Chapter 2 Sets and Functions

In this chapter, we will study two parts: sets and functions, and we also have
some unresolved exercises.

I/ Sets 2.1

Basic Concepts 2.1.1

Definition 2.1: We call a collection of objects a set, denoted by E, F, G, etc.

The elements of a set are listed between two curly brackets { } and separated by
commas.

Example: {1,2,3} It is a set that contains 3 elements: 1, 2, 3.

Note:

1. The set that contains no elements is called the empty set, denoted by ∅ or
{ }.
2. The order of elements has no importance , i.e., {1,2,3}is the same as
{3,2,1}.
3. If the number of elements in a set E is finite, we say that E is a finite set.
4. A set can also be represented by its characteristic property, for example:

𝐸 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ\𝑥 2 − 4 = 0}

Cardinality of a Set

Definition 2.2: We call the cardinality of a set E the number of elements in the
set, denoted by ∣E∣ or Card{E}

Example: E ={ a, b, c } .

∣E∣= Card(E) = 3

Note:

Card{ ∅} =0 ; Card{ IR}=+∞

2.1.2 Membership, Inclusion, Equality

 1. Membership

Definition 2.3: If an element x is an element of E, we say that x belongs

to E and denote it as x∈E .

If x is not an element of E, we say that x does not belong to E and denote

it as x∉E .

2. Inclusion

Definition 2.4: Let E and F be two sets. We say that E is included in F

(or E is a subset of F) if every element of E is an element of F, denoted
as 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐹

𝐸 ⊆ 𝐹 ⇔ ∀𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹

Note: If E is not a subset of F, we denote it as 𝐸 ⊄ 𝐹 and we have:

𝐸 ⊈ 𝐹 ⟺ ∃𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐹

Example: if B={0,1,2,3,4,5} ; A={1,2,3} so 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵

However, 𝐵 ⊄ 𝐴 because ∃𝑥, 𝑥 = 0, 0 ∈ 𝐵 𝐴𝑛𝑑 0 ∉ 𝐴

Note:

1. ∅ (the empty set) is included in all sets.

2. If E⊆F and F⊆G, then E⊆G.

3. Equality

Definition 2.5: We say that a set A is equal to set B (denoted as A=B) if

every element of A is an element of B and vice versa. Otherwise,

𝐴≠𝐵⟺𝐴⊄𝐵 ⋁ 𝐵⊄𝐴

Examples: If A={1,2,3} and B={3,2,1} then A=B.

2.2 Set of Parts of a Set

Definition 2.6: The set of parts of a set A is the set of all subsets of A, denoted
by 𝓟(𝑨)

Example: Let A={1,2} then 𝓟(𝑨) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}

Properties

1. ∅ ∈ 𝒫(𝐴)
2. A∈ 𝒫(𝐴)
3. 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝒫(𝐴)) = 2𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴) .

2.3 Operations on Sets

2.3.1 Intersection

Definition 2.7: The intersection of sets A and B is the set of elements that
belong to both A and B, denoted by A∩B.

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 \𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

𝐴∩𝐵

Example: A={1,2} , B={1,2,3} then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3}

2.3.2The Union

Definition 2.8: The union of sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to A
or B, denoted by A∪B. Thus:

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

𝐴∪𝐵

A B
Example: A={1,2,3},B={3,4,5}

A∪B={1,2,3,4,5}

Properties: For sets A, B, and C, we have:

1. 𝐴∪∅=𝐴,
2. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴,
3. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦),
4. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪
𝐶) (𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦),
5. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦),
6. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ; 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵,
7. ∅ ⊆ 𝐴 .

2.3.3 Complement

Definition 2.9: Let E be a set and A be a subset of E. The complement of A in

E, denoted by 𝐶𝐸𝐴 , 𝐴𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐴̅, is the set of elements in E that do not belong to A.
Thus:

𝐴𝐶 = {x ∈ E ⋀x ∉ A}

Example: Let E={1,2,3,4,5} and A={1,2,3} then 𝐴𝐶 ={4,5}

Properties:

1. 𝐶𝐸∅ = 𝐸 ; 𝐶𝐸𝐸 = ∅ ; (𝐴𝐶 )𝑐 = 𝐴.

2. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝐵𝐶 ⊂ 𝐴𝐶 .
3. (𝐴⋂𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐶 ; (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐶 .
4. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑( 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴) +
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐵) − 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
5. 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.
6. 𝐴Δ𝐵 = (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴) = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 \𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.

2.4 Cartesian Product

Definition 2.10Let A and B be two non-empty sets. The Cartesian product of A

and B, denoted by A×B, is the set of ordered pairs (x,y)such that x∈A and y∈B.

 Remark:
∣A×B∣=∣A∣×∣B∣.

Example: Let A={1,2} and B={3,4}. Then, A×B={(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}.

 If A={a,b}, B={1,2}, and C={x,y} , then:

A×B×C={(a,1,x),(a,1,y),(a,2,x),(a,2,y),(b,1,x),(b,1,y),(b,2,x),(b,2,y) }

Note:

 The cardinality of A×B×C is 2×2×2=8.

 If n sets are involved, the Cartesian product can be generalized to
A1×A2×…×An.

Attention: Do not confuse the concept of the pair (x,y) with the concept of the
set. A pair is a single point in the Cartesian product, but a set with two elements
x and y is {x,y}.

2.5 Binary Relations on a Set

2.5.1 Binary Relation

Definition 2.10: A binary relation on a set E is a proposition wich links certain

elements of this set together . In other words, any relation defined from E×E to
E denoted by ℛ, 𝒮, 𝒯, etc.

Example:

1. Let the binary relation defined by ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, x ℛ y ⟺ 𝑥 = 𝑦 .

2. Let the binary relation defined. ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅 , x ℛ y ⟺ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

We will study two types of binary relations: equivalence relations and order
relations.

2.5.3 Equivalence Relation

Definition 2.13: An equivalence relation is a binary relation that satisfies:

1. Reflexivity: ∀𝑥, x ℛ x
2. Symmetry: If x ℛ y, then y ℛ x ,
3. Transitivity: If x ℛ y and y ℛ z, then x ℛ z.

Example: Let ℛ be the relation defined by ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℕ ; x ℛ y ⟺ x+y is

divisible by 2.
 1. Reflexivity: for all x ℛ x because x+x=2x is divisible by 2.
2. Symmetry: If x R ℛ y , then y ℛ x because x+y=y+x
3. Transitivity: If x ℛ y and y ℛ z , then x ℛ z. because

∃ 𝑘 ∈ ℕ; 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∃ 𝑘 ′ ∈ ℕ; 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2𝑘 ′ . 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑧
= 2(𝑘 + 𝑘 ′ − 𝑦).

Therefore, ℛ is an equivalence relation.

2.5.4 Order Relation

Definition 2.16: An order relation is a binary relation that satisfies:

1. Reflexivity: x ℛ x for all x,

2. Antisymmetry: If x ℛ y and y ℛ x then x=y ,
3. Transitivity: If x ℛ y and y ℛ z, then x ℛ z.

Example: Let ℛ be the relation defined by x ℛ yif x is less than or equal to y.

1. Reflexivity: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 for all x.

2. Antisymmetry: If 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 , then 𝑥 = 𝑦.
3. Transitivity: If 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ≤ 𝑧, then 𝑥 ≤ 𝑧.

Therefore, ℛ is an order relation.

II/ Functions

Definition 2.17: A function is a relation defined from E to F that associates each

element x of E with a unique element y of F, denoted by f, g, h, etc.

We also have:

• The set E is called the domain or the set of definition.

• The set F is called the codomain.
• x is called the pre-image of y by the function f.
• y is called the image of x by the function f.

Thus:

𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸 𝑡𝑜 𝐹 ⟺ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, ∃! 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Example:

1. Let f be defined from ℝ 𝑡𝑜 ℝ by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥. This is a function because.

 ⟺ ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃! 𝑦 ∈ ℝ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

1
2. Let 𝑔 be defined from ℝ 𝑡𝑜 ℝ by 𝑔(𝑥) = .
𝑥−1

This is not a function because ∃𝑥0 = 1 ∈ ℝ , 𝑥0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑔

Note :

1. Functions are also called maps or mappings.

2. we say that tow functions are equal if and only if

𝑓 = 𝑔 ⟺ (𝐸 = 𝐺)⋀(𝐹 = 𝐻) ∧ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)

Where : E is the domaine of 𝑓

G is the domaine of 𝑔.

F is the co-domaine of 𝑓.

H is the co-domaine of 𝑔.

3. We call Identical function evry function defined from E to it elf by :

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.

𝑓 is also called identity function ,denoted by 𝐼𝑑𝐸 .

4. We call caractéristic function the function denoted by 𝑓𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝜒𝐴 𝑜𝑟 1𝐴

defined from E dans {0,1} by :

1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
𝑓𝐴 (𝑥) = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴

Properties:

1. 𝑓𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝑓𝐴 𝑓𝐵 .
2. 𝑓𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝑓𝐴 +𝑓𝐵 − 𝑓𝐴 𝑓𝐵 .
3. 𝑓𝐴𝐶 = 1 − 𝑓𝐴 .
4. 𝑓𝐴\𝐵 = max(0, 𝑓𝐴 − 𝑓𝐵 ).
5. 𝑓𝐴∆𝐵 = |𝑓𝐴 − 𝑓𝐵 |.
6. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑓𝐴 ≤ 𝑓𝐵 .
Attention: Do not confuse the image 𝑓(𝑥) and the function 𝑓. f is a function,
but 𝑓(𝑥) is the image of x by the function 𝑓.

2.7 Composition of Functions

Definition 2.18: Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions defined by

𝑓: 𝐸 ⟶ 𝐹 𝑔: 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐻

The composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔 is a function denoted by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) and exists only

when 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝐺 .

It is defined by: (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))

Remark:

1. The composition of functions is not commutative.

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)).

2. 𝑔 ∘ (𝑓 ∘ ℎ) = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) ∘ ℎ .

Example: Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions defined by

𝑓: 𝐼𝑅 ⟶ 𝐼𝑅 and 𝑔: 𝐼𝑅 ⟶ 𝐼𝑅

𝑥 ⟼ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 ⟼ 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2 .

We have (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) exists because the codomain of 𝑓 is equal to the domain of 𝑔.

𝑓 𝑔
𝐼𝑅 → 𝐼𝑅 → 𝐼𝑅
𝑔∘𝑓
𝐼𝑅 → 𝐼𝑅

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 3) = (2𝑥 + 4)2

2.8 Injectivity, Surjectivity, and Bijectivity

2.8.1 Injectivity (one to one)

Definition 2.19: We say that a function 𝑓defined from E to F is injective (one to

one) if and only if: ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Here is a figure representing injectivity:

 𝑓1

E F

X 1

Y 2

Z 4

𝑓1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 .

𝑓2

E F

A 2

B 5

C 3

𝑓2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (2 has two pre-images A and C)

Example: Let 𝑓 be a function defined by

𝑓: 𝐼𝑅 ⟶ 𝐼𝑅

𝑥 ⟼ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

𝑓is injective ⟺ ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⟺ 𝑥1 2 = 𝑥2 2 ⟹ 𝑥1 = ±𝑥2 .

So for 𝑥1 = 2, 𝑥2 = −2 we have 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) but 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 .

Then 𝑓is not injective

2.8.2 Surjectivity
Definition 2.20: We say that a function 𝑓 defined from E to F is surjective
(onto ) if and only if: ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

Here is a figure representing surjectivity:

X 1

Y 2

Z 3

E F

𝑓1

𝑓1 is surjective (onto)

𝑓2 is not surjective (not onto) because the element 5 has not a pre-image in E.

Example: Let 𝑓 be a function defined by

𝑓: 𝐼𝑅 ⟶ 𝐼𝑅

𝑥 ⟼ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

𝑓is surjective ⟺ ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 .

We have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 , 𝑥 = ±√𝑦 .

So for 𝑦 = −2, 𝑥 is not exist. Then 𝑓is not surjective.

2.8.3 Bijectivity

Definition 2.21: We say that a function 𝑓 defined from E to F is bijective if and

only if 𝑓 is injective and surjective.

Thus: 𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹; 𝑓 is bijective ⟺ ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, ∃! 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦

Here is a figure representing bijectivity:

E F

X 1

Y 2

Z 3

𝑓 is bijective

Example

Example: Let 𝑓 be a function defined by

𝑓: 𝐼𝑅 ⟶ 𝐼𝑅

𝑥 ⟼ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5.

𝑓is injective ⟺ ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⟺ 2𝑥1 + 5 = 2𝑥2 + 5 ⟹ 2𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 ⟹

𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . So 𝑓 is injective .

𝑓is surjective ⟺ ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 .

𝑦−5
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⟺ 2𝑥 + 5 = 𝑦 ⟹ 2𝑥 = 𝑦 − 5 ⟹ 𝑥 = .
2

Thus, 𝑓is surjective

𝑓is injective + 𝑓is surjective so 𝑓 is bijective .