Chapter 1: Introduction

Signal: is defined any physical quantity that varies with

time, space, or any other independent variable or
variables
The example: The functions of signal:
S1(t) = 5t ; S2(t) = 20t² (1.1.1)
S (x,y) = 3x + 2xy + 10y² (1.1.2)
Speech signal:

Where : { Ai(t) } - amplitudes

{ Fi(t) } - frequencies { θi(t) } - phases.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.1: Signals, systems, and signal processing
Figure 1.1. Example of a speech signal
A L G O

R I N
TH

s A N D

D E V I

C E S

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.1: Signals, systems, and signal processing

- Electrocardiogram (ECG) signal provides a

doctor with information about the condition of
the patient’s heart.

- Electroencephalogram (ECG) signal provides

information about the activity of the brain.

- System may be defined as a physical device

that performs an operation on a signal.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.1: Signals, systems, and signal processing

- A filter used to reduce the noise and

interference corrupting a desired in formation-
bearing signal in called a system.
- When we pass a signal through a system, as
in filtering, we say that we have processed the
signal (signal processing).
- If the operation is linear, the system is called
linear. If the operation on the signal is
nonlinear, the system is said to be
nonlinear…
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.1 : Basic Elements of a Digital Signal
Processing System

- To broaden the definition of a system to

include not only physical devices (hardware),
but also software realizations of operations
on a signal.

- The method or set of rule for implementing the

system by a program that performs the
corresponding mathematical operations, is
called an algorithm.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.1 : Basic Elements of a Digital Signal
Processing System
Figure 1.3 Block diagram of a digital processing system

Analog Analog
A/D Analog A/D
Input converter signal converter output
signal processor signal

Digital Digital
input output
signal signal

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.1 : Basic Elements of a Digital Signal
Processing System

- To perform the processing digitally, there is a

need for an interface between the analog
signal and the digital processor, in called an
analog- to-digital (A/D) converter.

- We must provide another interface from the

digital domain to the analog domain, is called
a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.2 Classification of Signals
- For example
If Sk(t), k = 1,2,3, denotes the electrical signal from
the kth sensor as a function of time
s1(t)
S3(t) = s2(t) as a multichannel signal.
s3(t)
- If the signal is a function of a single independent
variable, the signal is called a one-dimensional
signal.
- A signal is called M-dimensional if its value is a
function of M independent variables.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.2.2 Continuous-Time Versus Discrete-Time Signal

- Continuous -time signal or analog signal

are defined for every value of time they take
on values in the continuous interval (a,b).

- Discrete-time signal are defined only at

certain specific values of time .

- The signal
n = 0, ±1, ±2, … provides an example of a
discrete-time signal.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.2.2 Continuous-Time Versus Discrete-Time Signal
- For example :
X(n) = 0.8 n , if n ≥ 0 (1.2.1)
0, otherwise
is a discrete-time signal which is represented graphically
as
X (n)
1

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
Figure 1.6
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.2.3 Continuous-Valued versus Discrete-Valued Signals
- By selecting values of as analog signal at
discrete-time instants. This process is called
sampling.

- A discrete-time signal having a set of discrete

values is called a digital signal that takes on
one of four possible values. Fig.1.8

- In order for a signal to be processed digitally it

must be discrete in time and its values must be
discrete.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.2.3 Continuous-Valued versus Discrete-Valued Signals

X (n)

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n

Figure 1.8: Digital signal with four different amplitude values

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.2.3 Continuous-Valued versus Discrete-Valued Signals

- The process of converting a continuous –

valued signal in to a discrete valued signal,
called quantization, is basically an
approximation process.
- Any signal that can be uniquely described by
an explicit mathematical expression, a table of
data, or a well defined rule is called
deterministic.
The signals evolve in time in an unpredictable
manner, which is as random.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.3 The concept of frequency in continuous-time
and discrete-time Signals
- Continuous-time sinusoidal signal.
Xa(t) = Acos(Ω t + θ), -∞ <t <∞ (1.3.1)
Ω = 2 Π F (rad/s);

Xa (t) = A cos(2ΠFt+ θ)

Tp =1/F
-A
Acos θ

t
0

Figure 1.10 Example of an analog sinusoidal signal

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.1 The concept of frequency in continuous-time
and discrete-time Signals
- The relationships we have described for
sinusoidal signal carry over to the class of
complex exponential signal.
xa(t) = Aej(Ωt + θ) (1.3.4)
- Using the euler identity.
e ±jθ= cosθ ± jsinθ (1.3.5)
- The sinusoidal signal (1.3.1) may be expressed
as.
xa(t) = Acos(Ωt + θ) = A/2 ej(Ωt + θ) + A/2e -j(Ωt + θ)
(1.3.6)
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
1.3.1 The concept of frequency in continuous-time
and discrete-time Signals

- A discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be

expressed as.
x(n) = Acos(ωn + θ), - ∞ < n < ∞ (1.3.7)
- Where n is an integer variable, called the
sample number, A is the amplitude of the
sinusoid, ω is the frequency in radians per
sample, and θ is the phase in radians.
ω ≡ 2Πf (1.3.8)
x(n) = Acos(2Πf n + θ), - ∞ < n < ∞ (1.3.9)
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals
x(n) = Acos(ωn + θ)

0 n
-A

Figure 1.12: Example of a discrete-time sinusoidal signal

(ω = Π/6 and θ = Π/3).

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals
- The discrete-time sinusoid are characterized by the
following properties:
B1. A discrete-time sinusoid is periodic only if its
frequency f is a rational number.
x(n + N) = x(n) for all n (1.3.10)
the smallest value of N is a periodic, is called the
fundamental period .
cos[2Πf0(N + n) + θ] = cos(2Πf0n + θ)
This relation is true if and only If there exists an
integer k such that 2Πf0N = 2kΠ
or, equivalently f0 = k/N ( 1.3.11)
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals

- B2. Discrete-time sinusoid whose frequencies are

separated by an integer multiple of 2Π are identical.
Cos[(ω0 + 2Π)n + θ] = cos(ω0n + 2Πn + θ)
= cos (ω0n + θ) (1.3.12)
Xk(n) = Acos(ωkn + θ), k = 0,1,2,… (1.3.13)
Where ωk = ω0 + 2kΠ, -Π ≤ ω0 ≤ Π

- B3. The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time

sinusoid is attained when ω = Π (or ω = -Π) or,
equivalently, f = 1/2 (or f = -1/2)
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals
Figure 1.13: Signal X(n) = cosω0n for various values of the
frequency ω0
X (n)
ω0 = 0

X (n) ω0 =
ω =0Π/8 X (n)
0 ω0 = Π/4
l
l

n n

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals
X (n) ω0 = Π/2 X (n) ω0 = Π
l l

n n

Continuous-time exponentials

Sk(t) = ejkΩ0t = ej 2Π k F0t, k = 0,±1,±2,… (1.3.16)

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals
- Discrete-time exponentials

- To process analog signal by digital means, it is

convert them to sequence of numbers having finite
precision. This procedure is called analog-to-digital
(A/D) conversion
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.3.2 Discrete-time Sinusoidal Signals
- A/D conversion has three-step process.
1. Sampling: conversion of a continuous-time signal
into a discrete-time signal.
Xa(nT) ≡ X(n) T- sampling interval.

2. Quantization: conversion of discrete-time

continuous-valued signal into a discrete-time, discrete-
value (digital) signal.

3. coding : In the coding process, each discrete-value,

Xq(n) is represented by b-bit binary sequence .
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Figure 1.14: Basic parts of an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter A/D  converter

X(n) 01011….
 Xa(t)
 
 Xq(n)
Sampler   Quan,zer   Coder  

Analog     Discrete-­‐2me       Quan2zed   Digital  

signal signal signal signal

- The process of converting a digital signal into an

analog signal is known as digital-to-analog (A/D)
conversion. CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals

X(n) is discrete-time signal

Xa(nT) - analog signal every T seconds

- The time interval T between successive

sampling is called the sampling period or
sample interval and its reciprocal 1/T = Fs is
called the sampling rate or the sampling
frequency.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals
Figure 1.16: Periodic sampling of an analog signal

Analog xa(t) x(n) = xa(nT) Discrete-time

signal signal
Fs = 1/T

Sampler

xa(t) x(n) xa(t)

x(n) = xa(nT)

0 t 0 123456789 n
T … 5T … 9T … T = nT

CuuDuongThanCong.com ©2013,
https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals
- The frequency of the continuous-time sinusoid
when sampled at a rate Fs = 1/T must fall in the
range.

- The highest frequency in a discrete-time signal

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals
In general, the sampling of a continuous-time
sinusoidal signal

With a sampling rate Fs = 1/T results in a

discrete-time signal
X(n) = A cos(2πƒ0n + θ) (1.4.15)
Where ƒ0 = F0 / Fs is the relative frequency of
sinusoid.
If we assume that – Fs/2 ≤ F0 ≤ Fs/2, then the
frequency ƒ0 of x(n) is in the range - ½ ≤ ƒ0 ≤ ½.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals
On the other hand, if the sinusoids

Where Fk = F0 + kFs , k = ±1, ±2,… (1.4.17)

are sampled at a rate Fs.
The frequency Fk is outside the fundamental
frequency range – Fs /2 ≤ F ≤ Fs /2
Consequently, the sampled signal is

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals
Which is identical to the discrete-time signal in
(1.4.15) obtained by sampling (1.4.14).
Thus an infinite number of continuous-time
sinusoids is represented by sampling the same
discrete-time signal.
We can say that the frequencies
Fk = F0 + k Fs, -∞ < k < ∞ (k integer)
are indistinguishable from the frequency F0
after sampling and hence they are aliases of F0.
To be illustrated in Fig.1.17.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.1 Sampling of Analog Signals
Figure 1.17 Relationship between the continuous and
discrete-time frequency variables in the case of periodic
sampling
ƒ ω

π
½

F
0
-FS -FS /2 FS /2 FS

-½ -π

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.2 The Sampling Theorem
- Given any analog signal, can be represented as a sum
of sinusoids of different amplitudes, frequencies, and
phases, that is,

Where N denotes the number of frequency

components.
- Suppose that to signal in the class do not exceed
some known frequency Fmax.
- Thus to avoid the problem of aliasing, Fs is selected
so that. Fs > 2Fmax (1.4.19)
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.2 The Sampling Theorem

If the highest frequency contained in an

analog signal Xa(t) is Fmax = 2B.
The signal is sampled at rate Fs > 2 Fmax
then
Xa(t) can be exactly recovered its sample
values using the interpolation function

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.2 The Sampling Theorem

When the sampling of Xa(t) is performed at

the minimum sampling rate Fs = 2B,

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013 CE Department
 1.4.2 The Sampling Theorem
it becomes .

The sampling rate FN = 2B =2Fmax is called the

Nyquist rate.
Figure 1.19 Ideal D/A conversion (interpolation).
Xa  (t) Sample  of  Xa  (t)

(n-­‐2)  T (n-­‐1)  T nT (n+1)  T

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.3 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

The process of converting a discrete-time

continuous-amplitude signal into a digital signal
by expressing each sample value as a finite
number of digits is called quantization.

- The error introduced in representing the

continuous-value signal by a finites set of
discrete values is called quantization error or
quantization noise.
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.3 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

Xq (n) =Q [x(n)]
Xq(n)- sequence of quantized samples at the
output of quantizer.
eq(n) = Xq(n) – X(n) (1.4.25)
eq(n)- quantization error.

For example:

with Fs = 1Hz
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.3 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

Figure 1.20 Illustration of quantization

1.0
X(n) = 0.9n
0.8
Xa(t) = 0.9t
0.6

0.4

0.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n
T

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.3 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

Xq  (t)  =  0.9  t
Xq  (n) Levels      of  
     

1.0 quan2za2on
0.9
0.8
T  =  1sec
0.7
Quan2za2on        
Range      of    the   0.6 step
quan2za2on 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.3 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

To eliminate the excess digits, we can either

simple discard them(truncation) or discard
them by rounding the resulting number
(rounding)
The value allowed in the digital signal are
called the quantization levels.
The distance Δ between two successive
quantization levels is called the quantization
step size or resolution.

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.3 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

If Xmin and Xmax represent the minimum and

maximum value of x(n) and L is the number of
quantization levels, then

Dynamic range of the signal as Xmax - Xmin

In our example we have
xmax = 1, xmin = 0, and L = 11
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.4 Quantization of Sinusoidal Signals

- We have an analog sinusoidal signal

thus, from the original analog signal, we obtain

xq(nT)- discrete-sampled signal after quantization

fs - sampling rate, satisfies the sampling theorem
xq(t) - staircase-signal

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013 CE Department
 1.4.4 Quantization of Sinusoidal Signals
Figure 1.21: Sampling and quantization of a sinusoidal signal
Amplitude          
             Time          
Discre2za2on    
Discre2za2on    
Quan2za2on          
Original  Analog  Signal         Level    
    4
           Xa(t)
3
Amplitude

   
Unquan2zed  Samples        
 2   Quan2za2on          
Xa  (t)
Quan2zed   Output  of  Zero-­‐Order   Step  
0 Samples               Hold  D/A    Converter        
         
Xq  (nt) Xq  (t)
   -­‐
-­‐  2
 -­‐3
-­‐4
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T 8T 9T t
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013 CE Department
 1.4.4 Quantization of Sinusoidal Signals
Figure 1.22 The quantization error eq(t) = xa(t) – xq(t)

eq  (t)
 Δ/2    
Δ
Δ/2 -­‐τ
0 τ t
-Δ/2
-­‐τ 0 τ t
- The mean-square error power Pq

Since eq(t) = (Δ/2 )t, - ≤t≤

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
 1.4.4 Quantization of Sinusoidal Signals

2A – entire range of signal b – quantization of bit of accuracy.

Δ = 2A/2b
The average power of the signal xa(t) is

The signal-to-quantization noise ratio (SQNR)

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.5 Coding of quantized samples
If we have L quantization levels, then
2b ≥ L or b ≥ log2L ,
with a word length of b bit.

The task of a D/A converter is to interpolate between

samples.
+ The simplest D/A converter is the zero-order hold,
which simply holds constant the value of one sample
until the next one is received. (see Fig.1.15)
+ Interpolation to connect successive samples with
straight-line segments. (see Fig.1.23)
CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Figure 1.15 Zero-order hold digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion

Original     Staircase  
signal Approxima,on

Amplitude

2T 4T 6T 8T
Time

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department
1.4.6 Digital-to Analog conversion
Figure 1.23: Linear point connector (with T-second delay).

Original signal

Linear interpolation (with T-second delay)

Amplitude

0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T t

Problems: 1.1, 1.2, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13,1.14

CuuDuongThanCong.com https://fb.com/tailieudientucntt
©2013, CE Department