Analog system - System which processes a continuous range of values varying with respect to

time is called Analog system.

Digital system - System which process discrete values is called Digital system

Analog signal - A signal which can vary over a continuous varying with respect to time

Digital signal – A signal which can have only two discrete values

There are two types of logic –

• Positive logic
• Negative logic

Positive logic Negative logic

LOW (0) is represented by LOW (0) is represented by
0V and High (1) is +5V and High (1) is 0V
represented by +5V

Importance of Digital Electronics

• Easier to design
• Information storage is easy
• Accuracy and precision are greater
• Operations can be programmed
• Digital circuits are less affected by noise
• More digital circuitry can be fabricated on IC chips

Limitations of Digital Electronics

Most physical quantities in real world are analog in nature. Thus conversion to digital format
and reconversion to analog format is necessary.

Note: The binary digits 0 and 1 are usually represented by 2 voltage levels ---- 0v for logic 0 and
5V for logic 1.

Number System
The three number systems used in digital electronics are -
• Decimal number system
• Binary number system
• Hexadecimal number system

Need for the study of various number systems

• The decimal number system is used in everyday life but it is not convenient to design and
implement in digital systems as it has 10 different symbols. It is very easy to design simple
accurate electronic circuits that operate with only two symbols 0 and 1.
• In digital system, when long binary numbers are used, it is difficult to read and write.
Therefore hexadecimal number system is used to express large binary numbers more
concisely

Decimal number system - A number system with base 10 that uses ten distinct symbols 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
Binary number system - A number system with base 2 that uses only two symbols 0 and 1

Hexadecimal number system - A number system with base 16 that uses sixteen distinct
symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F

Bit (Binary digit) – A binary digit is called a bit. Example: 0 or 1

Nibble – A group of four bits is called a Nibble. Example: 0110, 1110, etc
2 nibbles make a byte.

Byte – A group of eight bits is called a Byte. Example: 0110 1010, 1110 0101, etc

Word - Multiple bytes, such as 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits is called a word.

Memory – used to store information in the form of 0s and 1s

1 Kilo byte memory = 210 = 1024 bytes

Weight or place value: Each position in a number has definite value called place value or
weight

Base or radix: The number of distinct symbols used in a number system is called base or radix
of the number system
Ex – Base of decimal system is 10 Base of binary system is 2
Base of octal system is 8 Base of hexadecimal system is 16

Most significant bit (MSB) – The leftmost bit of a binary number which has
the highest place value is called most significant bit

Least significant bit (LSB) – The right most bit of a binary number which has the least place
value is called least significant bit

Binary Arithmetic

Rules of Binary Addition Rules of Binary Subtraction

0+0=0 0-0=0
0+1=1 0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow 1 i.e., 10 - 1 = 1
1+0=1 1-0=1
1 + 1 = 0 with a carry 1 1-1=0

Rules of Binary Multiplication Rules of Binary Division

0×0=0 0 ÷ 0 = not defined

0×1=0 0÷1=0
1×0=0 1 ÷ 0 = not defined
1×1=1 1÷1=1

1s Complement
The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by changing each 0 to 1 and 1 to 0.

2s Complement
2’s complement = 1’s complement + 1 to LSB

The 1’s complement and the 2’s complement of a binary number help to do the subtraction by
the method of addition.

Subtraction using 1’s complement and 2s complement method (subtract smaller number
from larger number always)

Perform the 1’s complement subtraction for the given binary numbers11012 from 10101112

Perform the 2’s complement subtraction for the given binary numbers11012 from 10101112

Conversion of number system

Number system Method Example

Binary to Decimal Multiply by

increasing powers of
2
Hex to Decimal Multiply by
increasing powers of
16

Decimal to Binary Divide by 2 and check

the remainder

Decimal to Hex Divide by 16 and

check the remainder

Binary to Hex Make groups of 4

Hex to Binary Convert to groups of

4 bits
In sign magnitude representation, the MSB always represent the sign and the remaining bits
always represent the magnitude
Ex -
Given number is 1210 = 11002
Then 0 1100 = +12
1 1100 = -12

Note:

Boolean algebra
Used to analyze and simplify digital circuits.
It uses only the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1.

The basic logic operations are

• OR operation (logical addition)
• AND operation (logical multiplication)
• NOT operation (logical negation)

OR operation AND operation NOT operation

Other Boolean laws

Commutative laws Associative laws Distributive laws

Note:

Decimal addition Binary addition Logical addition

1+1=2 1 + 1 = 0 with carry 1 1+1=1
A 0 A+0 = A
0 0 0
1 0 1
A 1 A+1 = 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
A 1 A.1 = A
0 1 0
1 1 1

Note: Truth tables can be used to determine the output of AND, OR and other Boolean
operations as shown in a few examples below
De-Morgan's Theorems
First Theorem: The complement of a logical sum is equal to the logical product of the
complements

Second Theorem: The complement of a logical product is equal to the logical sum of the
complements

Logic Gates
• A logic gate is a basic unit of digital circuit which performs a specific logic operation.
• It has one or more inputs but only one output
• They are constructed using active components (such as diodes and transistors) and
passive components (such as resistor).

Timing diagram: A pictorial representation of inputs and output states of a logic circuit

Truth table: A table which lists all the possible combinations of inputs and their corresponding
outputs

NOT Gate: (Inverter)

Logic expression: Logic symbol:

Timing diagram: Truth table:

Definition:
• A basic gate which complements the input OR Has one input and
one output
• It performs Boolean negation

OR Gate:

Logic expression: Logic symbol:

Y=A+B
Timing diagram: Truth table:

Definition:
• A basic gate which produces a high output if any one of the input or
all the inputs are high
• It performs Boolean addition
NOR Gate:

Logic expression: Logic symbol:

Timing diagram: Truth table:

Definition:
• An universal gate which produces a high output if and only if all the
inputs are low
• performs the complement of OR logic

AND Gate:

Logic expression: Logic symbol:

Timing diagram: Truth table:

Definition:
• A basic gate which produces a high output if and only if all the
inputs are high
• It performs Boolean multiplication

NAND Gate:

Logic expression: Logic symbol:

Timing diagram: Truth table:

Definition:
• An universal gate which produces the output is high only when any
of the input is low
• performs the complement of AND logic

Note: All logic gates (except NOT gate) have two or more inputs but one output

Working of OR gate

Case 1: When A = 0 and B = 0

Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and are OFF.
No current flows through resistor RL.
 Hence the output Y = 0

Case 2: When A = 0 and B = 1

Diode D1 is reverse biased and is OFF.
Diode D2 is forward biased and is ON.
Current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 3: When A = 1 and B = 0

Diode D1 is forward biased and is ON.
Diode D2 is reverse biased and is OFF.
Current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 4: When A = 1 and B = 1

Diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and are ON
Current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 1.

A = 0 and B = 0 A = 0 and B = 1 A = 1 and B = 0 A = 1 and B = 1

D1 – RB, OFF D1 – RB, OFF D1 – FB, ON D1 – FB, ON
D2 – RB, OFF D2 – FB, ON D2 – RB, OFF D2 – FB, ON
No Current flows Current flows Current flows Current flows
through resistor RL through resistor RL through resistor RL through resistor RL
Y=0 Y=1 Y=1 Y=1

Working of AND gate

Case 1: When A = 0 and B = 0

Diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and are ON.
Current flows through resistor R1, D1 and D2.
No current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 0.

Case 2: When A = 0 and B = 1

Diode D1 is forward biased and is ON.
Diode D2 is reverse biased and is OFF.
Current flows through resistor R1 and D1.
No current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 0.

Case 3: When A = 1 and B = 0

Diode D1 is reverse biased and is ON.
Diode D2 is forward biased and is OFF.
Current flows through resistor R1 and D2.
No current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 0.
Case 4: When A = 1 and B = 1
Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and are OFF.
Current flows through resistor RL.
Hence the output Y = 1.

A = 0 and B = 0 A = 0 and B = 1 A = 1 and B = 0 A = 1 and B = 1

D1 – FB, ON D1 – FB, ON D1 – RB, OFF D1 – RB, OFF
D2 – FB, ON D2 – RB, OFF D2 – FB, ON D2 – RB, OFF
No current flows No current flows No current flows Current flows
through resistor RL through resistor RL through resistor RL through resistor RL
Y=0 Y=0 Y=0 Y=1

Working of NOT gate

Case 1: When A = 0
No current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 2: When A = 1
Current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is ON.
Hence the output Y = 0.

Working of NOR gate

Case 1: When A = 0 and B = 0

Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and are OFF.
No current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 2: When A = 0 and B = 1

Diode D1 is reverse biased and is OFF.
Diode D2 is forward biased and is ON.
Current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is ON.
Hence the output Y = 0.

Case 3: When A = 1 and B = 0

Diode D1 is forward biased and is ON.
Diode D2 is reverse biased and is OFF.
Current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is ON.
Hence the output Y = 0.

Case 4: When A = 1 and B = 1

Diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and are ON.
Current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is ON.
Hence the output Y = 0.
A = 0 and B = 0 A = 0 and B = 1 A = 1 and B = 0 A = 1 and B = 1
 D1 – RB, OFF D1 – RB, OFF D1 – FB, ON D1 – FB, ON
D2 – RB, OFF D2 – FB, ON D2 – RB, OFF D2 – FB, ON
Transistor is OFF. Transistor is ON. Transistor is ON. Transistor is ON.
Y=1 Y=0 Y=0 Y=0

Working of NAND gate

Case 1: When A = 0 and B = 0

Diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and are ON.
Current flows through resistor R1, D1 and D2.
No current enters
the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 2: When A = 0 and B = 1

Diode D1 is forward biased and is ON.
Diode D2 is reverse biased and is OFF.
Current flows through resistor R1 and D1.
No current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 3: When A = 1 and B = 0

Diode D1 is reverse biased and is OFF
Diode D2 is forward biased and is ON
Current flows through resistor R1 and D2.
No current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is OFF.
Hence the output Y = 1.

Case 4: When A = 1 and B = 1

Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and are OFF
Current enters the base terminal of the transistor. The transistor is ON. Hence the output
Y = 0.

A = 0 and B = 0 A = 0 and B = 1 A = 1 and B = 0 A = 1 and B = 1

D1 – FB, ON D1 – FB, ON D1 – RB, OFF D1 – RB, OFF
D2 – FB, ON D2 – RB, OFF D2 – FB, ON D2 – RB, OFF
The transistor is OFF. The transistor is OFF. The transistor is OFF. The transistor is ON.
Y=1 Y=1 Y=1 Y=0

Diode Transistor Logic (DTL) gates

When logic gates are constructed using diodes, transistor and resistors, they are called DTL
logic gates. Transistor act as an inverter and diodes act as switches.

555 Timer
• Gets its name from the three 5KΩ resistors that
are used in its circuit
 • It is an IC used to generate a clock waveform for digital circuits and in many more
timing applications

Astable multivibrator
• has two distinct output levels. Neither of the output levels is stable and the output will
be swinging between high and low
• The frequency of oscillation and duty cycle are accurately controlled by two external
resistors, RA and RB and a single capacitor, C
• used to generate a clock or square wave output for many applications

Monostable multivibrator
• Has only one stable state. When triggered, it generates a pulse of pre-defined duration
and then returns to its stable state and produces no more output until triggered again
• When a negative going triggering pulse is applied to pin 2, the output goes high only for
a short duration and then returns to its original stable state (logic 0)

Pin diagram of 555 timer

Equivalent circuits of gate circuits (for reference only and not for exam)

NOT Gate

OR Gate

AND Gate: