NOTES: CDS, CAPF & NDA

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Introduction • Observations of Motion
to Motion o Everyday examples of objects in motion.
o Motion inferred through indirect evidence.
o Questions about phenomena like sunrise and seasons.
• Perspective on Motion
o Motion perception varies for different observers.
o Example: Perception of moving bus from inside and outside.
Types of • Variety of motions: straight line, circular, rotational, vibrational.
Motion • Some objects combine multiple types of motion.
Uniform • Uniform Motion
Motion and o Object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
Non-Uniform o Example: Object travels 5m each second.
o Time interval should be small.
Motion o Objects move at constant speed.
• Non-Uniform Motion
o Object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
o Example: Car on a crowded street.
o Time interval still equal but distances vary.
o Objects move at variable speeds.
Understanding • Describing Motion Along a Straight Line
Motion o Description using reference points.
o Example: Position of school relative to railway station.
o Need for a reference point or origin.
• Activities and Reflections
o Classroom Walls
▪ Discussion on whether classroom walls are at rest or in motion.
o Train Perception
▪ Sharing experiences of perceiving motion while stationary.
▪ Example: Train appearing to move while at rest.
Position • Expressed by distance and direction from observer.
Representation • Characterized by position vector.
• Position vector in xy plane: (x, y) coordinates.
• Position vector in space: (x, y, z) coordinates.
Rest and • Rest: Body maintains position over time.
Motion • Motion: Body changes position over time.
• Relative to frame of reference.
• Frame of Reference: System with attached coordinates.
Types of • One Dimensional Motion
Motion o Motion along a straight line.
o Changes in one coordinate over time.
o Example: Motion of car on straight road, freely falling body.
• Two-Dimensional Motion
o Motion in a plane.
o Changes in two coordinates over time.
o Example: Motion of car on circular turn, billiards ball.
• Three-Dimensional Motion
o Motion in space.
o Changes in all three coordinates over time.
o Example: Motion of flying kite, flying insect.
Distance and 1. Distance
Displacement o Actual path length covered by moving particle in given time.
o Scalar quantity.
o Dimension: [M0 L1 T0]
o Unit: meter (S.I.)
2. Displacement
o Change in position vector from initial to final position.
o Vector quantity.
o Dimension: [M0 L1 T0]
o Unit: meter (S.I.)
o Total displacement is vector sum of individual displacements.

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3. Comparison between Distance and Displacement

o Distance > Displacement.
o Distance always positive, displacement can be >= or <= 0.
o Displacement single-valued, distance depends on actual path.
o Distance can't decrease with time, but displacement can.
o Magnitude of displacement not always equal to distance; unless motion is straight without
change in direction.
Speed and • Speed Definition
Velocity o Rate of distance covered with time.
o Scalar quantity with symbol v.
o Dimension: [M0L1T–1].
o Units: meter/second (S.I.), cm/second (C.G.S.).
• Types of Speed
o Uniform Speed
o Equal distances covered in equal intervals of time.
o Particle moves at consistent rate.
• Non-uniform (Variable) Speed
o Unequal distances covered in equal intervals of time.
o Particle moves at varying rates.
• Average Speed
o Ratio of total distance travelled to total time taken.
o Calculated for given interval of time.
o Time average speed: Average speed over total time of journey.
o Distance average speed: Averaged over total distance travelled.
• Special Cases
o Time Average Speed
▪ Particle moves at different uniform speeds in different time intervals.
▪ Average speed calculated over entire journey time.
o Distance Average Speed
▪ Particle covers different distances with different time intervals.
▪ Speed averaged over total distance travelled.
o Special Case of Average Speed
▪ Particle moves at speed v1 for half of total motion time and v2 for remaining time.
▪ Average speed calculated using formula.
o Instantaneous Speed
▪ Speed at a particular instant.
▪ Often referred to simply as "speed."
▪ Average speed for infinitesimally small-time interval (∆t → 0).
• Velocity
o Rate of change of position or displacement with time.
o Vector quantity denoted by symbol v.
o Dimension: [M0L1T–1].
o Unit: meter/second (S.I.), cm/second (C.G.S.).
• Types of Velocity
o Uniform Velocity:
▪ Magnitude and direction remain constant.
o Non-uniform Velocity:
▪ Magnitude or direction (or both) changes.
o Average Velocity:
▪ Ratio of displacement to time taken.
o Instantaneous Velocity:
▪ Rate of change of position at a certain instant.
• Instantaneous Speed vs. Instantaneous Velocity
o Velocity tangential to particle's path.
o Particle may have constant speed but variable velocity.
o Magnitude of velocity equals instantaneous speed.
o Average and instantaneous velocity equal for constant velocity.
• Average Speed vs. Average Velocity
o Average speed is scalar; average velocity is vector.
o Both have units m/s and dimensions [LT–1].
o Depend on time interval over which defined.
o Average velocity single-valued for given time interval.
o Average speed can never be negative or zero for moving body.

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Acceleration • Definition
o Time rate of change of velocity.
o Vector quantity with direction.
• Types of Change in Velocity
o Change in direction only.
o Change in magnitude only.
o Change in both magnitude and direction.
• Components of Acceleration
o Parallel or perpendicular to velocity.
o Uniform circular motion: perpendicular.
o Motion under gravity: parallel.
• Dimension and Unit
o Dimension: [M0 L1 T–2]
o Unit: meter/second2 (S. I.); cm/second2 (C. G. S.)
• Types of Acceleration
o Uniform acceleration: constant magnitude and direction.
o Non-uniform acceleration: changing magnitude or direction.
o Average acceleration: change in velocity over time.
o Instantaneous acceleration: at a specific instant.
• Uniform Acceleration
o Velocity increases/decreases equally over equal time intervals.
o Example: Freely falling body.
• Non-Uniform Acceleration
o Velocity changes unevenly over time.
o Example: Car increasing speed unevenly.
• Relationships
o No fixed relation between velocity and acceleration direction.
o Acceleration formula when velocity is a function of position.
o Average acceleration when accelerated by different accelerations.
• Characteristics
o Acceleration can be positive, zero, or negative.
o Positive: velocity increasing; zero: constant velocity; negative: decreasing velocity.
• Acceleration Due to Gravity
o Equal to 'g' (acceleration due to gravity).
o Normal value: 9.8 m/s2 or 980 cm/s2 or 32 feet/s2.
Position Time
Graph

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Velocity Time 1. Introduction to Velocity Time Graph

Graph o Plotted with time on x-axis and velocity on y-axis.
o Represents motion of a particle over time.
2. Calculation of Distance and Displacement
o Area under graph gives displacement and distance.
o Total distance is sum of modulus of different areas.
o Total displacement is sum of areas considering their signs.
3. Acceleration on Velocity Time Graph
o Slope of graph represents acceleration.
o Change in velocity over time.
o Positive slope indicates acceleration.
o Negative slope indicates deceleration.

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Equations of • Definition of Variables

Kinematics o u: Initial velocity at t = 0 sec.
o v: Final velocity at t sec.
o a: Acceleration.
o S: Distance travelled in t sec.

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o Sn: Distance travelled in nth sec.

• When Particle Moves with Constant Acceleration

o Acceleration remains constant in magnitude and direction.
o One-dimensional motion if initial velocity and acceleration are parallel or anti-parallel.
o Equations of motion in scalar and vector forms.
Motion of Body • Acceleration Due to Gravity
Under Gravity o Acceleration produced by force of gravity, represented by symbol g.
(Free Fall) o All bodies fall with same acceleration near surface of earth.
o Motion called free fall, neglecting air resistance and small changes in acceleration with height.
Projectile • Introduction
Motion o Motion of a particle with oblique force.
• Projectile Definition
o Body in flight without propulsion.
o Occurs in atmosphere.
• Assumptions
o No air resistance.
o Negligible earth curvature effect.
o Negligible earth rotation effect.
o Constant acceleration due to gravity.
• Principles of Physical Independence of Motions
o Two-dimensional motion.
o Horizontal and vertical motion independent.
o Velocity resolves into horizontal and vertical components.
o Horizontal motion uniform, vertical motion uniformly accelerated.
• Types of Projectile Motion
o Oblique, Horizontal, Inclined plane.
• Oblique Projectile
o Horizontal velocity constant.
o Acceleration and mechanical energy constant.
o Vertical velocity, momentum, kinetic energy change.
o Equation of trajectory.

o
• Displacement of Projectile
o Position vector.

o Instantaneous velocity.

• Time of Flight and Horizontal Range

o Maximum range:

• Maximum Height

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• Relation between horizontal range and maximum height

Horizontal • Time of flight

Projectile

• Horizontal range

Uniform o Change in velocity indicates acceleration.

Circular o Velocity changes due to magnitude or direction alteration.
Motion o Example of Changing Direction Without Magnitude Change
• Closed Path Motion Example
o Motion along a closed path.
o Example: Athlete running on a track.
• Athlete's Motion on Different Shaped Tracks
o Rectangular Track
▪ Athlete changes direction four times in one round.
o Hexagonal Track
▪ Athlete changes direction six times in one round.
o Octagonal Track
▪ Athlete takes turns more frequently.
• Shape Convergence to Circle
o Increasing sides approach circular shape.
o Length of sides decreases towards a point.
• Acceleration in Circular Motion
o Athlete's velocity changes only in direction.
o Motion on circular path is accelerated.
• Speed Formula
o Circumference formula: 2πr
o Speed formula: 2πr/t
• Uniform Circular Motion
o Object moves in circular path with constant speed.
• Stone Activity
o Stone moves tangentially upon release.
o Continues in the direction of its instant motion.
o Direction changes at each point along circular path.
• Athlete's Throw
o Athlete imparts circular motion to hammer/discus.
o Upon release, object continues in direction of motion.
o Similar to stone activity.
• Examples of Uniform Circular Motion
o Motion of moon and earth.
o Satellite orbiting earth.
o Cyclist on circular track at constant speed.

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Circular • Introduction
Motion o Motion in two dimensions.
o Initial velocity required.
o Force acts perpendicular to velocity.
• Types of Circular Motion
o Uniform circular motion.
o Non-uniform circular motion.
• Variables of Circular Motion
o Displacement: Change in position vector.
o Distance: Length of the arc.

o
• Angular Displacement (θ)
o Angle turned by body on circle.

• Angular Velocity (ω)

o Time rate of change of angular displacement.

• Change in Velocity
o Magnitude and direction of change.
o Vector form

• Time Period (T)

o Time for one revolution.

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• Frequency (n)
o Number of revolutions per unit time.
o Units: s–1 or hertz (Hz).
o Dimension: [M0L0T–1].
o Relation with time period and angular velocity.
• Angular Acceleration (α)
o Time rate of change of angular velocity.
o Units: rad s–2.
o Dimension: [M0L0T–2].

• Centripetal Acceleration
o Acceleration in uniform circular motion.
o Acts along radius towards center of circular path.
o Direction of Centripetal Acceleration is same as velocity direction.

Centripetal • Newton's First Law

Force o Body moves in straight line with uniform velocity: no force needed.
o Circular path with uniform speed: direction changes continuously.
• Newton's Second Law
o Change in direction requires external force.
o Inertia causes body to move tangent to circular path.
• Centripetal Force Definition
o Force to change direction without changing magnitude.
o Must act perpendicular to velocity, hence along radius.
o Moves body towards centre of circular path.
• Examples of Centripetal Force in Situations
▪ Particle whirled in circle (tension in string).
▪ Vehicle taking turn (frictional force from road on tires).
▪ Vehicle on speed breaker (weight or component of weight).
▪ Earth revolution around sun (gravitational force from sun).
▪ Electron revolving around nucleus (coulomb attraction from protons in nucleus).
▪ Charged particle in magnetic field (magnetic force from agent setting up field).
Centrifugal • Definition
Force o Imaginary force due to inertia effects.
o Only significant in a rotating frame of reference.
• Work Done by Centripetal Force
o Work done by centripetal force is always zero.
o Perpendicular to velocity, hence no displacement.
• Examples
o Electron orbiting nucleus maintains constant energy.
o Satellite in orbit around Earth requires no fuel for circular motion.
Application • Skidding of Vehicle on a Level Road
o Vehicle turning on circular path requires centripetal force.
o If friction > or = required centripetal force, vehicle turns safely.

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o Maximum speed for turning in circular path depends on friction and radius.

• Skidding of Object on a Rotating Platform

o Object on rotating platform needs centripetal force.
o Centripetal force provided by friction.
o Formula for maximum angular velocity.
• Bending of a Cyclist
o Cyclist leans inward to provide centripetal force.
o Formula for calculating necessary angle.
o Ice skaters and airplanes also lean for the same reason.
• Banking of a Road
o Cyclists bend inward, not possible for four-wheelers.
o Outer edge of road raised to automatically incline vehicles.

LAWS OF MOTION
Motion and • Introduction to Motion
Forces o Concepts of position, velocity, and acceleration.
o Uniform and non-uniform motion.
o Questions about the causes of motion.
• Historical Perspective
o Centuries of puzzlement among scientists and philosophers.
o Belief in rest as the natural state of an object.
o Change in understanding by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
• Introduction to Forces
o Observation of effort needed to change motion.
o Everyday experience of muscular effort.
o Concept of force based on pushing, hitting, or pulling.
o Force as an explanation for motion changes.
• Effects of Forces
o Changing velocity and direction of motion.
o Altering shape and size of objects.
o Pushing, pulling, or hitting objects to change motion.
Momentum • Inertia
o Inherent property of all bodies.
o Prevents change in state of rest or uniform motion.
o Bodies cannot change motion by themselves.
• Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
o Objects resist change in motion.
o Tendency to remain at rest or maintain velocity.
o Illustrated by experiences in vehicles.
• Practical Applications
o Safety measures in vehicles.
o Experiences in sudden starts or sharp turns.
• Galileo Galilei's Contributions
o Early Life and Education
▪ Born in Pisa, Italy in 1564.

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▪ Interest in mathematics and natural philosophy.

▪ Initial pursuit of medical degree.
o Scientific Achievements
▪ Observations on motion and falling objects.
▪ Formulation of laws on uniformly accelerated motion.
▪ Contributions to astronomy with telescopes.
o Legacy and Impact
▪ Design of improved telescopes.
▪ Astronomical discoveries published in 'Starry Messenger'.
▪ Arguments for heliocentric model of the solar system.
• Linear Momentum
o Quantity of motion in a body.
o Product of mass and velocity.
o Momentum = mass × velocity.
• Calculation of Linear Momentum
o Vector quantity.
o Direction same as velocity.
o Units: kg-m/sec (S.I.), g cm/sec (C.G.S.).
o Dimension: [MLT⁻¹].
Balanced and • Balanced Forces
Unbalanced o Equal forces from opposite directions.
Forces o Maintain object's rest or motion state.
o No change in motion.
• Unbalanced Forces
o Unequal forces causing motion.
o Direction determined by greater force.
o Initiates or changes motion.
Force • Definition
o External effect as push or pull.
o Affects motion: start, stop, or change direction.
• Dimensions and Units of Force
o Force = mass × acceleration.
o Dimension: [F] = [M][LT–2] = [MLT–2].
• Units
o Absolute units: Newton (S.I.), Dyne (C.G.S.).
o Gravitational units: Kilogram-force (M.K.S.), Gram-force (C.G.S.).
• Conditions and Characteristics of Force
o Valid if force changes state of rest/motion and mass is constant.
o Not valid if mass is not constant.
• Uniform Motion
o No force needed for uniform motion along straight line.
• Force Direction
o Positive force: repulsive.
o Negative force: attractive.
• Types of Forces
o Nuclear force strongest, gravitational force weakest.
• Central Force
o Directed towards/away from fixed point: central.
o Otherwise: non-central.
• Conservative vs. Non-conservative Force
o Work done in round trip: zero or path-independent (conservative).
o Example:
▪ Gravitational force, electric force (conservative)
▪ Frictional force, viscous force (non-conservative).
• Weight
o Force of Earth attraction: W = mg.
• Reaction or Normal Force
o Perpendicular to surface when object placed on rigid surface.
• Tension
o Exerted by taut string, rope, or chain.
o Direction: pull the body.

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• Spring Force
o Resists length change.
o Force: F = –Kx (spring constant K, change in length x).
Newton's Laws 1. Newton’s First Law
of Motion o Body remains in state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by external force.
o No net force means no change in velocity (no acceleration).
o Defines inertia: Inertia of rest, motion, and direction.
o Introduction to Inertia
o Objects resist change in motion.
o Property called inertia.
o Inertia varies with mass.
2. Newton’s Second Law
o Momentum
▪ Product of mass and velocity.
▪ Momentum = mass × velocity.
▪ Momentum has direction and magnitude.
o Rate of Change of Momentum
▪ Force changes momentum.
▪ Rate of change proportional to applied force.
▪ Second law states the rate of change of momentum is proportional to applied unbalanced
force.
o Mathematical Formulation
▪ Force = mass × acceleration.
▪ One unit of force defined as acceleration of 1 m/s² in 1 kg mass.
o Unit of force: newton (N).

Equilibrium (1) Definition of Concurrent Forces

of Concurrent o All forces act on the same point.
o Referred to as concurrent.
Force
(2) Equilibrium of Body under Concurrent Forces
o Body is in equilibrium if no change in state of rest or uniform motion.
o Occurs under action of concurrent forces.
(3) Condition for Equilibrium
o Vector sum of all forces on body must be zero.
o Indicates equilibrium state.
Newton’s • Introduction to Third Law
Third Law o Action and reaction forces.
o Equal in magnitude, opposite in direction.
o Act on different objects.
o Denoted as F = -F.
• Illustration of Action and Reaction
o Spring balance experiment.
o Force exerted on one balance equal but opposite to the other.
o Alternative statement: to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Practical Examples
o Walking on a road.
o Gun firing and recoil.
o Sailor jumping out of a boat.
• Impact of Third Law
o Forces may not produce equal accelerations.
o Example: gun and bullet, sailor and boat.
Frame of • Definition
Reference o Observer's perspective for observations.
o Associated with a coordinate system.
• Types of Frames of Reference:
o Inertial and non-inertial.
• Inertial Frame of Reference
o Definition

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▪ At rest or moving with uniform velocity.

▪ Newton's laws applicable.
▪ No ideal inertial frame, practical frames considered inertial if acceleration negligible
compared to observed object.
o Example:
▪ Lift at rest or moving with constant velocity.
• Non-inertial Frame of Reference
o Definition
▪ Accelerated frames.
▪ Newton's laws not applicable.
o Example:
▪ Car in uniform circular motion.
▪ Lift moving with acceleration.
▪ Plane taking off.
Impulsive 1. Definition of Impulsive Force
Force and o Large force acting for a very short time.
Impulse o Not constant, changes from zero to maximum and back to zero.
o Total effect of force measured in such cases.
2. Impulse of a Force
o Measure of total effect of force.
3. Nature of Impulse
o Vector quantity.
o Direction same as force.
4. Dimension and Units
o Dimension: [MLT–1].
o Units: Newton second or Kg-ms–1 (S.I.), Dyne second or gm cm s–1 (C.G.S.).
5. Force-Time Graph
o Impulse equals area under F-t curve.

8. Examples
o Hitting, kicking, catching, jumping, collision, etc.
o Increasing time of contact decreases average force (or dilutes it), vice versa.
o Example: Catching a ball, drawing hands backward increases time, decreases force.
o Example: China wares wrapped in straw or paper before packing.
Conservation • Collision of Two Objects
of Linear o Two objects (balls A and B) of different masses and velocities.
Momentum o Collide with each other in the same direction.
o No external unbalanced forces acting on them.
• Momentum During Collision
o Ball A exerts force FAB on ball B.
o Ball B exerts force FBA on ball A.
o Momenta of both balls before and after collision.
• Third Law of Motion
o FAB = - FBA.
o Rate of change of momentum during collision.
o Total momentum of the two balls.

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• Law of Conservation of Momentum

o Total momentum remains unchanged if no external force acts.
o Sum of momenta before collision = sum after collision.
• Conservation Laws in Physics
o Fundamental Laws
▪ Conservation of momentum, energy, angular momentum, charge, etc.
▪ Based on observations and experiments.
o Verification of Conservation Laws
▪ Cannot be proved, only verified by experiments.
▪ Single experiment disproving a law is sufficient.
o Deduction of Conservation of Momentum
▪ Deduced from numerous observations and experiments.
▪ Formulated nearly three centuries ago.
▪ No contradictory situations observed.
o Everyday Experiences
▪ Many everyday experiences explained by conservation of momentum.
• If no external force acts on an isolated system of constant mass, momentum remains constant.
o Total momentum of system remains constant with time.
1. Principle of Conservation

2. Frame of Reference
o Law independent of frame of reference.
o Linear momentum varies with frame of reference.
3. Practical Applications
(i) Man jumps from boat, boat pushed away.
(ii) Person on frictionless surface moves by blowing air or throwing object
opposite desired direction.
(iii) Recoiling gun: momentum unaffected due to internal forces.
Free fall • Definition
o Isolates object from surroundings.
o Represents interactions with forces.
• Apparent Weight of a Body in a Lift
o Scenario Description
o Body of mass m on a weighing machine in a lift.
o Actual weight is mg.
o Weighing machine reading = Reaction R.
o Reaction = Apparent weight of body.

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Acceleration of
Block on
Horizontal
Smooth Source

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Acceleration of
Block on
Smooth
Inclined Plane

Motion of
Block in
Contact

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Motion of
Blocks
Connected by
Mass Less
String

Friction • Introduction
o Motion resisted when body slides over surface.
o Resistance represented by single force called friction.
o Friction force parallel and opposite to intended motion direction.
• Types of Friction
o Static Friction
o Opposing force when objects at rest.
o Static friction equals applied force.
o Self-adjusting force.
• Limiting Friction
o Maximum static friction preventing motion.
o Proportional to normal reaction.
o Direction opposite to impending motion.
• Coefficient of Static Friction
o Denoted as µs.
o Dimension: [M0L0T0].
o Unitless.
o Value between 0 and 1.
o Depends on material and surface nature.
o Independent of apparent contact area.
• Kinetic or Dynamic Friction
o Opposes motion after applied force.
o Depends on normal reaction.
o Kinetic friction less than limiting friction.
o Types: Sliding and Rolling friction.
• Graph Between Applied Force and Force of Friction
o Part OA: Static friction (Fs).
o Point A: Limiting friction (F1).
o Portion BC: Kinetic friction (Fk).
o Kinetic friction constant with applied force.
• Definition of Angle of Friction
o Defined as angle between resultant limiting friction and normal reaction.
o Denoted by angle θ.
o Calculated using tan θ = µ, where µ is coefficient of friction.
o θ = tan⁻¹(µ).

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• Definition of Angle of Repose

o Angle of inclined plane with horizontal where body just begins to slide.
o Denoted by α.
o Angle of repose = angle of friction (θ).

Work, Energy & Power

Work • Definition
o Work occurs when a force moves a body through a distance in the direction of the force.
• Constant Force Application
o Force F applied at angle θ with horizontal.
o Body displaced through distance s.
• Calculation of Work
o Work (W) = (F cos θ) S
o W = Fs cos θ

o
• Nature of Work Done

• Definition of Work Done

o Work done by force with varying magnitude and direction.
o Calculated for infinitesimal displacement.
o Total work from point A to B calculated.

o
• Calculation of Work
o Work given by .
• Representation of Work
o Area under force displacement curve.

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o Sign indicates direction of work.

• Change of Frame of Reference
o Inertial frames experience force but displacement may vary.
o Work differs in different frames.
o Examples
▪ Pushing a box inside a moving train.

▪ Work differs in train's frame and Earth's frame.

▪ Displacement relative to ground considered.

Energy • Introduction to Energy

o Life depends on energy.
o Sun is a major natural energy source.
o Other sources include atoms, Earth's interior, and tides.
o Energy has a precise meaning in science.
• Examples of Energy
o Fast-moving cricket ball hitting a wicket.
o Object raised to a height gains capability to do work.
o Hammer driving a nail into wood.
o Toy car moving when wound.
o Pressing a balloon changes its shape or causes it to explode.
• Transfer of Energy
o Object with energy can exert force on another object.
o Energy transferred from one object to another.
o Object receiving energy may move and do work.
• Unit of Energy
o Energy measured in joules (J).
o 1 joule = energy required to do 1 joule of work.
o Sometimes kilojoules (kJ) used: 1 kJ = 1000 J.
• Dimension and Units
o Dimension: [ML2 T–2].
o Same as work or torque.
o Units: Joule (S.I.), erg (C.G.S.).
o Practical units: electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour (KWh), Calories (Cal).
• Unit Conversion
o 1 Joule = 107 erg.
o 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 Joule.
o 1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 Joule.
o 1 Calorie = 4.18 Joule.
• Mass-Energy Equivalence/Einstein's Equation
o Relation: E = mc2.
o E: energy, m: mass, c: velocity of light in vacuum.
Energies • Definition of Kinetic Energy
o Energy due to motion of a body.
o Calculated by

• Kinetic Energy and Frame of Reference

o Depends on frame of reference.
o In train's frame, person's kinetic energy is zero, but not in Earth's frame.
• Work-Energy Theorem
o Work done equals change in kinetic energy.
o Applies to systems with all types of forces.
o Relation with Linear Momentum

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o
• Potential Energy
o Energy stored due to object's position in system.
o Generated by forces between system components.
o Determined by initial and final points, not pathway.
o Examples
▪ Bow and arrow: Potential energy converted to kinetic.
▪ Water flowing down dam: Generates electricity.
▪ Nuclear energy: Converted from high potential energy.
▪ Vehicles on mountain slope: Potential energy converted to kinetic.
▪ Chemical bonds: Displacement releases potential energy.
• Types of Potential Energy
o Gravitational Potential Energy
▪ Energy stored when object lifted against gravity.
▪ Formula: W = mgh
o Elastic Potential Energy
▪ Stored in compressible/stretchable objects.
▪ Formula: U = ½ KX2
o Electrostatic Potential Energy
▪ Energy to move charged particle in electric field.
▪ Formula: U = [1/(4πεo)] × [q1q2/d]
Law of • Explanation
Conservation ▪ Energy can't be created or destroyed, only converted.
of Energy ▪ Total energy before and after transformation remains constant.
• Example
▪ Object falling freely converts potential energy to kinetic energy.
▪ Total mechanical energy (PE + KE) remains constant.
(1) Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
o Applies to isolated system or body.
o Sum of kinetic and potential energies remains constant.
o Independent of time.
o Presence of conservative forces.
o Key principle: Conservation of mechanical energy.
(2) Law of Conservation of Total Energy
o Applicable to systems with conservative and non-conservative forces.
o Conservation of total energy.
o Includes heat, light, sound, mechanical energy, etc.
o Extends beyond mechanical energy alone.
Power • Definition
o Rate of doing work or transferring energy.
o Measured in watts (W).
o 1 watt = 1 joule per second (J/s).
o Larger rates expressed in kilowatts (kW).
• Calculation
o Formula: Power = Work / Time

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o Average power calculated by total energy consumed divided by total time.

Commercial • Introduction
Unit of o Joule too small for practical use.
Energy o Kilowatt hour (kW h) used as commercial unit.
• Definition
o Energy used at rate of 1000 J/s for one hour.
o 1 kW h = 3.6 × 10 6 J.
o Commonly used for electricity consumption.
Collision • Definition
o Isolated event with strong force between bodies.
o Results in energy and momentum change.
o Particles may or may not physically touch.
• Types of Collision

Rotational • Rigid Body

Motion o Body capable of rotating with locked parts.

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o Shape remains unchanged.

• Centre of Mass
o Point that moves as if all mass were concentrated there.
o All external forces applied there.

o
• Moment of Inertia
o Plays same role in rotational motion as mass in linear motion.
o Opposes change in state of rest or uniform rotation.
o Formula for Particle
▪ Moment of inertia of a particle: I = mr2
▪ 'r' is perpendicular distance from rotational axis.
o Moment of Inertia for Bodies
▪ Moment of inertia of body with particles.
▪ Formula: I = Σmr2
o Continuous Distribution
▪ Moment of inertia with continuous mass distribution.
▪ Formula: I = ∫dmr2
▪ Dimension and SI Unit
▪ Dimension: [ML2T0].
▪ SI Unit: kgm2
o Factors Affecting Moment of Inertia
▪ Depends on mass.
▪ Depends on distribution of mass.
▪ Depends on position of rotation axis.
▪ Moment of inertia is a tensor quantity.
o Definition of Radius of Gyration
▪ Perpendicular distance from an axis.
▪ Represents concentration of mass for equal moment of inertia.
▪ Describes how mass is distributed around an axis.
▪ Calculation of Moment of Inertia
• Square of radius of gyration multiplied by mass.
• Gives moment of inertia about given axis.
• Represents rotational inertia of the body.

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• Torque
o Definition and Calculation
▪ Torque formula: τ = rF sin φ
▪ φ: angle between direction of force and position vector.
▪ Torque direction: perpendicular to plane containing vector.
▪ Torque is axial vector.
▪ Direction determined by right hand screw rule.
o Properties of Torque
o Torque's direction: outward through axis of rotation.
o Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance.
o Also called moment of force.
o Perpendicular distance: moment or lever arm.
o Measurement and Units

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o Unit: Newton-metre (M.K.S.) and Dyne-cm (C.G.S.).

o Dimension: [ML2T–2].
o Rotational Equilibrium
o Body in rotational equilibrium if resultant torque is zero.
o Cause of rotatory motion.
o Analogue of force in rotational motion.
o Correspondences with translatory motion.

GRAVITATION
Newton’s Law • Statement of the Law
of Gravitation o Everybody in the universe attracts every other body.
o Force is directly proportional to product of masses.
o Inversely proportional to square of distance between centers.
o Force direction is along the line joining particles.
• Magnitude of Gravitational Force

o Given by G is Universal Gravitational Constant.

o Newton’s third law of motion.

• Universal Gravitational Constant
o Symbolized as G.
o Value in S.I.: 6.67 × 10−11 N-m2 kg−2.
o Value in C.G.S.: 6.67 × 10−8 dyne-cm2 g−2.
o Dimensional formula: [M−1L3T−2].
o Independent of nature and size of bodies.
o Independent of nature of medium between bodies.
• Discovery
o Birth and Education of Isaac Newton
o Born in Woolsthorpe near Grantham, England.
o Studied at Cambridge University in 1661.
o Took a year off during the Cambridge plague in 1665.
• Incident of the Falling Apple
o Inspired Newton to explore gravity.
o Prompted him to connect gravity with lunar orbit.
o Led to the formulation of the universal law of gravitation.
• Contributions of Isaac Newton
o Formulated laws of motion.
o Worked on theories of light and color.
o Designed astronomical telescope.
o Invented calculus.
• Development of the Universal Law of Gravitation
o Newton transformed physical science.
o Combined contributions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, etc.
o Based theory on sound scientific reasoning and mathematics.
Acceleration • Definition of Gravity
Due to o Force of attraction by Earth on a body.
Gravity
o
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• Acceleration Due to Gravity

o Acceleration caused by gravity, denoted by g.
o Depends on Earth's mass, radius, and density.
o Independent of body's mass, shape, and density.
o Vector quantity, direction towards planet's center.
o Dimension: [LT-2].
o 9.8 m/s2 or 981 cm/s2 at mean sea level on Earth's surface.
• Variation in g with Depth
o g decreases below Earth's surface.
o g becomes zero at the center of Earth.
o Rate of decrease of gravity is faster outside Earth (when h << R).
o Rate inside Earth is slower compared to outside Earth.
• Weight on the Moon
o Calculation using universal law of gravitation.
o Lesser mass of Moon compared to Earth.
o Weight on Moon: 1/6 of weight on Earth.
Gravitational • Space around material body experiencing gravitational force.
Field • Attraction felt in gravitational field.
• Gravitational Field Intensity
o Force experienced by unit mass at any point.
o Test mass experiences force in gravitational field.
o Measured at any point in the field.
Gravitational
Potential
• Negative of work done per unit mass.
• Shifted from reference point to given point.
Gravitational • Energy of body at point in field.
Potential • Work done in bringing body from infinity to point.
Energy • Stored as potential energy inside body.
• Work done represented as "W."
• Gravitational potential energy denoted as "U."
• Becomes maximum (zero) if r = ∞.
Escape • Minimum velocity needed to overcome gravitational pull.
Velocity • Independent of body's mass and projection direction.
• Ve = 11.2 km/sec.
• Planet has atmosphere if molecule velocity < escape velocity.
• Earth has atmosphere due to lower molecule velocity.
• Moon lacks atmosphere due to higher escape velocity.
Kepler’s Laws • Kepler's Laws
of Planetary 1. Planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at a focus.
Motion 2. Equal areas are swept in equal time intervals.
3. Cube of mean distance from the Sun is proportional to square of orbital period.
• Newton's Utilization of Kepler's Laws
o Newton used Kepler's third law to calculate gravitational force.
o Gravitational force weakened by distance.
o Orbital velocity and radius relationship utilized.
o Derived the inverse-square rule of gravitational force.
• Law of Orbits
o Planets move in elliptical orbits.
o Sun located at one of the foci.
• Law of Area
o Line from sun to planet sweeps equal areas in equal time intervals.
o Areal velocity remains constant.
o Planet moves slowly when farthest from sun, rapidly when nearest.
• Law of Periods
o Square of period of revolution (T) directly proportional to cube of semi-major axis (a).
o Formula: T2 ∝ a3
o Parameters: a = semi-major axis, r1 = shortest distance from sun, r2 = largest distance from sun.
• Kepler’s laws applicable to satellites too.

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Orbital
Velocity of
Satellite

Time Period of
Satellite

Height of
Satellite

Geostationary • Definition and Characteristics

Satellite o Appears stationary relative to Earth.
o Stays over the same place above Earth.
o Orbit known as parking orbit.
• Requirements for orbit:
o Concentric and coplanar with equatorial plane.
o Same sense of rotation as Earth.
o Same period of revolution as Earth.
o Height from Earth's surface: 6R = 36000 km.
o Orbital velocity: 3.08 km/sec.
o Angular momentum depends on mass and radius of orbit.
Weightlessness • State of zero weight.
• Observed in:
o Objects falling freely under gravity.
o Satellites revolving in orbit.
o Bodies at null points in outer space.
o Zero gravity region called null point.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Interatomic • Forces between molecules due to electrostatic interaction.
Forces • Also known as Vander Waal forces.
• Weaker compared to interatomic forces.
• Forces between atoms due to electrostatic interaction.
• Attractive force when atoms brought close.
• Force increases with decrease in distance.
• Critical Distance
o Maximum attraction at a specific distance (X).
• Equilibrium Distance
o Distance (r0) where interatomic force is zero.

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o Further decrease leads to rapid repulsion.

Elastic • Elasticity
Property of o Property of regaining original shape after deforming force removal.
Matter • Plasticity
o Property of not regaining original shape after force removal.
• Types of Bodies
o Perfectly elastic: Regains original shape completely.
o Perfectly plastic: Doesn't recover original shape.
• Examples
o Quartz fiber and phosphor: Perfectly elastic.
o Paraffin wax, wet clay: Perfectly plastic.
• Reason for Elasticity
o Restoring forces bring molecules to equilibrium position.
o Body regains original form.
• Elastic Limit
o Maximum deforming force retaining elasticity.
o Property of material versus property of body.
• Elastic Fatigue
o Temporary loss of elasticity due to repeated forces.
o Examples: bridges, spring balances, wire bending.
• Elastic After Effect
o Time delay for substance to regain original condition.
o Negligible for perfectly elastic substances like quartz.
Stress • Definition of Stress
o Internal restoring force per unit area of deformed body.
o Unit: N/m2 (S.I.), dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.).
• Stress Types
o Normal Stress
▪ Force applied perpendicular to surface.
▪ Longitudinal and Bulk or Volume stress.
o Longitudinal Stress
▪ Force applied parallel to length, causing length increase.
▪ Stress calculated using cross-sectional area.
▪ Tensile stress for length increase.
▪ Compressional stress for length decrease.
o Bulk or Volume Stress
▪ Occurs in solids, liquids, or gases.
▪ Force applied normal to surface at all points.
▪ Change in pressure equals change in volume.
o Shear or Tangential Stress
▪ Occurs when solid layers move relative to each other.
▪ Force applied tangentially to one face.
▪ Area for calculation is face area where force is applied.
▪ Produces change in shape, volume remains constant.
Strain • Definition of Strain
o Ratio of change in configuration to original configuration.
o Dimensionless and unitless.

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Hooke’s law (1) It’s value depends upon the nature of material of the body and the manner in which the body is deformed.
(2) It’s value depends upon the temperature of the body.
and Modulus (3) It’s value is independent of the dimensions of the body.
of Elasticity

• There are three moduli of elasticity namely Young’s modulus (Y), Bulk modulus (K) and modulus of
rigidity (η) corresponding to three types of the strain.
Young’s
Modulus (Y)

Factors 1. Hammering and Rolling

Affecting o Increases elasticity of material.
Elasticity 2. Annealing
o Decreases elasticity of material.
3. Temperature
o Elasticity decreases with rising temperature.
o Invar steel's elasticity remains constant with temperature changes.
4. Impurities
o Effect on elasticity depends on impurity nature.
• Practical Applications of Elasticity
1. Metallic Rope Thickness for Crane
▪ Determined by elasticity knowledge.
2. Estimating Maximum Mountain Height
▪ Elasticity helps in estimation.
3. Hollow Shaft vs. Solid Shaft
▪ Hollow shaft stronger than solid shaft of same mass, length, and material.
Intermolecular • The force of attraction or repulsion acting between the molecules are known as intermolecular force.
Force • The nature of intermolecular force is electromagnetic.
• Classified into two types:

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Surface • Definition
Tension o Property of a liquid.
o Free surface minimizes surface area.
o Causes spherical shape in small drops.
• Measurement
o Force per unit length on liquid surface.
o Surface tension formula: T = (F/L).
• Chronological Order of Factors Affecting Surface Tension
o Temperature
▪ Surface tension decreases with temperature rise.
▪ Formula: Tt = T0 (1 – α t).
▪ α is temperature coefficient.
• Impurities
o Highly soluble substances increase water surface tension.
o Springly soluble substances decrease water surface tension.
• Surface Energy
o The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called surface energy.
o Unit: Joule/m2 (S.I.) erg/cm2 (C.G.S.)
o Dimension: [MT–2]
o ∴ W = T × ∆A [∆A = Total increases in area of the film from both the sides]
o Surface tension may be defined as the amount of work done in increasing the area of the liquid
surface by unity against the force of surface tension at constant temperature.
Excess
Pressure

Capillarity • If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the liquid in the capillary
either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid.
• The cause of capillarity is the difference in pressures on two sides curved surface of liquid.
Pressure • Definition of Pressure
o Normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a surface.
o Known as thrust of liquid on the surface.
o Calculated as P = F/A.
• Units and Dimensions

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o Units: N/m2 or Pascal (S.I.), Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.).

o Dimension: [P]
• Atmospheric Pressure
o atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa = 1.01bar = 1 torr.
• Hydrostatic Pressure
o Given by P – P0 + hρg.
o P0 is atmospheric pressure.
o h is depth below liquid surface.
o ρ is density of liquid.
o g is acceleration due to gravity.
• Gauge Pressure
o Pressure difference: P – P0 + ρgh.
• Concepts introduced to understand phenomena.
o Net force in a particular direction (thrust).
o Force per unit area (pressure).
o Situation 1:
▪ Fixing a poster with drawing pins.
▪ Force applied perpendicular to surface.
▪ Force acts on smaller area at pin tip.
o Situation 2:
▪ Standing and lying on loose sand.
▪ Force perpendicular to sand surface is thrust.
▪ Effects of thrust depend on area of application.
▪ Thrust = Force / Area.
• Pressure in Fluids
o All liquids and gases are fluids.
o Fluids exert pressure due to weight.
o Pressure transmitted undiminished in all directions.
• Buoyancy
o Force exerted by fluids on immersed objects.
o Upward force known as upthrust or buoyant force.
o Magnitude depends on density of fluid.
• Floating and Sinking
o Objects float or sink based on density compared to liquid.
o Cork floats due to lower density than water.
o Iron nail sinks due to higher density than water.
Pascal’s Law • Principle of Pascal’s Law
o Increase in pressure at one point transmitted equally to all other points.
o Applies to enclosed liquid in equilibrium.
o Effects walls of container.
• Applications
o Hydraulic lift.
o Hydraulic press.
o Hydraulic brakes.
Archimedes • Observations and Inferences
Principle o Elongation of string decreases as stone immersed in water.
o Decrease in elongation due to force of buoyancy.
o Buoyant force equals weight of displaced fluid.
• Archimedes’ Discovery
o Principle named after Greek scientist Archimedes.
o Upward force observed in bathtub overflow.
o Used to determine purity of gold.
o Applied in ship and submarine design.
• When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a fluid, in rest it is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body.
• Apparent weight of the body of density (ρ) when immersed in a liquid of density (σ).

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• Relative Density
o Density defined as mass per unit volume.
o Characteristic property of substances.
o Relative density compares substance density to water.
o Calculation
▪ Relative density = Density of substance / Density of water.
▪ Ratio without unit.
o Examples
▪ Gold: Density 19300 kg/m³.
▪ Water: Density 1000 kg/m³.
Critical 1. Streamline Flow
Velocity, • Each element of liquid follows same path and velocity.
Streamline, • Streamlines don't cross.
• Crowding of streamlines increases velocity.
Laminar, and
2. Laminar Flow
Turbulent • Liquid flows in layers with different velocities.
Flow • Layers don't mix.
• Velocity is less than critical velocity.
3. Turbulent Flow
• Liquid moves irregularly.
• Occurs when velocity exceeds critical velocity.
❖ Critical Velocity
o Up to critical velocity, flow is streamlined.
o Above critical velocity, flow becomes turbulent.
Equation of • Derivation
Continuity o Derived from principle of conservation of mass.
• Conditions
o Incompressible liquid, Streamlined flow & non-viscous liquid.
• Equation
o Product of cross-sectional area and velocity remains constant: a1v1 = a2v2
• Water Falling from Tap
o Velocity increases with distance from tap.
o v2 > v1
o According to continuity equation, cross-section decreases: A2 < A1
o Falling stream of water becomes narrower.

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Energy of a
Flowing Fluid

Bernoulli’s • Bernoulli’s Theorem

Theorem o Total energy per unit volume remains constant.
o Applies to incompressible, non-viscous fluid in steady flow.

• Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

o Attraction between moving boats.
o Working of airplane: dynamic lift.
o Action of atomiser.
o Wind storms blowing off roofs.
o Magnus effect: deviation of spinning ball's path.
o Venturimeter: measures liquid flow rate.
Viscosity and • Definition
Newton’s Law o Viscosity: Resistance to relative motion between fluid layers.
of Viscous o Viscous force: Force opposing this motion.
Force • Formula for Viscous Force
o Proportional to area (A) and velocity gradient.
o Formula: F = η * (A / x) * v
o η: Coefficient of viscosity.
• Units and Dimensions
o Units: dyne-s-cm–2 or Poise (C.G.S.); Newton-s-m–2 or Poiseuille (S.I.).
o 1 Poiseuille = 1 decapoise = 10 Poise.
o Dimension: [ML–1T–1]
• Factors Affecting Viscosity
o Effect of Pressure
▪ Liquids (except water): Viscosity increases with pressure.
▪ Gases: Viscosity independent of pressure.
▪ Water: Viscosity decreases with pressure.
o Effect of Surface and Velocity
▪ Solid friction: Independent of surface area and relative velocity.
o Comparison with Transport Phenomena
▪ Viscosity: Represents transport of momentum.
▪ Diffusion and conduction: Represent transport of mass and energy.
o Effect of Temperature
▪ Gases: Viscosity increases with temperature.
▪ Liquids: Viscosity decreases with temperature.

Stokes Law • Stokes Law

and Terminal o Stokes established that if a sphere of radius r moves with velocity v through a fluid of viscosity η, the
Velocity viscous force opposing the motion of the sphere is F = 6πηrv (stokes law).
o If a spherical body of radius r is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first accelerated and then it’s
acceleration becomes zero and it attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.

• Conditions for Terminal Velocity

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oIf ρ > σ, constant velocity downward.

oIf ρ < σ, constant velocity upward.
• Example: Air Bubble in Liquid and Clouds in Sky

THERMODYNAMICS
Heat • Definition
o Energy associated with configuration and motion of atoms and molecules, called heat.
o Units: Joule (S.I.) and calorie (Practical unit).
• Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
o Ratio of work done (W) to heat produced (Q) constant.
o Denoted as J, value 4.2 J/cal.
o 1 calorie = 4.186 Joule = 4.2 J.
• Path Dependency of Heat
o Heat considered positive if absorbed, negative if released.
Temperature • Definition
o Degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
o Heat flows from higher to lower temperature.
o Temperature proportional to kinetic energy.
• Thermal Equilibrium
o Two bodies at same temperature.
o Indicated by thermal equilibrium.
• Scales of Temperature
o Kelvin Temperature Scale, also known as thermodynamic scale.
o S.I. unit: Kelvin.
o Defined as (1/273.16) of triple point of water temperature.
• Triple Point of Water
o Solid, liquid, and gas coexist in equilibrium.
o Used as reference point.
o Freezing point (lower fixed point) and boiling point (upper fixed point) of water for constructing
temperature scale.

• Expansion of Water
o Expands on heating above 4ºC.
o Contracts between 0ºC to 4ºC.
o Density is maximum, specific volume is minimum at 4ºC.

o
Thermal • Thermal capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the whole body
Capacity and (mass, m) through 1ºC or 1 K.
Water o Thermal capacity = mc = µC =
Equivalent o Dimension: [ML2T–2θ–1],
o Unit: call ºC (practical), Joule K (S.I.)
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• Water Equivalent: Water equivalent of a body is defined as the mass of water which would absorb or evolve
the same amount of heat as is done by the body in rising or falling through the same range of temperature. It is
represented by W.
o If m = Mass of the body, c = Specific heat of body
o Water equivalent (W) = mc gm
Specific Heat • Gram specific heat: The heat required to raise the temperature of one gram mass of a body through 1ºC (or
1ºK) is called gram specific heat of the material of the body.

o
o Units: Calorie/gmº C (Practical), J/kg K(S.I.)
o Dimension: [L2T–2θ–1]
• Molar specific heat: Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram mole of the substance
through a unit degree it is represented by (capital) C.

o Units: Cal mol–1 ºC–1 (Practical), J mol–1 K–1 (S.I.)

o Dimension: [ML2T–2θ–1µ–1]
Specific Heat • Specific heat at constant volume Cv. With rise in temperature, Cv increases and becomes constant = 3R
of Solids • Dulong and Petit law: Average molar specific heat of all metals at room temperature is constant and is equal to 3R.

Latent Heat • Definition

o Heat energy absorbed or released during state change.
o Temperature remains constant during state change.
• Formula
o ∆Q = mL
o L represents latent heat.
• Units and Dimensions
o Unit: cal/gm or J/kg.
o Dimension: [L2T-2].
• Types of Latent Heat
o Latent Heat of Fusion
▪ Heat needed to change solid to liquid.
▪ Denoted as LF.
▪ Approximate value for ice: 80 cal/g.
o Latent Heat of Vaporization
▪ Heat required for liquid to gas change.
▪ Denoted as Lv.
▪ Approximate value for steam: 540 cal/gm.
Modes of Heat • Conduction
Transfer o Heat flows from hot end to cold end.
o Particles oscillate but stay in place.
o Medium required.
o Slow process.
o Occurs in solids.
o Temperature of medium increases.
• Convection
o Heat flow through mobile particles.
o Medium required.
o Slow process.
o Occurs in fluids.
o Temperature of medium increases.
• Radiation
o Heat flows through electromagnetic waves.
o No medium required.
o Fast process.
o Occurs in gaseous and transparent media.

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o No change in medium temperature.

WAVE MOTION
Sound • Definition
o Form of energy producing sensation of hearing.
o Various sources: humans, birds, machines, etc.
o Sound is a mechanical wave.
• Production of Sound
o Vibrating Objects
▪ Sound produced by vibrating objects.
▪ Examples: tuning fork, plucking, scratching, etc.
▪ Vibrations set objects in motion, producing sound.
o Propagation of Sound
▪ Medium
• Matter or substance through which sound travels.
• Solid, liquid, or gas can act as a medium.
• Sound moves through medium from source to listener.
▪ Compression and Rarefaction
• Vibrating object creates regions of high and low pressure.
• Compression: region of high pressure.
• Rarefaction: region of low pressure.
• Sound waves
o Longitudinal Waves
▪ Individual particles move parallel to wave direction.
▪ Oscillate back and forth about mean position.
▪ Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
o Transverse Waves
▪ Particles oscillate perpendicular to wave direction.
▪ Example: waves on water surface.
▪ Light is a transverse wave but not mechanical.
• Medium's Role in Sound Transmission
o Need for a Medium
▪ Sound requires material medium for propagation.
▪ Demonstrated using electric bell in vacuum experiment.
▪ Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
o Longitudinal Wave Illustration
▪ Slinky Demonstration
▪ Compressions and rarefactions shown in slinky.
▪ Particles oscillate about mean position.
▪ Comparison with sound wave propagation.
o Transverse Wave Explanation
▪ Particles oscillate perpendicular to wave direction.
▪ Example: waves on water surface.
▪ Light is a transverse wave, not mechanical.
Periodic • Definition
Motion o Motion that repeats itself at regular intervals.
o Interval between repetitions is called period.
o Example: Earth's revolution around the sun.
• Oscillatory or Vibratory Motion
o Body moves back and forth about a fixed point.
o Also known as harmonic motion.
o Example: Pendulum of a wall clock.
• Harmonic and Non-harmonic Oscillation
o Harmonic Oscillation
▪ Expressible in terms of single harmonic function (sin or cosine).

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▪ Example equation: y = a sin ωt.

o Non-harmonic Oscillation
▪ Not expressible in terms of single harmonic function.
▪ Example equation: y = a sin ωt + b sin 2ωt.
• Some Important Definitions
o Time Period
▪ Interval after which motion repeats.
▪ Unit: second.
o Frequency
▪ Number of motions per second.
▪ Unit: hertz (Hz).
o Displacement
▪ Deviation from mean position.
o Phase
▪ Represents position and direction of motion.
▪ Example equation: y = a sin (ωt + φ0).
Sound Wave • Definition of Sound Wave
o Described by frequency, amplitude, and speed.
o Graphic representation shows density and pressure variations.
• Compression and Rarefaction
o Compression
▪ Regions of high density and pressure.
▪ Represented by peaks in wave graph.
o Rarefactions
▪ Regions of low pressure.
▪ Represented by valleys in wave graph.
• Wave Terminology
o Crest: Peak of wave.
o Trough: Valley of wave.
o Wavelength (λ): Distance between compressions or rarefactions.
o Frequency (ν): Number of compressions or rarefactions per unit time.
o Time Period (T): Time taken for one complete oscillation.
• Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
o Confirmed Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.
o Laid foundation for radio, telephone, etc.
o Discovered photoelectric effect.
o SI unit of frequency named after him.
• Frequency
o Tells how frequently an event occurs.
o Represented by Greek letter ν (nu).
o SI unit: Hertz (Hz).
• Amplitude and Loudness
o Amplitude
▪ Magnitude of maximum disturbance.
▪ Determines loudness.
▪ Greater force produces louder sound.
o Loudness
▪ Determined by amplitude.
▪ Loudness decreases as sound travels from source.
▪ Loudness ≠ Intensity.
• Quality or Timber of Sound
▪ Enables distinction between sounds.
▪ Tone: Single frequency.
▪ Note: Mixture of frequencies, pleasant to listen to.
▪ Noise: Unpleasant to the ear.
▪ Music: Pleasant and of rich quality.
• Speed of Sound
o Definition
▪ Distance travelled per unit time.
▪ Depends on medium properties.
▪ Speed = Wavelength × Frequency.

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o Intensity of Sound
▪ Amount of sound energy passing per unit area.
▪ Not same as loudness.
o Speed of Sound in Different Media
▪ Dependence on Medium
▪ Speed varies with properties of medium.
▪ Increases with temperature.
▪ Decreases from solid to gaseous state.
▪ Listed speeds at different temperatures
Simple • Simple Harmonic Motion
Harmonic o Special type of periodic motion.
Motion o Restoring force proportional to displacement.
o Example equation: F = -kx.
• Displacement in S.H.M.
o Projection of uniform circular motion on diameter.
o Equations for different scenarios:
o y = a sin ωt (particle at mean position)
o y = a cos ωt (particle at extreme position)
o y = a sin (ωt ± φ) (particle leading or lagging from mean position).
Simple
Pendulum

(i) Time Period and Amplitude

o Time period independent of amplitude in simple harmonic motion.
(ii) Time Period and Mass
o Time period independent of mass of the bob.
(iii) Length and Earth's Radius
o If length of pendulum comparable to earth's radius.
o Time period is 84.6 minutes when length is much greater than earth's radius.
(iv) Horizontal Acceleration
o Time period of pendulum with horizontally accelerating point of suspension.
o Angle calculated using acceleration and gravitational acceleration.
(v) Second's Pendulum
o Simple pendulum with time period of two seconds.
(vi) Work Done
o Work done in giving angular displacement to pendulum.
o Calculation formula: W = U = mgl (1 - cos θ).
(vii) Kinetic Energy
o Kinetic energy of bob at mean position equals potential energy at extreme position.
Free, • Free Oscillation
Damped, o Oscillation with fundamental frequency.
Forced, and o Amplitude, frequency, and energy remain constant.
o Frequency termed natural frequency.
Maintained
• Damped Oscillation
Oscillation o Amplitude decreases with time.
o Decrease exponential due to damping forces.
o Frictional, viscous, hysteresis forces cause damping.
• Forced Oscillation
o Body oscillates under external periodic force.
o Resonance: External force frequency equals natural frequency.
o State known as resonance, frequency as resonant frequency.
• Maintained Oscillation
o Loss compensated by energy from external source.
Wave • Necessary Properties of Medium for Wave Propagation
o Elasticity for particles to return to mean position.
o Inertia for energy storage.
o Minimum friction among medium particles.
o Uniform density of medium.
• Mechanical Waves
o Require medium for propagation.
o Examples: Waves on string, spring, water surface, sound, seismic waves.

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• Non-Mechanical Waves
o Do not require medium.
o Examples: Light, heat, radio waves.
Important • Wavelength
Terms o Length of one wave.
o Distance between consecutive crests or troughs.
• Frequency
o Number of vibrations per second.
• Time Period
o Time for one vibration completion.
o Inverse of frequency.
• Relation between Frequency and Time Period
o Time period = 1 / Frequency.
o T = 1/n.
• Relation between Velocity, Frequency, and Wavelength
o v = nλ.
Standing • Formation of Standing Waves
Waves or o When two sets of waves of same type and amplitude superimpose.
o Waves travel in opposite directions along same line.
Stationary o Resulting waves are called stationary or standing waves.
Waves • Characteristics of Standing Waves
o Disturbance confined to particular region.
o No forward motion of disturbance beyond this region.
o Total energy is twice the energy of each wave.
o Points of zero amplitude called nodes.
o Distance between consecutive nodes is λ/2.
o Points of maximum amplitude called antinodes.
o Distance between consecutive antinodes is also λ/2.
o Medium splits into segments.
o Particles in one segment vibrate in same phase.
Beats • Formation of Beats
o When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies superimpose.
o Intensity of resultant sound rises and falls regularly.
• Characteristics of Beats
o Beat period: Time between two successive beats.
o Beat frequency: Number of beats per second.
o Persistence of hearing: Sound impression persists for 1/10th of a second.
o Frequencies of two sources should be nearly equal for distinct beats.
o Equation of beats relates amplitudes and frequencies.
Doppler • Description of Doppler Effect
Effect o Apparent frequency differs from actual frequency due to relative motion.
o Depends on velocities of listener, source, and medium.
• Conditions for Doppler Effect
o No Doppler effect if relative motion is zero.
o No effect if source and listener move perpendicular to wave propagation.
o If source or listener velocity exceeds sound velocity, Doppler effect not observed.
• Additional Notes on Doppler Effect
o Does not indicate intensity of sound.
o Asymmetric in sound but symmetric in light.
Sonic Boom • Sonic Boom
o Occurs when object exceeds speed of sound.
o Produces shock waves in air.
o Results in sharp, loud sound.
Reflection of • Reflection Laws
Sound o Sound reflects like light.
o Incident and reflected angles equal.
o Need large obstacle for reflection.
• Echo
o Sound reflection from suitable objects.
o Heard after original sound, due to time delay.
o Minimum distance needed for distinct echo.

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• Reverberation
o Persistence of Sound
o Sound reflections in closed space.
o Repeated reflections cause persistence.
o Undesirable in auditoriums, controlled by materials.
• Uses of Multiple Reflection of Sound
o Megaphones and Horns
▪ Direct sound waves in specific direction.
▪ Utilize successive reflections.
o Stethoscope
▪ Multiple reflections for listening to internal body sounds.
o Curved Ceilings
▪ Spread sound evenly across hall.
▪ Utilize reflections to reach all corners.
Range of • Audible Range
Hearing o Human range: 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
o Some animals hear higher frequencies.
o Infrasonic and ultrasonic sound definitions.
• Applications of Ultrasound
o Cleaning Applications
o Removes dirt from hard-to-reach places.
o Detaches particles using high frequency.
• Detection of Flaws
o Identifies cracks in metal blocks.
o Reflects ultrasound from defects.
• Medical Imaging
o Echocardiography and ultrasonography.
o Images organs by reflecting ultrasound.
o Detects abnormalities.
SONAR • Stands for sound navigation and ranging.
• Uses ultrasonic waves for underwater navigation.
• Transmitter emits waves, receiver detects reflections.
• Depth Determination
o Calculates depth using time interval and speed of sound.
o Used to locate underwater objects.
• Bats and Porpoises
o Use ultrasound for navigation.
o Emit and detect reflections for prey location .
Structure of • Outer Ear
Human Ear o Collects sound via pinna.
o Sound passes through auditory canal.
• Middle Ear
o Contains eardrum.
o Vibrations amplified by three bones.
• Inner Ear
o Cochlea converts pressure variations to electrical signals.
o Signals sent to brain via auditory nerve.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Charges • Behaviour
o Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
Conductors • Conductors allow movement of electric charge through them, insulators do not.
and Insulators
Quantization of • It means that total charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge
Electric Charge (e)
o q = ne
o where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ….
Additivity of • Total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all individual charges in the system.

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Electric
Charges
Conservation • The total charge of an isolated system remains unchanged with time.
of Electric
Charges
Superposition • It is the properties of forces with which two charges attract or repel each other are not affected by the
Principle presence of a third (or more) additional charge(s).
Electric Field • Force on small positive test charge q divided by magnitude.
E at a Point • Formula:

o Radially outwards if q is positive, inwards if negative.

o Varies inversely with square of distance from Q.
Coulomb’s • The mutual electrostatic force between two-point charges q1 and q2 is proportional to the product q1q2 and
Law inversely proportional to the square of the distance r 21 separating them.

o Where r 21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 and is the proportionality constant.
An Electric • It is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent at each point on the curve gives the direction of electric field
Field Line at that point.
• Important Properties of Field Lines:
o Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.
o Two field lines cannot cross each other.
o Electrostatic field lines start at positive charges and end at negative charges – they cannot form closed loops.
• Electric Field at a Point due to Charge q:

• Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole in its Equatorial Plane at a Distance r from the Centre:

• Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole on the Axis at a Distance r from the Centre:

• A Dipole Placed in Uniform Electric Field E experiences:

The Electric
Flux

Gauss’s Law

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ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric • It is the work done by per unit charge by an external agency, in bringing a charge from infinity to that point.
Potential and • Electrostatic Potential due to a Charge at a Point:
Capacitance
o
o The electrostatic potential at a point with position vector r due to a point dipole of dipole moment p
place at the origin is;

o The result is true also for a dipole (with charges –q and q separated by 2a) for r >> a.

• Electrostatics Potential Energy Stored in a System of Charges:

o It is the work done (by an external agency) in assembling the charges at their locations.
• Electrostatic Potential Energy of Two Charges q1, q2, at r1, r2:
o Where r12 is distance between q1 and q2

• Potential Energy of a Charge q in an External Potential:

• Potential Energy of a Dipole of Dipole Moment p in a Uniform Electric Field:

o E = –p.E.
• Equipotential Surface:
o An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential has a constant value.
o For a point charge, concentric spheres centered at a location of the charge are equipotential surfaces.
o The electric field E at a point is perpendicular to the equipotential surface through the point.
o E is in the direction of the steepest decrease of potential.
• Capacitance C of a System of Two Conductors Separated by an Insulator:

o where Q and – Q are the charges on the two conductors V is the potential difference between them.
o Capacitance is determined purely geometrically, by the shapes, sizes, and relative positions of the two
conductors.
• Capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the plates):

• When the medium between the plates of a capacitor filled with an insulating substance:
o Polarization of the medium gives rise to a field in the opposite direction.
o The net electric field inside the insulating medium is reduced.
o Potential difference between the plates is thus reduced.
o Capacitance C increases from its value when there is no medium (vacuum). where K is the dielectric
constant of the insulating substance.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electrical • It is the inverse of specific resistance for a conductor whereas the specific resistance is the
Conductivity resistance of unit cube of the material of the conductor.

o Where σ is the conductivity and ρ is resistivity.

• SI Unit of Conductivity:
o The SI unit of conductivity is mhom-1.
• Current through a given area of a conductor:
o It is the net charge passing per unit time through the area.
• Current Density Vector:
o The current density vector J gives current per unit area flowing through area ∆A when it
is held normal to the direction of charge flow. Note that the direction of J is in the

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direction of current flow.

Current Density • Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per second per unit area normal to the flow.
J = nqVd
o where n is the number density (number per unit volume) of charge carriers each of
charge q and vd is the drift velocity of the charge carriers. For electrons q = –e. If j is
normal to a cross – sectional area A and is constant over the area, the magnitude of the
current I through the area is neVdA.
Mobility • Mobility is defined to be the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field.

o where q is the electric charge of the current carrier and mq is its mass.
o Thus, mobility is a measure of response of a charge carrier to a given external electric
field.

Resistivity o Resistivity ρ is defined to be reciprocal of conductivity.

o It is measured in ohm-meter (Qm).

• Resistivity as a function of temperature:

o Where α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity and ρ T is the resistivity of the

material at temperature T.
• Ranges of Resistivity:
o Metals have low resistivity: Range of ρ varies from 10 –8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m.
o Insulators like glass and rubber have high resistivity: Range of ρ varies from 10 22 to 1024
times greater than that of metals.
o Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the middle range of resistivity on a
logarithmic scale.
• Total resistance in Series and in Parallel
o Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series is given by
▪ R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn
o Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel is given by

▪
o If the mass of a charge carrier is large, then for a given field E, its acceleration will be
small and will contribute very little to the electric current.
Electrical • When a conducting substance is brought under the influence of an electric field E, free charges
Conductivity (e.g. free electrons in metals) move under the influence of this field in such a manner, that the
current density J due to their motion is proportional to the applied electric field.

o where σ is a constant of proportionality called electrical conductivity. This statement is

one possible form of Ohm’s law.
• Consider a cylindrical material with cross sectional area A and length L
through which a current is passing along the length and normal to the
area A, then, since J and E are in the same direction,

o Where A is cross sectional area and L is length of the material

through which a current is passing along the length, normal to the area A. But, JA = I, the
current through the area A and EL = V1 - V2, the potential difference across the ends of
the cylinder denoting V1-V2 as

o Where is called resistance of the material. In this form, Ohm's law can be
stated as a linear relationship between the potential drop across a substance and the
current passing through it.

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Measuring
Resistance o
EMF o Emf (Electromotive force) is the name given to a non-electrostatic agency. Typically, it is a
battery, in which a chemical process achieves this task of doing work in driving the positive
charge from a low potential to a high potential. The effect of such a source is measured in terms of
work done per unit charge in moving a charge once around the circuit. This is denoted by ∈.
Ohm’s Law • Introduction
o Relationship between potential difference and current in a conductor.
• Ohm's Law Concept
o Discovery by Georg Simon Ohm
o Relationship between current (I) and potential difference (V).
o Directly proportional if temperature remains constant.
o V ∝ I or V/I = constant = R or V = IR.
• Resistance (R)
o Property of a conductor resisting charge flow.
o SI unit: ohm (Ω).
o R = V/I.
o 1 ohm = 1 volt /1ampere.
• Current and Resistance Relationship
o Current Inversely Proportional to Resistance
o I = V/R.
o Doubling resistance halves, the current.
o Rheostat used for current regulation.
• Electrical Resistance
o Components offer different paths for current flow.
o Some offer less resistance, others more.
o Motion of electrons restrained by atomic attraction.
o Resistance slows electron motion.
• Conductor and Resistor
o Good conductors offer low resistance.
o Poor conductors (resistors) offer higher resistance.
o Insulators offer even higher resistance.
• Significance of Ohm’s Law:
o Ohm’s law is obeyed by many substances, but it is not a fundamental law of nature. It fails if
a) V depends on I non- linearly. Example is when ρ increases with I (even if temperature is
kept fixed).
b) The relation between V and I depend on the sign of V for the same absolute value of V.
c) The relation between V and I is non- unique. For e.g., GaAs
o An example of (a) & (b) is of a rectifier
• When a source of emf (ε) is connected to an external resistance R, the voltage V ext across R is

given by
▪ Where r is the internal resistance of the source
• Factors Affecting Resistance of a Conductor
▪ Ammeter reading changes with alterations in wire length and thickness.
▪ Different materials also affect ammeter reading.
▪ Resistance depends on length, area of cross-section, and material.
• Ohm's Law Application
▪ Resistance proportional to length and inversely proportional to area.

▪ Resistance formula:
▪ rho is resistivity, measured in Omega m.
▪ Resistivity varies with material type and temperature.
• Series Connection
▪ Resistors joined end to end.

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• Parallel Connection
▪ Resistors connected side by side.
▪ Total current is sum of currents through each branch.

• Advantages of Parallel Circuit

▪ Each gadget operates independently.
▪ Total resistance decreases, aiding varied gadget operation.
Heating Effect of • Source of Electrical Energy
Electric Current o Battery or cell generates potential difference.
o Chemical reactions set electrons in motion.
• Heating Effect
o Energy expended as heat in resistors.
o Directly proportional to current squared, resistance, and time.
o Joule's law of heating: H = I2Rt
• Practical Application
o Heat used in electric heaters, irons, etc.
o Calculated using current and resistance.
• Fuse in Electric Circuits
o Protects circuits from high electric currents.
o Consists of metal wire with appropriate melting point.
o Melts to break circuit if current exceeds specified value.
Electric Current • Definition
and Circuit o Flow of electric charge through a conductor.
o Cells or batteries provide flow of charges in devices.
o Electric circuit forms a closed path for current flow.
• Expression of Electric Current
o Rate of flow of electric charges.
o Measured in amperes (A).
o One ampere equals one coulomb per second.
• Measurement of Electric Current
o Ammeter measures current in a circuit.
o Connected in series in the circuit.
• Flow of Charges inside a Wire
o Electrons 'travel' through a solid conductor.
o Electrons move with average 'drift speed'.
o Drift speed is relatively slow.
• Electric Bulb Illumination
o Current flow mechanism different from electron drift.
o Exact mechanism complex and fast.
o Beyond the scope of basic discussion.
Electric Potential • Analogous to Water Flow
and Potential o Charges flow due to potential difference.
Difference o No flow without potential difference.
• Definition of Potential Difference
o Work done per unit charge.

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o Measured in volts (V).

• Measurement with Voltmeter
o Connected in parallel across points.
o Measures potential difference.
Electric Power • Definition of Power
o Rate of doing work or consumption of energy.
o Rate of electric energy dissipation termed as electric power.
• Electric Energy Unit
o Watt hour (W h): Energy consumed with 1 W power for 1 hour.
o Commercial unit: Kilowatt hour (kW h), or 'unit'.
• Power Equation
o P = VI or P = I2R = V2R
o SI unit: Watt (W), defined as 1 V × 1 A.
o Kilowatt (kW) commonly used: 1000 W.

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

Magnetic Effects of • Introduction to Magnetic Effects
Electric Current o Electric current's other effects beyond heating.
o Electric current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet.
o Relationship between electricity and magnetism.
• Discovery of Electromagnetism by Oersted
o Hans Christian Oersted's accidental discovery in 1820.
o Compass needle deflection by nearby electric current.
o Established connection between electricity and magnetism.
o Contribution to technologies like radio and television.
o Magnetic field strength unit named "oersted" in his honor.
• Magnetic Field and Field Lines
o Compass needle deflection near a bar magnet.
o North and south poles of a compass needle.
o Iron filings align along magnetic field lines.
o Magnetic field: region surrounding a magnet where force can be detected.
o Magnetic field lines emerge from north pole and merge at south pole.
o Strength of magnetic field indicated by field line closeness.
o No crossing of field lines to avoid conflicting directions.
• Magnetic Field Due to Current-Carrying Conductor
o Electric current produces magnetic field around conductor.
o Magnetic field pattern depends on current magnitude and distance.
o Right-Hand Thumb Rule for determining magnetic field direction.
o Magnetic field pattern around straight wire and circular loop.
o Magnetic field strength increases with number of turns in a coil.
Force on a Straight • Force F on a straight conductor of length l and carrying a steady current I placed in a uniform external
Conductor magnetic field B,

Lorentz Force • Force on a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of magnetic and electric fields B and E.

Magnetic Force
• The magnetic force is normal to V and work done by it is zero.
Cyclotron • A charge q executes a circular orbit in a plane normal with frequency called the cyclotron frequency

given by,
o This cyclotron frequency is independent of the particle’s speed and radius.
Biot – Savart Law • It asserts that the magnetic field dB due to an element dl carrying a steady current I at a point P
at a distance r from the current element is,

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Magnetic Field due • Magnetic field due to circular coil of radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance X from the centre
to Circular Coil is

o At the centre of the coil,

• Electromagnet
o Strong magnetic field inside solenoid.
o Magnetizes magnetic materials placed inside, like soft iron.
o Forms electromagnet.
Ampere’s Circuital • For an open surface S bounded by a loop C, then the Ampere’s law states that
Law
where I refer to the current passing through S.
• If B is directed along the tangent to every point on the perimeter them

Where Ie is the net current enclosed by the closed circuit.

Magnetic Field • Magnetic field at a distance R from a long, straight wire carrying a current I is given by,

o
The field lines are circles concentric with the wire.
• Andre Marie Ampere's Observation
o Electric current in conductor produces magnetic field.
o Field exerts force on nearby magnet.
o Magnet exerts equal and opposite force on conductor.
• Demonstration Activity
o Current-carrying rod experiences force perpendicular to its length.
o Force direction changes with current and magnetic field direction.
o Largest force when current is perpendicular to magnetic field.
o Fleming’s left-hand rule used to determine force direction.
• Devices
o Electric motor.
o Electric generator.
o Loudspeakers.
o Microphones.
o Measuring instruments.
• Magnetism in Medicine
o Effect of Electric Current on Magnetic Field
o Weak ion currents in body produce magnetic fields.
o Electric impulses in nerves create temporary magnetic fields.
o Magnetic field strength about one-billionth of earth’s field.
o Significant magnetic fields in heart and brain.
• Medical Application: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
o Technique using body's magnetic fields for imaging.
o Helps in medical diagnosis.
o Important use of magnetism in medicine.
Solenoid • Definition
o Coil of insulated copper wire in cylindrical shape.
o Forms magnetic field similar to a bar magnet.
o One end behaves as north pole, other as south pole.
o Magnetic field lines inside solenoid are parallel and straight.
o Field is uniform inside solenoid.
• Magnetic field B inside a long Solenoid carrying a current I:

Where n is the number of turns per unit length.

Toriod

• Where N is the total numbers of turns and r is the average radius.

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Magnetic Moment o Magnetic moment m of a planar loop carrying a current I, having N closely wound turns, and an
of a Planar Loop area A, is
Right Hand Thumb • Direction of m is given by the Right – Hand Thumb Rule:
Rule o Curl and palm of your right hand along the loop with the fingers pointing in the direction of the
current, the thumb sticking out gives the direction of
Loop placed in a • When this loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, Then, the force F on it is, F = 0
Uniform Magnetic • The torque on it is,
Field • In a moving coil galvanometer, this torque is balanced by a counter torque due to a spring, yielding.

• where φ is the equilibrium deflection and k the torsion constant of the spring.
Magnetic Moment • An electron moving around the central nucleus has a magnetic moment µl, given by
in an Electron

where l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the circulating electron about the
central nucleus.
Bohr Magneton • The smallest value of µl is called the Bohr magneton μB.
o μB = 9.27 x 10–24 J/T
Magnetic Flux • Magnetic flux through a plane of area d A placed in a uniform magnetic field B

• If the surface is closed, then

• This is because magnetic lines of force are closed lines and free magnetic poles do not exist.
Faraday’s Law • First Law: whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a circuit with time, an induced
emf is produced in the circuit which lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
• Second Law: According to this law,

Lenz’s Law • The direction of the induced emf or current in the circuit is such that it opposes the cause due to which it
is produced, so that,

Where N is the number of turns in coil

• Lenz’s law is based on energy conservation.
Electromagnetic • Discovery by Michael Faraday
Induction o Moving magnet induces electric current.
o Discovered in 1831 by Faraday.
o Used galvanometer to detect current in coil.
• Activity and Observation
o Moving magnet towards coil induces current.
o No deflection when magnet and coil stationary.
o Induced potential difference causes current flow.
• Faraday's Contributions
o Experimental physicist.
o No formal education; learned through books.
o Made significant discoveries including electromagnetic induction.
• Variation of Activity
o Inducing current in coil using changing current in another coil.
o Primary coil induces current in secondary coil.
o Change in magnetic field induces current in secondary coil.
• Electric Motor
o Definition and Usage
▪ Rotating device converting electrical energy to mechanical energy.
▪ Used in various appliances like fans, refrigerators, mixers, etc.
o Working Principle of Electric Motor
▪ Application of Fleming’s left-hand rule for force direction.
• Electric Generator
o Utilizing Electromagnetic Induction
o Induced current generated in coil.
o Principle used to produce large currents for homes and industries.

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• Mechanism
o Rotation of coil in magnetic field induces current.
o Fleming’s right-hand rule determines induced current direction.
o Alternating current (AC) produced due to changing polarity.
• Domestic Electric Circuits
o Main supply through overhead poles or underground cables.
o Live wire (red insulation) and neutral wire (black insulation).
o Potential difference of 220 V in India.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Displacement
Current • It is due to time-varying electric field is,
• Displacement current acts as a source of magnetic field in exactly the same way as conduction current.
Electromagnetic o Electromagnetic waves are produced only by charges that are accelerating, since acceleration is absolute,
Waves and not a relative phenomenon.
o An electric charge oscillating harmonically with frequency υ, produces electromagnetic waves of the
same frequency υ .
o An electric dipole is a basic source of electromagnetic waves.
o Electromagnetic waves with wavelength of the order of a few meters were first produced and detected in
the laboratory by Hertz in 1887. He thus verified a basic prediction of Maxwell’s equations.
Relation • The speed c of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is related to µ0 and ε0 (the free space permeability and
between µ0 and permittivity constants) as
ε0 • The value of c equals the speed of light obtained from optical measurements. Light is an electromagnetic
wave; c is, therefore, also the speed of light.
• Electromagnetic waves other than light also have the same velocity c in free space.
Speed of Light • The speed of light, or of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is

• Where µ is the permeability of the medium and ε its permittivity.

• Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space and this energy is shared equally by the
electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic o The spectrum of electromagnetic waves stretches, in principle, over an infinite range of wavelengths.
Spectrum o The classification of electromagnetic waves according to frequency is the electromagnetic spectrum.
o There is no sharp division between one kind of wave and the next.
o The classification has more to do with the way these waves are produced and detected .
• Different Regions of Spectrum:
o Radio Waves
▪ Produced by accelerated motion of charges in wires.
▪ Used in radio and television communication systems.
▪ Frequency range: 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
o Microwaves
▪ Short wavelength radio waves.
▪ Frequencies in the gigahertz range.
▪ Used in radar systems for aircraft navigation.
▪ Used in microwave ovens for cooking.
o Infrared Waves
▪ Produced by hot bodies and molecules.
▪ Low frequency or long wavelength end of visible spectrum.
▪ Frequency range: about 4 x 1014 Hz to about 7 x 1014 Hz.
▪ Visible to human eyes.
o Ultraviolet Light
▪ Wavelengths: 400 nm to 0.6 nm.
▪ Sun is a significant source.
o X-rays
▪ Wavelength range: 10 nm to about 10-4 nm.
o Gamma Rays
▪ Upper frequency range of spectrum.
▪ Wavelengths: 10-10 m to 10-14 m.

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RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Light • Visibility of Objects
o Objects visible due to sunlight and reflection.
o Light enables vision through transparent media.
• Phenomena of Light
o Various phenomena: mirror images, star twinkling, rainbow colors, bending of light.
o Study of light properties aids in understanding phenomena.
• Nature of Light
o Straight-line Propagation
▪ Light appears to travel in straight lines.
▪ Evidenced by sharp shadows cast by small light sources.
o Diffraction of Light
▪ Opaque objects cause light bending.
▪ Diffraction effect occurs when object size is very small.
▪ Straight-line optics insufficient for explaining diffraction.
o Wave-Particle Duality
▪ Light initially thought of as wave.
▪ Wave theory inadequate for certain interactions.
▪ Modern quantum theory reconciles wave and particle properties.
Laws of • The reflection at a plane surface always takes place in accordance with the following two laws:
Reflection o The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
o (ii) The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflection r, i. e., ∠i = ∠r

Formation of • Characteristics of Image

Image by Plane o Virtual and erect image formed.
Mirror o Image size equals object size.
o Image formed at same distance behind mirror as object is in front.
o Image is laterally inverted.
Spherical • Definition

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Mirror o Part cut from a hollow sphere.

o Generally constructed from glass.
o The reflection at spherical mirror also takes place in accordance with the laws of reflection.
• Spherical Mirror Terminologies
o Aperture
▪ Part exposed to incident light rays.
▪ Diameter of concave and convex mirrors.
o Centre of Curvature
▪ Center of hollow sphere.
▪ Denoted by C.
o Radius of Curvature
▪ Radius of hollow sphere.
▪ Denoted by R.
o Pole
▪ Center of spherical surface.
▪ Denoted by P.
o Principal Axis
▪ Line joining center of curvature and pole.
▪ Extended on either side.
o Principal Focus
▪ Point where parallel rays meet or appear to meet.
▪ Denoted by F.
• Principal Focus and Mirror Types
o Concave Mirror
▪ Parallel rays meet at principal focus (real).
▪ Denoted by F.

▪
▪ Applications
• Torchlights, searchlights, vehicle headlights.
• Shaving mirrors.
• Dental use for larger tooth images.
• Concentrating sunlight in solar furnaces.
o Convex Mirror
▪ Parallel rays appear to meet or diverge from principal focus (virtual).
▪ Denoted by F.

▪
▪ Applications
o Magnification glasses
o Sunglasses
o Rear view mirror in vehicles
o Atms
o Street lights
o Focal Plane
▪ Plane passing through principal focus perpendicular to principal axis.
o Focal Length
▪ Distance between pole and principal focus.

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▪ Denoted by f.
Sign • Positive Distances
Convention o Measured from mirror pole.
o Direction of incident light is positive.
o Right of origin.
• Negative Distances
o Measured against incident light direction.
o Left of origin.
• Vertical Direction
o Upward distances are positive.
o Downward distances are negative.
Mirror • Formula
Formula o 1/f = 1/u + 1/v
▪ u = object distance from mirror pole.
▪ v = image distance from mirror pole.
▪ f = focal length.
• Alternative Formula
o r/2 = f
▪ r = radius of curvature.
Magnification • Definition
o Ratio of image size to object size.
• Linear Magnification Formula
o m = (v/f) = (I/u) = (I/O)
o Where I = image size, O = object size.
• Interpretation of Magnification
o Positive "m" indicates real and inverted image.
o Negative "m" indicates virtual and erect image.
Refraction • Introduction to Refraction
o Refraction defined as bending of waves passing from one medium to another.
o Differences in density cause bending.
• Causes of Refraction
o Change in speed leads to change in direction.
o Light ray refracts when traveling at angle into medium with different refractive index.
o Refracted light bends towards normal in denser substance.
• Laws of Refraction
o Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie on same plane.
o Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction constant (Snell’s law).

▪ Where a µb is a constant known as Refractive Index of the medium b with respect to the medium a,
i is ∠i = ∠r in medium b. Refractive Index Describes speed of light through material. Ratio of
speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in medium. Determines direction of light ray at junction
of two media.
• Refraction in Real Life
o Mirage and looming are optical illusions from light refraction.
o Swimming pools appear shallower due to light refraction at surface.
o Rainbow formation due to sunlight bending through raindrops.
o Prism splits white light into colors.
• Applications of Refraction
o Lenses use refraction for forming images and magnification.
o Spectacles for vision correction utilize refraction.
o Peepholes, cameras, projectors, and telescopes employ refraction.
Principle of • As light follows a reversible path,
Reversibility of
Light

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Methods to • Definition and Importance

Determine o Change in direction of light traveling between transparent media.
Refractive o Expressed as the refractive index.
o Related to the speed of light in different media.
Index of a
• Speed of Light
Medium o Fastest in vacuum (3×108 m/s).
o Slightly slower in air.
o Reduced considerably in glass or water.
• Formulas
o Refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1: 1n2 = v1/v2.
o Refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2: 2n1 = v2/v1.
o Absolute refractive index of a medium: nm = c/v.
• Absolute Refractive Index
o Refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum or air.
o Represented as n2.
o Calculated using the speed of light in air and the medium.
• Examples of Refractive Index
o Provides refractive index values for various media.
o Example: Refractive index of water (nw = 1.33), crown glass (ng = 1.52).
• Relation to Refractive Index
o Optical density ≠ Mass density.
o Optically denser medium has higher refractive index.
o Optically rarer medium has lower refractive index.
• Behavior of Light
o Light slows down and bends towards normal in denser medium.
o Light speeds up and bends away from normal in rarer medium.
• Refractive index of a medium can also be determined from the following:

• The Critical angle is the angle of incidence in a denser medium corresponding to which the refracted
ray just grazes the surface of separation.
Ray Diagram &
Lens Formula

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Magnification
by Lens

Power of a Lens • The power of a lens P is its ability to deviate the ray towards axis.

Dispersion & • Refraction in a Glass Slab

Prism o Emergent ray parallel but laterally displaced.
o Occurs in parallel refracting surfaces.
• Refraction Through a Prism
o Triangular glass prism with inclined surfaces.
o Incident ray bends towards normal at first surface.
o Bends away from normal at second surface.
o Angle of deviation observed.
• Dispersion
o Prism's Effect on White Light
▪ Prism splits white light into spectrum of colors.
▪ Colors observed: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red (VIBGYOR).
▪ Band of colored components called spectrum.
▪ Dispersion: splitting light into component colors.
o Explanation of Color Dispersion
▪ Different colors bend through different angles.
▪ Red bends least, violet bends most.
▪ Rays emerge along different paths, becoming distinct.
o Newton's Experiment with Prisms
▪ Newton used glass prism to obtain sunlight spectrum.
▪ Tried splitting spectrum further with second prism.
▪ Second prism reversed, allowed all colors to pass.
▪ Observation led to conclusion: sunlight composed of seven colors.
• Rainbow Formation
o Rainbow as Natural Spectrum
▪ Forms after rain shower.
▪ Caused by dispersion of sunlight by water droplets.
▪ Droplets act as prisms: refract, disperse, reflect, and refract again.
▪ Colors reach observer's eye due to dispersion and internal reflection.
o Observing Rainbows
▪ Formed in direction opposite to Sun.
▪ Can be seen through waterfalls or water fountains with Sun behind observer.
• Atmospheric Refraction
o Observations in Local Environment
▪ Apparent wavering of objects seen through turbulent hot air.
▪ Hot air above fire is lighter, with a slightly lower refractive index.
▪ Turbulence causes fluctuations in apparent position of objects.
o Twinkling of Stars
▪ Continuous Refraction
▪ Starlight undergoes continuous refraction in Earth's atmosphere.
▪ Atmosphere bends starlight towards normal.
▪ Apparent position of star fluctuates due to changing atmospheric conditions.
o Difference from Planets
▪ Planets seen as extended sources, unlike stars.
▪ Total variation in light from planets averages out, nullifying twinkling effect.
o Advance Sunrise and Delayed Sunset
▪ Effect of Atmospheric Refraction
▪ Sun visible about 2 minutes before actual sunrise and after actual sunset.
▪ Apparent flattening of Sun's disc at sunrise and sunset due to refraction.
Microscope • A simple microscope is a short focal length convex lens.
• The magnifying power of a simple microscope is

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MASER • Maser stands for ‘Microwaves Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’.

• It is simply a device for producing a highly intense, monochromatic coherent and collimated beam of
microwaves.
LASER • It stands for ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
• It is a device used to produce highly intense strong monochromatic coherent and collimated beam of light.
Human Eye • Introduction to Vision
o Previous chapter covered refraction by lenses.
o Study of human eye's function and lens correction.
• Significance of Human Eye
o Enables vision of colorful world.
o Most valuable and sensitive sense organ.
o Forms images on light-sensitive retina.
• Structure of the Eye
o Resembles a camera.
o Light enters through cornea.
o Refraction occurs primarily at cornea's outer surface.
o Iris controls pupil size.
o Eye lens forms inverted real image on retina.
o Retina has light-sensitive cells.
o Electrical signals sent to brain via optic nerves.
• Power of Accommodation
o Curvature changes by ciliary muscles.
o Lens becomes thin for distant objects.
o Lens becomes thick for nearby objects.
o Minimum distance for clear vision is the least distance of distinct vision.
o Farthest point of clear vision is the far point of the eye.
• Limitations of Accommodation
o Focal length cannot be decreased below a certain limit.
o Reading very close causes blurring.
• Advantages of Two Eyes
o Wider field of view.
o Enhanced ability to detect faint objects.
o Depth perception due to slight image differences.
• Defects of Vision and Correction
o Gradual loss of accommodation leads to blurred vision.
o Three common defects: myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia.
• Myopia (Near-Sightedness)
o Characteristics of Myopia
▪ Can see nearby objects clearly.
▪ Distant objects appear blurred.
▪ Image formed in front of retina.
o Causes of Myopia
▪ Excessive lens curvature or elongated eyeball.
o Correction with Concave Lens
▪ Concave lens shifts image back onto retina.
• Hypermetropia (Far-Sightedness)
o Characteristics of Hypermetropia
▪ Can see distant objects clearly.
▪ Nearby objects appear blurred.
▪ Image focused behind retina.
o Causes of Hypermetropia
▪ Long focal length of eye lens or small eyeball.
o Correction with Convex Lens
▪ Convex lens brings image onto retina.
• Presbyopia
o Characteristics
▪ Decreased accommodation due to aging.
▪ Difficulty in seeing nearby objects.
▪ Weakening of ciliary muscles and lens flexibility.
o Correction Methods
▪ Bifocal lenses for both near and distant vision.
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▪ Contact lenses or surgical interventions.

Scattering of • Phenomena in Nature
Light o Interaction of light with surroundings produces various phenomena.
o Examples: blue-sky, deep-sea water color, reddening of sun at sunrise and sunset.
• Tyndall Effect
o Presence of Particles
▪ Atmosphere contains smoke, water droplets, dust, and air molecules.
▪ Fine particles scatter light, making beam paths visible.
▪ Tyndall effect observed in smoke-filled rooms or misty forests.
o Color Dependence
▪ Scattering particles affect color of scattered light.
▪ Fine particles scatter mainly blue light.
▪ Larger particles scatter longer wavelengths, may appear white.
• Sky Color and Danger Signals
o Reason for Blue Sky
▪ Air molecules scatter shorter wavelengths more effectively.
▪ Scattered blue light enters our eyes, making sky appear blue.
▪ Absence of atmosphere would result in dark sky.
o Red Danger Signals
▪ Red light least scattered by fog or smoke.
▪ Retains color over longer distances, visible as 'danger' signals.
o Sunrise and Sunset Colors
▪ Demonstrates scattering of light causing sky's blue color and Sun's reddish appearance.
▪ Sulphur particles scatter short wavelengths, causing blue light.
▪ Reddish appearance of Sun due to scattering of longer wavelengths near horizon.
o Effect of Atmospheric Thickness
▪ Longer path near horizon allows scattering of shorter wavelengths.
▪ Blue and violet colors scattered away, leaving reddish hues.

NUCLEI
Electron Volt • It is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt and is denoted by eV.
Binding Energy • It may be defined as the energy required to break a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons and to
separate them to such a large distance that they may not interact with each other.
• It may also be defined as the surplus energy which the nucleus gives up by virtue of their attractions which
they become bound together to form a nucleus.
• The binding energy of a nucleus Z X Ais,

Radioactivity • It is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom with the emission of one or more
radiations like α -particles, β -particles or γ - rays.
• The substances which spontaneously emit penetrating radiation are called radioactive substances.
Radioactivity • When a radioactive nucleus emits an α -particle, atomic number decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by
Displacement 4.
Law • When a radioactive nucleus emits β -particle, its atomic number increases by 1 but mass number remains
same.
• The emission of a γ -particle does not change the mass number or the atomic number of the radioactive
nucleus. The γ -particle emission by a radioactive nucleus lowers its energy state.

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Nuclear
Reaction

• Nuclear Fission:
o It is the process in which a heavy nucleus when excited gets split into two smaller nuclei of nearly
comparable masses.
• Nuclear Fusion:
o It is the process of fusion of two smaller nuclei into a heavier nucleus with the liberation of large
amount of energy.

RESOURCES ESSENTIAL FOR LIFE ON EARTH

Introduction to • Dependent on various factors.
Life on Earth • Requires ambient temperature, water, and food.
• Earth's resources and solar energy meet life's basic needs.
Earth's • Lithosphere: Outer crust.
Resources • Hydrosphere: Water covering 75% of Earth's surface.
• Atmosphere: Blanket of air.
Biosphere • Interaction of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
• Zone supporting life.
• Components of Biosphere
o Biotic Component
▪ Living things.
o Abiotic Component
▪ Air, water, soil.
The Role of Air • Composition of Air
in Sustaining Life o Mixture of gases: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor.
o Influence of life on Earth's atmosphere.
• Role in Climate Control
o Atmosphere regulates temperature.
o Prevents sudden temperature changes.
o Importance of atmosphere illustrated by temperature differences on Moon.
Movement of • Formation of Winds
Air o Heating of air creates convection currents.

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o Uneven heating of land and water.

o Coastal regions' wind patterns explained.
o Factors Influencing Winds
o Rotation of Earth.
o Influence of mountain ranges.
Rain Formation • Cloud Formation and Precipitation
and Patterns o Heating of water bodies leads to water vapor.
o Rising air cools, causing condensation.
o Factors influencing cloud formation.
• Rainfall Patterns
o Influenced by prevailing wind patterns.
o Monsoon systems in India.
Air Pollution • Causes and Effects
o Burning of fossil fuels releases pollutants.
o Formation of oxides of nitrogen and sulfur.
o Health and environmental impacts.
o Visibility reduction due to smog.
Importance of • Water Distribution
Water for Life o Covers Earth's surface and found underground.
o Majority in seas and oceans.
o Freshwater sources vary in accessibility.
• Role of Water in Organisms
o Essential for cellular processes.
o Medium for reactions and transportation.
o Importance for terrestrial life.
• Relationship Between Water Availability and Biodiversity
o Water availability affects plant and animal diversity.
o Higher biodiversity in regions with more water.
o Consideration of other factors like temperature and soil.
Water Pollution • Introduction
o Fertilizers and pesticides dissolve in water bodies.
o Sewage and factory waste dumped into rivers.
o Industries use water for cooling, return hot water to water bodies.
• Effects of Temperature on Water Bodies
o Water temperature affected by various factors.
o Release of water from dams can alter river temperature.
o Impact on aquatic life, balance in ecosystems.
• Causes of Water Pollution
o Addition of undesirable substances to water bodies.
o Removal of desirable substances from water bodies.
o Changes in water temperature.
Mineral Riches o Rocks broken down by natural processes.
in the Soil o Factors: Sun, water, wind, living organisms.
• Soil Composition
o Mixture of rock particles, humus, and microscopic life.
o Humus enhances soil structure and fertility.
o Soil type and quality influence plant growth.
• Modern Farming Practices
o Large use of fertilizers and pesticides.
o Impact on soil structure and micro-organisms.
o Soil pollution: removal of useful components, addition of harmful substances.
• Soil Erosion
o Role of plant roots in preventing soil erosion.
o Deforestation leads to soil erosion.
o Vegetative cover aids water percolation.
Greenhouse • Greenhouse Effect
Effect and Ozone o Certain gases trap heat, causing global warming.
Layer o Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.
o Increased CO2 content leads to more heat retention.
• Ozone Layer
o Ozone absorbs harmful radiation from the sun.

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o Depletion due to man-made compounds like CFCs.

o Consequences of ozone layer depletion.
Need for • Importance of Food
Increased Food o Essential for body development, growth, and health.
Production o Obtained from plants and animals.
• Sources of Food
o Obtained from agriculture and animal husbandry.
o Major sources for humans.
• Population Growth
o India's population exceeds one billion.
o Growing population requires more food.
o Need for over a quarter billion tonnes of grain yearly.
• Limited Land
o Intensive cultivation in India.
o Limited scope for expanding cultivated land.
o Necessity to enhance production efficiency.
Efforts to
Increase Food
Production

• Sustainability
o Importance of increasing production without harming environment.
o Need for sustainable agriculture and animal husbandry practices.
Ensuring Food • Access to Food
Security o Availability and access are vital for food security.
• Income Generation
o Increasing incomes in agriculture crucial.
o Scientific management practices essential for high yields.
• Integrated Farming
o Combined practices like mixed farming and intercropping.
o Enhances sustained livelihoods.
Improvement in • Types of Crops
Crop Yields o Cereals, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, spices, fruits, fodder crops.
• Climatic Conditions
o Different crops require different conditions.
o Kharif and Rabi seasons for crop growth.
• Increase in Food Production
o Four times increase in food grain production from 1952 to 2010.
o Achieved with only 25% increase in cultivable land.
• Activities for Improving Crop Yields
o Stages of Farming
o Choice of seeds.
o Nurturing crop plants.
o Protection of crops.
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• Activities for Improvement

o Crop variety improvement.
o Crop production improvement.
o Crop protection management.
Crop Variety • Hybridisation
Improvement o Cross-breeding for desirable traits.
o Intervarietal, interspecific, or intergeneric.
o Results in genetically modified crops.
• Acceptance of New Varieties
o High yields under various conditions.
o Quality seeds needed for uniform germination.
o Varieties adaptable to diverse climates.
• Factors for Improvement
o Higher yield per acre.
o Improved product quality.
o Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
o Change in maturity duration.
o Wider adaptability to different environments.
o Desirable agronomic characteristics.
Nutrient • Essential Nutrients
Management o Supplied by air, water, and soil.
o Macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur etc.
o Micronutrients: iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chlorine etc.
• Impact of Nutrient Deficiency
o Affects plant physiology, growth, and disease resistance.
o Soil enrichment through manure and fertilizers increases yield.
Manure and • Manure
Fertilizers o Contains organic matter and nutrients.
o Prepared from animal excreta and plant waste.
o Enriches soil with nutrients and organic matter.
o Improves soil structure and fertility.
o Classified as compost, vermi-compost, and green manure.
• Fertilizers
o Commercially produced plant nutrients.
o Supply nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
o Promote vegetative growth for healthy plants.
o Require careful application to avoid pollution and soil degradation.
o Considerations for long-term soil fertility.
• Manure Types and Uses
• Compost and Vermi-compost
o Decomposition of farm waste in pits.
o Rich in organic matter and nutrients.
o Earthworms used to hasten decomposition.
• Green Manure
o Growing plants like sun hemp or guar.
o Mulching into soil to enrich with nitrogen and phosphorus.
Irrigation • Types of Irrigation Systems
o Wells: Dug wells and tube wells.
o Canals: Elaborate system with main canals and branch canals.
o River Lift Systems: Directly drawing water from rivers.
o Tanks: Small storage reservoirs for run-off.
• Importance of Irrigation
o Rain-fed agriculture in India.
o Measures to increase agricultural land under irrigation.
o Initiatives like rainwater harvesting and watershed management.
Cropping • Mixed Cropping
Patterns o Growing two or more crops simultaneously.
o Reduces risk and provides insurance against crop failure.
• Inter-cropping
o Growing two or more crops simultaneously in a pattern.
o Nutrient requirements differ, preventing pests and diseases.

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• Crop Rotation
o Successive growing of different crops on the same land.
o Depends on moisture availability and irrigation facilities.
o Improves soil fertility and allows multiple harvests.
Crop Protection • Weed Control
Management o Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, space, and light.
o Removal essential during early stages of crop growth.
o Mechanical removal and preventive methods.
• Insect Pest Management
o Insects damage plants by cutting, sucking, or boring.
o Affects plant health and reduces yields.
o Control methods include pesticides and preventive measures.
• Disease Management
o Caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
o Spread through soil, water, and air.
o Controlled by pesticides and preventive measures.
• Storage of Grains
o Factors: biotic (insects, rodents, fungi, mites, bacteria), abiotic (moisture, temperature).
o Result in quality degradation, weight loss, poor germination, discoloration.
o Controlled by proper treatment and warehouse management.
Animal • Overview
Husbandry o Scientific management of animal livestock.
o Includes feeding, breeding, disease control.
o Importance due to increased demand for milk, eggs, meat.
Cattle Farming • Purpose
o Milk production and draught labor.
o Indian cattle species: Bos indicus (cows), Bos bubalis (buffaloes).
o Differentiation between milch and draught animals.
• Improvement Strategies
o Milk production influenced by lactation period.
o Exotic breeds for long lactation, local breeds for disease resistance.
o Cross-breeding for desired qualities.
• Management Practices
o Proper cleaning and shelter facilities.
o Regular brushing and well-ventilated sheds.
o Balanced nutrition including roughage and concentrates.
• Health and Disease Control
o Regular feeding and normal posture indicators of health.
o Parasites: external (skin), internal (worms, flukes).
o Infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses; vaccination essential.
Poultry • Purpose
Farming o Egg production and chicken meat.
o Improved breeds for layers (eggs) and broilers (meat).
• Breeding Goals
o Cross-breeding for desirable traits.
o Traits include chick quality, adaptation, low maintenance.
• Management Practices
o Hygienic housing and feed.
o Disease prevention and control.
o Different nutritional requirements for broilers and layers.
• Health and Disease Control
o Diseases caused by virus, bacteria, fungi, parasites.
o Cleaning, sanitation, vaccination necessary.
Fish Production • Fisheries
o Finned fish and shellfish.
o Obtained from natural resources (capture fishing) or fish farming (culture fishery).
o India's coastline and deep seas.
o Fish varieties: pomphret, mackerel, tuna, sardines, Bombay duck.
• Farming
o Some high-value marine fish farmed in seawater.
o Practice known as mariculture.

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• Inland Fisheries
o Freshwater bodies: canals, ponds, rivers.
o Brackish water: estuaries, lagoons.
• Farming Techniques
o Fish culture in combination with rice crops or in composite fish culture systems.
o Use of different fish species for efficient food utilization.
• Challenges
o Breeding season limited to monsoon.
o Lack of good-quality seed addressed through hormonal stimulation.
Bee-Keeping • Purpose
o Honey production as agricultural enterprise.
o Additional income source for farmers.
• Bee Varieties
o Local varieties: Apis cerana indica, A. dorsata, A. florae.
o Italian variety: A. mellifera, for commercial honey production.
• Management
o Bee farms or apiaries for commercial honey production.
o Quality of honey depends on pasturage and available flowers.
Energy • Conservation of Energy
Conservation o Total energy during a process remains constant.
and Sources o Energy comes in different forms.
o Can be converted from one form to another.
Energy Crisis • Usable Energy
o Energy dissipates to surroundings in less usable forms.
o Usable energy consumed and cannot be reused.
Energy Sources • Factors in Selection
o Heat released on burning.
o Smoke production.
o Availability.
o Additional relevant questions for fuel selection.
• Characteristics of a Good Energy Source
o Performs large amount of work per unit volume or mass.
o Easily accessible.
o Easy to store and transport.
o Economical.
• Conventional Sources of Energy
o Fossil Fuels
▪ Historically used sources: wood, flowing water, wind.
▪ Industrial revolution led to coal exploitation.
▪ Increased global demand.
▪ Limited reserves, non-renewable.
o Disadvantages
▪ Air pollution.
▪ Acid rain.
▪ Greenhouse effect.
▪ Dependence for electricity generation.
• Harnessing Energy:
o Thermal Power Plants
▪ Burn fossil fuels to heat water.
▪ Steam used to run turbines.
▪ Efficient electricity transmission.
o Hydro Power Plants
▪ Convert potential energy of falling water into electricity.
▪ Associated with dams.
▪ Utilizes renewable source of energy.
o Challenges of Hydel Electricity
▪ Limited dam construction areas.
▪ Agricultural land and habitats sacrificed.
▪ Environmental impact and rehabilitation issues.
• Technological Improvements in Conventional Energy Sources
o Bio-Mass

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▪ Plant and animal-derived fuels.

▪ Wood, cow dung, crop residue.
▪ Efficient burning methods.
o Bio-Gas Production
▪ Decomposition of organic material in absence of oxygen.
▪ Production process and usage.
▪ Renewable and eco-friendly.
o Wind Energy
▪ Harnessing Wind Energy
▪ Utilizes kinetic energy of wind.
▪ Traditional uses in mechanical work.
▪ Modern electricity generation.
▪ Multiple windmills for commercial electricity.
▪ Global leaders in wind energy production.
▪ Challenges: wind consistency, land requirement, maintenance costs.
Solar Energy • Solar Radiation
o Sun emits vast energy for billions of years.
o Small part reaches Earth's atmosphere.
o India receives substantial solar energy annually.
• Solar Constant
o Solar energy at Earth's outer edge per unit area.
o Approximately 1.4 kW/m2.
o Absorbed by black surfaces more efficiently.
• Solar Devices
o Solar cookers and water heaters utilize sunlight.
o Glass plates enhance heat retention.
o Reflective surfaces increase temperature.
• Solar Cell Function
o Convert solar energy to electricity.
o Voltage: 0.5–1 V, Power: 0.7 W.
o Combined in panels for practical use.
• Advantages of Solar Cells
o No moving parts, low maintenance.
o Suitable for remote areas without power lines.
o Used in various applications like satellites and calculators.
• Challenges of Solar Cells
o High manufacturing cost.
o Limited availability of special grade silicon.
o Silver interconnection adds to cost.
o Limited domestic use due to expense.
Energy from • Tidal Energy
the Sea o Gravitational pull causes high and low tides.
o Dams harness tidal energy for electricity.
• Wave Energy
o Kinetic energy from waves converted to electricity.
o Strong waves required for viability.
• Ocean Thermal Energy
o Temperature difference between surface and depth.
o Exploited for electricity using thermal plants.
o Limited commercial viability.
• Formation of Geothermal Energy
o Molten rocks push upward into hot spots.
o Water contact generates steam for turbines.
• Geothermal Power Plants
o Steam used to generate electricity.
o Few commercially viable sites.
• Nuclear Energy
o Nuclear Fission
▪ Heavy atom nucleus splits, releasing energy.
▪ Fission chain reaction controlled in reactors.
▪ Used in power plants for electricity.

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o Nuclear Fusion
▪ Joining lighter nuclei to create heavier ones.
▪ Tremendous energy release, like in the Sun.
▪ Extreme conditions required for fusion.
▪ Hydrogen bomb utilizes fusion reaction.
o Challenges of Nuclear Energy
▪ Storage and disposal of radioactive waste.
▪ Risk of environmental contamination.
▪ High installation cost and limited uranium availability.
o Nuclear Fusion vs. Fission
▪ Fusion considered safer but requires extreme conditions.
▪ Current nuclear reactors based on fission.
o Nuclear Power Plants
▪ Installed capacity in India less than 3% of total electricity generation.
▪ Many industrialized countries rely heavily on nuclear energy.
Traditional • Integration with Tradition
Practices and o Sustainable living part of Indian tradition.
Environmental o Integrated with customs, festivals, beliefs, rituals, folklore.
o Philosophy of harmony with nature reflected in Sanskrit phrase "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam".
Conservation
• Understanding Natural Resources
o Previously Learned Concepts
▪ Soil, air, water cycled in nature.
▪ Pollution discussed in previous chapters.
o Focus of Current Chapter
▪ Examination of resource usage.
▪ Importance of sustainable practices.
▪ Exploration of forest, wildlife, water, coal, petroleum resources.
• Environmental Issues and Conservation Efforts
o Global Environmental Problems
▪ International and national laws for protection.
▪ Role of organizations in environmental conservation.
o Pollution of the Ganga
▪ Pollution sources: sewage, industrial effluents.
▪ Namami Gange Programme for conservation.
▪ Role of National Mission for Clean Ganga.
Forests and • Biodiversity Preservation
Wildlife o Forests as biodiversity hotspots.
o Importance of preserving diverse life forms.
• Stakeholders in Forest Conservation
o Local people, Forest Department, industries, enthusiasts.
o Varied needs and interests of stakeholders.
• Historical Forest Management
o British exploitation followed by independent India's practices.
o Conversion of forests to monocultures.
o Impact on biodiversity and local communities.
People's Role in • Chipko Movement
Forest o Grassroots effort against deforestation.
Conservation o Women's resistance in Reni village.
o Impact on government policies.
• Community Participation in Forest Management
o Example of West Bengal's Arabari forest.
o Villagers involved in protection and management.
o Successful recovery of degraded forest.
Traditional • Introduction to Dr. Rajendra Singh
Water o Efforts in Rajasthan's arid regions.
Harvesting in o Construction of 8,600 johads and water structures.
o Restoration of water to 1,000 villages.
India o Winner of the 2015 Stockholm Water Prize.
• Water Harvesting Techniques in India
o Age-old Concepts
▪ Khadins, tanks, and nadis in Rajasthan.
▪ Bandharas and tals in Maharashtra.

RAHUL SHARMA 64
 NOTES: CDS, CAPF & NDA

▪ Bundhis in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

▪ Ahars and pynes in Bihar.
▪ Kulhs in Himachal Pradesh.
▪ Ponds in the Kandi belt of Jammu region.
▪ Eris (tanks) in Tamil Nadu.
▪ Surangams in Kerala.
▪ Kattas in Karnataka.

RAHUL SHARMA 65