Digital Logic

[CSC-151]
Nature of course: Theory + Lab

Text Book:

M. Morris Mao, "Logic & Computer Design Fundamentals",

Pearson Education.
Marks Division:
Full Marks: 60+20+20
Pass Marks: 24+8+8

Internal Marks Division [20 Marks]

1. Test Examination [2+2+2+2]
2. Attendance [5]
3. Class Activities/participation [5]
a. Presentations
b. Assignments
Practical Marks Division [20 Marks]
1. Practical Exam [10]
2. Report [5]
3. VIVA [5]

Note: Fail in any portion will cause NQ.

 Unit 1
Binary Systems
Contents:

• Digital Systems
• Binary Numbers
• Number base conversion
• Octal and hexadecimal numbers
• Binary Systems
• Integrated Circuits
Binary Systems:
Analog System
Analog systems process analog signals (continuous time signals) which
can take any value within a range, for example the output from a
speaker or a microphone.

Digital System
• Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited
number of values (discrete steps), usually just two values are used:
the positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V).
• Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift
registers and counters.
• The general purpose digital computer is a best known example of
digital system.
Working principle of generic digital computer:
Memory stores programs as well as input, output and intermediate
data. The data path performs arithmetic and other data-processing
operations as specified by the program. The control unit supervises
the flow of information between the various units. A data path, when
combined with the control unit, forms a component referred to as a
central processing unit, or CPU. The program and data prepared by
the user are transferred into memory by means of an input device
such as a keyboard. An output device, such as a CRT (cathode-ray
tube) monitor, displays the results of the computations and presents
them to the user.
Assignment I:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital System over Analog
System.
Difference between Analog System and Digital System.
Advantages of digital system:
• Have made possible many scientific, industrial, and commercial
advances that would have been unattainable otherwise.
• Less expensive
• More reliable
• Easy to manipulate
• Flexibility and Compatibility
• Information storage can be easier in digital computer systems than
in analog ones.
• New features can often be added to a digital system more easily too.
Disadvantages of digital system:
• Use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks,
thus producing more heat as well.
• Digital circuits are often fragile, in that if a single piece of digital
data is lost or misinterpreted, the meaning of large blocks of related
data can completely change.
• Quantization error during analog signal sampling.
Information Representation
Signals
 Information variables represented by physical quantities.
 For digital systems, the variables take on discrete values.
 Two level or binary values are the most prevalent values in digital
systems.
 Binary values are represented abstractly by:
• digits 0 and 1
• words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
• words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
• and words On and Off.
 Binary values are represented by values or ranges of values of
physical quantities
Number Systems

In general, a number in base r contains r digits, 0, l, 2... r- 1, and is

expressed as a power series in r with
the general form:
Number System
• Decimal
• Binary
• Octal
• Hexadecimal
Decimal Number System (Base-10 system)
Radix (r) = 10
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 10-1 = {0, 1, 2... 8, 9}

724.5 = 7 * 102 + 2 * 101 + 4 * 100 +5 * 10-1

Binary Number System (Base-2 system)
Radix (r) = 2
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 2-1 = {0, 1}
A binary numbers are expressed with a string of 1'sand 0's and,
possibly, a binary point within it. The
decimal equivalent of a binary number can be found by expanding the
number into a power series with
a base of 2.

Digits in a binary number are called bits (Binary digITs).

Octal Number System (Base-8 system)
Radix (r) = 8
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 8-1 = {0, 1, 2…6, 7}
Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16 system)
Radix (r) = 16
Symbols = 0 through r-1 = 0 through 16-1 = {0, 1, 2…9, A, B, C, D,
E, F}
16 symbols are used in hexadecimal, and the 16 symbols are the
hexadecimal digits. The hexa-decimal number system has a radix or
base 16. It requires 16 symbols to represent a number in this system.
The symbols are 0 to 9, A, B, C, D, E, F where the symbols A, B, C,
D, E, F represent the decimal numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
respectively.
Number Base Conversions
Case I: Base-r system to Decimal:
Base-r system can be binary (r=2), octal (r=8), hexadecimal (r=16).
For decimal system as destination of conversion, we just use power
series explained above with varying r and sum the result according to
the arithmetic rules of base-10 system.

Examples:
B6A16 = 11 × 162 + 6 × 161 + 10 × 160 = 2816 + 96 + 10 = 292210

2738 = 2 × 82 + 7 × 81 + 3 × 80 = 128 + 56 + 3 = 18710

Case II: Decimal to Base-r system:
Conversion follows following algorithm.
• Separate the number into integer and fraction parts if radix point
is given.
• Divide “Decimal Integer part” by base r repeatedly until quotient
becomes zero and storing remainders at each step.
• Multiply “Decimal Fraction part” successively by r and
accumulate the integer digits so obtained.
• Combine both accumulated results and parenthesize the whole
result with subscript r.
Example I:Decimal to Binary(Base 2) Conversion
Case III: Binary to octal & hexadecimal and vice-versa:
Conversion from and to binary, octal and hexadecimal representation
plays an important part in digital computers.
1. Convert the following to octal numbers:

(a) 11101011102 = 001110101110 = 001 110 101 110 = 16568

(b) 111101.011012 = 111101.0110102 = 75.328

2. Convert the following to their binary equivalents:

(a) 15738 = 001 101 111 011 = 11011110112

(b) 64.1758 = 110 100 . 001 111 101 = 110100.0011111012

3. Convert the following to hexa-decimal numbers:

(a) 11111011012 = 001111101101 = 0011 1110 1101 = 3ED16

(b) 11110.010112= 11110.010112 = 0001 1110 . 0101 1000 =

1E.5816

4. Convert the following to binary equivalents:

(a) A74816 = 1010 0111 0100 1000 = 10100111010010002

(b) BA2.23C16 = 1011 1010 0010 . 0010 0011 11002 =

101110100010.0010001111
Case IV: Octal to Hexadecimal and vice-versa:
First of all, convert to binary and then to required form.

15738 = 001101111011 = 0011 0111 1011 = 37B16

A74816 = 1010 0111 0100 1000 = 001 010 011 101 001 000 =
1235108
Basic Arithmetic of Binary Numbers

Decimal Addition Binary Addition

0+0=0 0+0= 0
0+1=1 0+1= 1
1+1=2 1+0= 1
1+2=3 1 + 1 = 10
1+3=4
1+4=5 When 1 is added to 1 in binary,
1+5=6 the sum is 0 with a carry 1, and
1+6=7 this carry is added to the sum
1+7=8 of the adjacent bits.
1+8=9
1 + 9 = 10
Signed and Unsigned Binary Numbers:
To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative
values. In an ordinary arithmetic, a negative number is indicated by a
minus sign and a positive number by a plus sign. Because of hardware
limitations, computers must represent everything with binary digits,
commonly referred to as bits. It is customary to represent the sign with
a bit placed in the leftmost position of the number. The convention is to
make the sign bit 0 for positive and 1 for negative. If the binary
number is signed, then the leftmost bit represents the sign and the rest
of the bits represent the number. If the binary number is assumed to be
unsigned, then the leftmost bit is the most significant bit of the number.
For example, the string of bits 01001 can be considered as 9 (unsigned
binary) or a +9 (signed binary) because the leftmost bit is 0. The string
of bits 11001 represent the binary equivalent of 25 when considered as
an unsigned number or as -9 when considered as a signed number
because of the 1 in the leftmost position, which designates negative, and
the other four bits, which represent binary 9.
The representation of the signed numbers in the last example is referred
to as the signed-magnitude convention.

As for signed-complement system

The signed-complement system can use either the l ’s or the 2 ’s
complement, but the 2’s complement is the most common.
As an example, consider the number 9 represented in binary with eight
bits. +9 is represented with a sign bit of 0 in the leftmost position
followed by the binary equivalent of 9 to give 00001001. Note that all
eight bits must have a value and, therefore, 0’s are inserted following
the sign bit up to the first 1. Although there is only one way to
represent +9, there are three different ways to represent -9 with eight
bits:
In signed-magnitude representation: 10001001
In signed-l’s-complement representation: 11110110
In signed-2’s-complement representation: 11110111
In signed-magnitude, -9 is obtained from +9 by changing the sign bit
in the leftmost position from 0 to 1.
In signed - l’s complement, -9 is obtained by complementing all the
bits of +9, including the sign bit.
The signed-2’s-complement representation, of -9 is obtained by taking
the 2’s complement of the positive number, including the sign bit.
Complements
Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the
subtraction operation and for logical manipulation. There are two
types of complements for each base-r system: r's complement and the
second as the (r - 1)'s complement.
When the value of the base r is substituted, the two types are referred
to as the 2's complement and 1's complement for binary numbers, the
10's complement and 9's complement for decimal numbers etc.
Subtraction with complements
The direct method of subtraction taught in elementary schools uses the
borrow concept. When subtraction is implemented with digital
hardware, this method is found to be less efficient than the method that
uses complements.
The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M - N in base-r can
be done as follows:
1. Add the minuend M to the r's complement of the subtrahend N.
This performs M + (rn –N) = M -N + rn
2. If M >= N, the sum will produce an end carry, rn, which is
discarded; what is left is the result M - N.
3. If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to
rn - (N - M), which is the r's complement of (N - M). To obtain the
answer in a familiar form, take the r's complement of the sum and
place a negative sign in front.
Binary Codes
Electronic digital systems use signals that have two distinct values and
circuit elements that have two stable states. There is a direct analogy
among binary signals, binary circuit elements, and binary digits. A
binary number of n digits, for example, may be represented by n binary
circuit elements, each having an output signal equivalent to a 0 or a 1.
Digital systems represent and manipulate not only binary numbers, but
also many other discrete elements of information. Any discrete element
of information distinct among a group of quantities can be represented
by a binary code. Binary codes play an important role in digital
computers. The codes must be in binary because computers can only
hold 1's and 0's.
1. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)(Also known as “8421”encoding)
The binary number system is the most natural system for a computer,
but people are accustomed to the decimal system. So, to resolve this
difference, computer uses decimals in coded form which the hardware
understands. A binary code that distinguishes among 10 elements of
decimal digits must contain at least four bits. Numerous different
binary codes can be obtained by arranging four bits into 10 distinct
combinations. The code most commonly used for the decimal digits is
the straightforward binary assignment listed in the table below. This is
called binary-coded decimal and is commonly referred to as BCD.
BCD codes are used where the decimal information is directly
transferred into or out of a digital system. Electronic calculators, digital
voltmeters, digital clocks etc. work with BCD numbers. BCD codes
have also been used in early computers, but modern computers do not
use BCD numbers, due to their complexity in forming complements
and calculations.
2. Error-Detection codes
Binary information can be transmitted from one location to another by
electric wires or other communication medium. Any external noise
introduced into the physical communication medium may change
some of the bits from 0 to 1 or vice versa. The purpose of an error-
detection code is to detect such bit-reversal errors. One of the most
common ways to achieve error detection is by means of a parity bit. A
parity bit is the extra bit included to make the total number of 1's in
the resulting code word either even or odd. A message of 4-bits and a
parity bit P are shown in the table below:
3. Gray code (Reflected code)
It is a binary coding scheme used to represent digits generated from a
mechanical sensor that may be prone to error. Used in telegraphy in the
late 1800s, and also known as "reflected binary code”. Gray code was
patented by Bell Labs researcher Frank Gray in 1947. In Gray code,
there is only one bit location different between two successive
values, which makes mechanical transitions from one digit to the next
less error prone.
The Gray code is used in applications where the normal sequence of
binary numbers may produce an error or ambiguity during the
transition from one number to the next. If binary numbers are used, a
change from 0111 to 1000 may produce an intermediate erroneous
number 1001 if the rightmost bit takes more time to change than the
other three bits. The Gray code eliminates this problem since only one
bit changes in value during any transition between two numbers.
The following chart shows normal binary representations from 0 to
15 and the corresponding Gray code.
Binary to Gray Code Conversion:
1. MSB in Gray Code is same as MSB in Binary Number.
2. Going from left to right, add each adjacent pair of Binary code bits
to get the next Gray code bit.(Discard Carries)

Eg:
10110 Binary No. to Gray Code
1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 Binary Number

1 1 1 0 1 Gray Code

Thus, Gray Code is 11101.

Gray Code to Binary Conversion:
1. MSB in Binary Number is same as MSB in Gray Code.
2. Add each binary code bit generated to the Gray Code bit in the
next adjacent position.(Discard Carries).

Eg:
Gray Code 11101 to Binary Code

1 1 1 0 1 Gray Code

1 0 1 1 0 Binary Number

Thus, Binary Number is 10110

Self complementing codes
 The 2421, the excess‐3 and the 84-2-1 codes are examples of
self‐complementing codes. Such codes have the property that the 9’s
complement of a decimal number is obtained directly by changing 1’s to 0’s and
0’s to 1’s (i.e., by complementing each bit in the pattern). For example, decimal
395 is represented in the excess‐3 code as 0110 1100 1000. The 9’s complement of
604 is represented as 1001 0011 0111, which is obtained simply by
complementing each bit of the code (as with the 1’s complement of binary
numbers).
 With self complementing codes, the design of the hardware is easier when it
comes to say, 9's complement subtraction. It is a method of subtraction by
addition, the negative number is converted to its 9's complement number. Self
complementing codes give an easy way out. Suppose you have to subtract a
number by say, 3(0011), its decimal 9's complement code is 1100 assigned to
number 6. Similarly if 0(0000), then 9(1111). The pairs have complemented bits,
which is easy to achieve in hardware, increasing the speed of operation.
BCD 8421, 2421, 8 4 -2 -1
 BCD and the 2421 code are examples of weighted codes. In a weighted
code, each bit position is assigned a weighting factor in such a way that
each digit can be evaluated by adding the weights of all the 1’s in the
coded combination.
BCD table
Excess-3 code
 The Excess-3 code is also called as XS-3 code. It is non-weighted code
used to express decimal numbers. The Excess-3 code words are derived
from the 8421 BCD code words adding (0011 in binary ) or (3 in
decimal)10 to each code word in 8421.
4. Alphanumeric codes
Alphanumeric character set is a set of elements that includes the 10
decimal digits, 26 letters of the alphabet and special characters such as
$, %, + etc. It is necessary to formulate a binary code for this set to
handle different data types.

• ASCII character code

The standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters is called
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). It uses
seven bits to code 128 characters as shown in the table below. The
seven bits of the code are designated by B1 through B7 with B7 being
the most significant bit.
7-Bit ASCII code format: B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 where B= 0 or 1
Last eighth bit B8 is the parity bit used to catch 1-bit error occurred
during data transmission.
• EBCDIC character code
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is
another alphanumeric code used in IBM equipment. It uses eight bits
for each character. EBCDIC has the same character symbols as ASCII,
but the bit assignment for characters is different. As the name implies,
the binary code for the letters and numerals is an extension of the
binary-coded decimal (BCD) code. This means that the last four bits of
the code range from 0000 though 1001 as in BCD.
Binary storage and register
 Flip-flop is a 1 bit memory cell which can be used for storing the digital
data. To increase the storage capacity in terms of number of bits, we
have to use a group of flip-flop. Such a group of flip-flop is known as a
Register. The n-bit register will consist of n number of flip-flop and it is
capable of storing an n-bit word.
Binary logic
Binary logic deals with binary variables, which take on two discrete
values, and with the operations of mathematical logic applied to these
variables. The two values the variables take may be called by different
names, but for our purpose, it is convenient to think in terms of binary
values and assign 1 or 0 to each variables. Associated with binary variables
there are three basic logical operations called AND, OR, and NOT:
 AND. This operation is represented by a dot or by the absence of an
operator. For example, Z=X.Y or Z=XY.
 OR. This operation is represented by a plus symbol. For example,
Z=X+Y.
 NOT. This operation is represented by a bar over the variable. For
example Z=𝑋.
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
An Integrated circuit is an association (or connection) of various
electronic devices such as resistors, capacitors and transistors etched (or
fabricated) to a semiconductor material such as silicon or germanium. It
is also called as a chip or microchip. An IC can function as an
amplifier, rectifier, oscillator, counter, timer and memory. Sometime ICs
are connected to various other systems to perform complex functions.
Types of ICs
A particular IC is categorized as either linear (analog) or digital,
depending on its intended application.
ICs can be categorized into two types
• Analog or Linear ICs
• Digital or logic ICs
Further there are certain ICs which can perform as a combination of
both analog and digital functions.
Analog or Linear ICs:
They produce continuous output depending on the input signal. From
the name of the IC we can deduce that the output is a linear function of
the input signal. Op-amp (operational amplifier) is one of the types of
linear ICs which are used in amplifiers, timers and counters, oscillators
etc.

Digital or Logic ICs:

Unlike Analog ICs, Digital ICs never give a continuous output signal.
Instead it operates only during defined states. Digital ICs are used
mostly in microprocessor and various memory applications. The
fundamental building blocks of digital ICs are logic gates, which work
with binary data, that is, signals that have only two different states,
called low (logic 0) and high (logic 1).
Advantages of ICs
• In consumer electronics, ICs have made possible the development of
many new products, including personal calculators and computers,
digital watches, and video games.
• They have also been used to improve or lower the cost of many
existing products, such as appliances, televisions, radios, and high-
fidelity equipment.
• The logic and arithmetic functions of a small computer can now be
performed on a single VLSI chip called a microprocessor.
• Complete logic, arithmetic, and memory functions of a small
computer can be packaged on a single printed circuit board, or even
on a single chip.
Levels of Integration
ICs were not the same since the day of their invention; they have
evolved a long way. Integrated circuits are often classified by the
number of transistors and other electronic components they contain:
• SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per
chip
• MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic
components per chip
• LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic
components per chip
• VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000
electronic components per chip
• ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic
components per chip
SIP (Single In-line Package) and DIP (Dual In-line Package)
SIP: an electronic device package which has one row of connecting pins.
DIP contains two rows of pins.
• SIP
A single in-line package is an electronic device package which
has one row of connecting pins. It is not as popular as the dual in-line
package (DIP) which contains two rows of pins, but has been used for
packaging RAM chips and multiple resistors with a common pin. SIPs
group RAM chips together on a small board. The board itself has a
single row of pin-leads that resembles a comb extending from its
bottom edge, which plug into a special socket on a system or system-
expansion board. SIPs are commonly found in memory modules. SIP is
not to be confused with SIPP which is an archaic term referring to
Single In-line Pin Package which was a memory used in early
computers.
• DIP
Dual in-line package (DIP) is a type of semiconductor
component packaging. DIPs can be installed either in sockets or
permanently soldered into holes extending into the surface of the
printed circuit board. DIP is relatively broadly defined as any
rectangular package with two uniformly spaced parallel rows of pins
pointing downward, whether it contains an IC chip or some other
device(s), and whether the pins emerge from the sides of the package
and bend downwards. A DIP is usually referred to as a DIPn, where n
is the total number of pins. For example, a microcircuit package with
two rows of seven vertical leads would be a DIP14. The photograph
below shows three DIP14 ICs.
SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module) and DIMM (Dual In-line
Memory Module)
Theses two terms (SIMM and DIMM) refer to a way series of dynamic
random access memory integrated circuits modules are mounted on a
printed circuit board and designed for use in personal computers,
workstations and servers.

SIMM
Short for Single In-line Memory Module, SIMM is a circuit board
that holds six to nine memory chips per board, the ninth chip usually an
error checking chip (parity/non parity) and were commonly used
with Intel Pentium or Pentium compatible motherboards. SIMMs are
rarely used today and have been widely replaced by DIMMs. SIMMs
are available in two flavors: 30 pin and 72 pin. 30-pin SIMMs are the
older standard, and were popular on third and fourth generation
motherboards. 72-pin SIMMs are used on fourth, fifth and sixth
generation PCs.
DIMM
Short for Dual In-line Memory Module, DIMM is a circuit board
that holds memory chips. DIMMs have a 64-bit path because of the
Pentium Processor requirements. Because of the new bit path,
DIMMs can be installed one at a time, unlike SIMMs on a Pentium
that would require two to be added. Above is an example image of a
512MB DIMM memory stick.
SO-DIMM is short for Small Outline DIMM and is available as a
72-pin and 144-pin configuration. SODIMMs are commonly utilized
in laptop computers.
Some of the advantages DIMMs have over SIMMs:
• DIMMs have separate contacts on each side of the board, thereby
providing twice as much data as a single SIMM
• The command address and control signals are buffered on the
DIMMs. With heavy memory requirements this will reduce the
loading effort of the memory.