expression
clearer, but they are not needed for the case on the preceding slide.
 Note that parentheses are needed here :
 Circuits Contains INVERTERs
 Whenever an INVERTER is present in a logic-circuit diagram, its output
expression is simply equal to the input expression with a bar over it.
More Examples
 Precedence
 First, perform all inversions of single terms
 Perform all operations with paretheses
 Perform an AND operation before an OR
operation unless parentheses indicate otherwise
 If an expression has a bar over it, perform
the operations inside the expression first and
then invert the result
Determining output level from a
diagra
m

H.W: Determine the output for the condition where all inputs are
LOW.
 Implementing Circuits From
Boolean Expressions
 When the operation of a circuit is defined by a
expression, we can draw a logic-circuit diagram directly from that
Boolean
expression.
 Example
 Draw the circuit diagram to implement the
expression
x = ( A + B ) ( B + C )
 Review Question
 Draw the circuit diagram that implements the
expression
x = ABC( A + D)

Using gates having no more than three inputs.

 NOR GATES GATES
AND NAND
 NOR Symbol, Equivalent Circuit, Truth Table
Example
 Example
 Determine the Boolean expression for a three-
input NOR gate followed by an INVERTER
 NAND Gate
 Symbol, Equivalent circuit, truth table
Example
 Example
 Implement the logic circuit that has the expression using only NOR and NAND
gates

x = AB
(
 C+ D
x = AB  C+
( )
)
D
 Example
 Determine the output level in last example for
A=B=C=1 and D=0
 Review Questions
 What is the only set of input conditions that
will produce a HIGH output from a three-
input NOR gate?
 Determine the output level in last example for
A=B=1, C=D=0
 Change the NOR gate at last example to a
NAND gate, and change the NAND to a NOR.
What is the new expression for x?
Canonical and Standard Forms
Minterms Maxterms
Canonical and Standard Forms
 Canonical and Standard Forms
 Sum of Minterms F= ∑(1,4,5,6,7)
 Product of Maxterms F= ∏(0,2,4,5)
Thank You…
Karnau
gh
What are Karnaugh Maps?
A simpler way †o handle mos† (bu† no†
all) jobs of mani ula†in logic functions.
 Karcaugh Advantages

• Minimization can be done more sys†ema†ically

• Much simpler †o find minimum solutions
• Easier †o see wha† is happening (graphical)

Almost always used instead

of boolean minimization.
 Gray Codes

• Gray code is a binary value encoding in which

adjacen† values only differ by one bi†

2-bi† Gray
Code
00
01
11
10
 Truth Table Adjacencies
A B
These are adjacent in a 9naycode sense -
0 0
†hey differ by 1 bi†
F = A’
We can apply XY + XY’ = X

A'B’ + A'B = A’(B'+B) A’(1) = A

O 0
F=B Some idea:

A'B + AB = B

Key idea: Problem:

Gray code adjacency allows use of Physical adjacency in †ruth †abIe does
simplification theorems not indicate gray code adjacency
 2-Variable Karnaugh

A=1, B=0
A-0, B—0

A-1, B-1
A-0, B-1

A differen† way †o draw a †ru†h †abIe: by folding i†

 Karnaugh
• In a K-map, physical adjacency does imply
gray code adjacency

A A
B 0 1 B 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
‹ 0 1

F =A’B’ + A'B = A’ F = A'B + AB B

 2-Variable Karnaugh
A B F
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
 2-Variable Karnaugh
A B F
A
0 0 1 0 1
B
0 1 1
0
1 0 0
1 1 0

,
 2-Variable Karnaugh
A B F
A
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1
1
1 0 0
1 1 0 1

,
 2-Variable Karnaugh
A B F
A
0 0 1 0 1
B
0 1 1
-0
1 0 0
1 1 0 *0

,
 2-Variable Karnaugh
A B F
A
0 0 1 0 1
B
0 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0

F = A'B’ + A'B = A’
,
 2-Variable Karnaugh
A B F
A
0 0 1 0 1
B
0 1 1
0
1 0 0
1 1 0 0

A= 0
,
F = A’
 Another Example
A B F A
0 0 0 B 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
F = A'B + AB’ + AB
(A'B + AB) + (AB’ + AB)
= A+ B
 Another Example

A B F A
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
A= 1
1 1 1
B=1

F = A+ B
 Yet Another Example

A B F A
0 0 1 B
0 11
10 1
111
F =1

Groups of more †han †wo 1's can be combined

 3-Variable Karnaugh Map Showing
Min†erm Locations
A
BC o 1
No†e †he order of 00
the B Cvariables:
01 •
00 ABC 101
01 11
11
10
10

ABC = 010
 3-Variable Karnaugh Map Showing
Min†erm Locations
A
BC 0 1
No†e †he order of 00 m0 m4
the B Cvariables:
01 m1 m5 •
00 ABC 101
01 11 m3 m7
11 10 m2 m6
10

ABC = 010
 Adjaceccies
• Adjacent squares differ by exactly one
variable
A
0

00 AB'C'
There is wrap around:
01 A'B’C AB'C t O p Ctnd bot†om rows are adJ•Ce n †

11 ABC

10 ABC'
 Truth Table to
Karnaugh
A B C F A
0 0 0 0 BC 0 1
0 0 1 0
oo 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 01 0 1
1 0 0 0 11 1 1
1 0 1 1
10 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
 Example
A
BC 0 1

« o o AB C+ABC = AC

01 0

11 1 1

0
A’BC+A'BC’ =A'B

F = A'B + AC
 Another Example
A
BC o
oo 0
01 1 0 AB’C’+ABC’ =AC'
A’B’C+A’BC = A'C
11 0
10 0 1

F = A'C + AC’ = A ⊕ C
 Min†erm Expression †o

F = σ m(1, 3, 4, 6 )

A A
BC 0 1 BC 0 1
00 m0 m4 00 0 1

01 m1 m5 01 1 0

11 m3 m7 11 1 0

10 m2 m6 10 0 1

Min†erms are †he 1’s, everything else is 0

Maxterm Expansion to

F = ς M( 0, 2, 5, 7 )

A A
0 1 BC 0 1
00 M0 M4 00 0 1
01 M1 M5 01 1 0

11 M3 M7 11 1 0

10 M2 M6 10 0 1

Max†erms are †he 0’s, everything else is 1

 Yet Another Example
2n 1's can be circled a† a †ime
A 1, 2, 4, 8, OK
BC 3 not OK

A’B’C’+AB’C’+A’B’C+AB’C = B’

AB’C+ABC = AC

F = B’ + AC

The larger the group of 1’s

†he simpler †he resul†ing Product term
 Boolean Algebra to Karnaugh

• Plo†: ab'c’ + be + a’
• A
• BC
Boolean Algebra to Karnaugh

Plo†: ab'c’ + be + a’
A
BC 0 1
00
01

11

10
Boolean Algebra to Karnaugh

Plo†: ab'c’ + bc + a’
A
BC 0 1
00 1
01

11 1 1
10
 Boolean Algebra to Karnaugh

• Plo†: ab'c’ + bc + a’

• BC
00

01

10
Boolean Algebra to Karnaugh

Plo†: ab'c’ + bc + a’
A
BC 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
Remaining
11 1 1
spaces are 0
10 1 0
Boolean Algebra to Karnaugh

Now minimize . .

A
BC
00 F = B'C’ + BC + A’
01

This is a simpler equation

10 †han we started with.

Do you see how we obtained it?

 Sum of Product Terms
The 3—variable map has 12 possible groups of 2 spaces

These become terms with 2 liberals

A A A
BC BC BC
00

01 01 01

11

10
 Sum of Product Terms
The 3—variable map has 6 possible groups of 4 spaces

These become terms with 1 literal

A A A
BC 1 BC
00 00

01 01

10
 4-Variable Karnaugh
AB
AB
CD 00 01 11 10 CD 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m4 m12 m8 00 0 0 0 1
01 1 1 1 1
01 m1 m5 m13 m9 AB'C’
11 m3 m7 m15 m11 1 1 1 1
10 m2 m6 m14 m10 1 0 0
D
A'BC
F = A'BC + AB'C’ + D

No†e †he row

and column orderings.

Required for adjacency

 Find a POS
Solution AB BC’

CD oo
00

01
C'D

F’ = C'D + BC’ + AB'CD’ AB'CD’

F (C+D’)(B’+C)(A’+B+C’+D)

Find solutions †o groups of O's †o find F

Inver† †o ge† F †hen use DeMorgan‘s
 Dealing With Don't Cares
Condition
F = σ m(1, 3, 7)+ σ d(0, 5) A
BC 0 1
00

01

11

10
 Dealing With Don't Cares
F = σ m(1, 3, 7) +σ d(0, 5)
A
BC 0 1

00 X

01 1 x
A’B’C+AB’C+A’BC+ABC C
11 1 1

10 0 0

F=G
Circle †he x's †ha† help ge† bigger groups of 1’s (or 0‘s if POS)
Don’t circle the x's that don't
 Solutions

Some Terminology
and
An Algorithm †o Find Them
 Prime ImpIicac†s
• A group of one or more 1's which are adjacent and can
be combined on a Karnaugh Map is called an implican†.

• The biggest group of 1's Which can be circled †o

cover a given 1 is called a prime implican†.
They are †he only impIican†s we care abou†.
 Prime ImpIicac†s
AB
CD 00 01 11 10 Prime Implican†s Non-prime ImpIican†s
00 0 0 0 1

01 0 0 1 1

11 0 1 1 1
10 0 1 1 1

Are †here any addi†ional prime impIican†s in †he map

thot are not shown aboveï'
 All The Prime Implicacts
AB
CD 00 01 11 10 Prime Implican†s
0 0 0 1
00
0 0 1 1
01
11 0 1 1 1

10 0 1 1 1

When looking for a minimal solution

only circle prime impIican†s...

A minimal solution will never contain

non-prime impIican†s
 Our topics
are

• NAND and NOR implementation

• Other two level implementation

 We will
discuss

• Basic logic gates implementation by

universal gates.
• Boolean function implementation by
universal gates.
• Wired Logic
• Non-degenerate forms
 NAND and NOR
implementation
In this topic we will discuss the following
things:
• Implementation of Basic gates using
Universal gate
• Implementation of Boolean functions
using Universal gates.
 Universal Gates

• A gate that can be used to create any logic

gate is called universal gate. Hence NAND
and NOR are universal gates.
• Any Boolean function can be created
using AND OR and NOT gates.
• AND OR and NOT gates can be
implemented using NAND and NOR gates.
 Implementation of NOT using NAND gate

A NAND gate with single input acts like a

NOT gate.
 Implementation of AND using NAND gate

As a NAND gate is the invert of AND so by

putting an inverter on the output of NAND
we can have AND gate.

AND gate NAND implementation of

AND gate
 Implementation of OR using NAND
gate

By putting additional inverters in the input

we can achieve an OR gate by a NAND gate
De Morgan's Law is the base of it.

OR gate NAND implementation

of OR gate
 Symbolic equivalance of NAND gate

By De Morgan's Law we can describe NAND

gate graphically by the following symbols:
 Two level implementation of NAND gate

The implementation of Boolean function with

NAND gate requires that the function be
simplified into sum of products form.

For example:
F = A.B + C.D + E
Above function implentation by NAND gate
 NOT gate implementation using NOR gate

A single input NOR gate acts like a NOT gate:

NOT gate NOR implementation of

NOT gate
 AND gate implementation using NOR gate

By De Morgan's theorem putting two extra

inverters in input we achieve AND gate by
NOR gate:

AND gate NOR implementation of

AND gate
 OR gate implementation using NOR gate

As NOR is the invert of OR gate so by

putting an inverter in the output of NOR we
get OR gate:

OR gate NOR implementation of

OR gate
By De Morgan's Law we can describe NOR
gate graphically Graphical equivalance
by the following symbols: of
NOR gate
 Two level implementation of NOR
gate
A two-level implementation with NOR gates
requires that the function be simplified
into product of sums form.
For example:
F = (AB' + A'B)(C + D')

Implementation using
NOR gate
 Our 2nd Topic is
Other Two Level Implementation

We will discuss the following things in this

topic:
• Wired Logic.
• Non-degenerate Form
 Other Two Level
Implementations

• NAND and NOR gates are widely used in the ICs.

• A few NAND or NOR gates allow the wire connection between t
outputs of two gates for specific functionality.
• This wire connection is called the “wired logic”.
 Wired Logic
gate
• A wired logic gate does not produce a
physical second level gate.

• It is a wire connection.

• For discussion we will assume the

following circuits as two level
implementation.
 Open collector TTL NAND
gate
• The most common example for AND wired logic
by NAND gate is open collector TTL NAND
gate.

• TTL stands for transistor-transistor logic.

• When open collector TTL NAND gate is tied

together it performs wired AND logic.

• AND gate is drawn with the lines going through

the center of the gate.
 Open collector TTL NAND
gate
• It means that wired AND gate is not a physical gate
but only a symbol to describe the functionality done
by the wired connection.

• The following logic implemented by circuit is called

AND-OR-Invert function.
F = (A.B).(C.D) = (A.B+C.D) = (A'+B').(C'+D')
Open collector TTL NAND
gate
 ECL
gate
• ECL stands for Emitter Coupled Logic

• The NOR outputs of the ECL gate are tied

together to perform a wired-OR function.

• The following logic implemented by the circuit is

called OR-AND-Invert function.
F = (A+B)'+(C+D)' = [(A+B).(C+D)]'
ECL
gate
 Non-degenrate form
• There are 16 possible combinations of two
level forms.

• 8 of these are degenrate form because

they degenrate to a single operation.

• The remaining 8 are non-degenrate forms.

 Non-degenrate form
• These forms are implemented in sum of products form or
product of sums form.
• The 8 nondegenrate forms are:
1.AND-OR 2.OR-AND
3.NAND-NAND 4.NOR-NOR
5.NOR-OR 6.NAND-AND
7.OR-NAND 8.AND-NOR
• The 1st gate listed in each of the forms
constitute first level while the 2nd gate
constitute the second level.
 AND-OR-Invert
implementation
• The two forms NAND-AND and AND-NOR
are equivalant.
• Both performs the AND-OR-Invert
function.
• AND-OR-Invert implementation requires
the expression in sum-of-products form.
• The following function is implemented:
F=(A.B+C.D+E)'
AND-OR-Invert
implementation
 OR-AND-Invert
implementation
• The OR-NAND and NOR-OR forms are
equivalant.
• Both performs OR-AND-Invert function.
• OR-AND-Invert implementation requires the
expression in product of sums form.
• The following function is implemented:
F=[(A+B).(C+D).E]'
OR-AND-Invert
implementation
Full Subtractor