ALGEBRA

In the mensuration section of this book, we have, for convenience used letters
instead of words and produced equations that have provided a general
expression for the required shape or form. For example, the area of a rectangle
(A) is equal to the breadth (b) multiplied by the depth (d).

Thus, written algebraically this becomes A= b x d, providing a general

expression into which any positive value of breadth and depth can be
substituted and the area thus determined. Algebra is a field of mathematics
that deals with the relationships of numbers using general terms. Equations
formed using this method are called 'algebraic equations' and below are some
examples of these. As they stand, they cannot, of course, be solved, as this
would require additional information.

Within the same problem, 'like' terms will carry the same value, as t does in
equation (ii) or V in equation (iv).

Numbers such as '2', part of 2x in equation (i) are called coefficients, so '3' is
the coefficient of y, in the same equation.

The laws and signs that were adopted for arithmetic are also applicable when
dealing with algebraic expressions, as we will see.

Often, given a general algebraic expression, a particular solution is required by

allocating numerical values to each symbol.

For example 1. Find the value of:

Example 2. Find the value of:
7y(x + 2z)
When x = 3, y = 2 and z = 4
= (7 x 2)(3 + 2 x 4 )
= 14(3 + 8)
- 154

We are aware that a 'unit of mass' (kilogram) cannot be added to, or subtracted
from, a unit of length (metres). Only those of the same unit can be added or
subtracted. Likewise with algebraic expressions, only like symbols can be
added together or subtracted apart.

Thus, 2x+4x+3y-y
= 6x + 2y (adding the x's and y's separately)
and 5p + 7q - p + 6q
= 4p + 13q (adding the p's and q's separately)

However multiplication does combine symbols.

Hence 2x x 3y x x
= 6x2y

With division, only like symbols may be cancelled as seen below.

Example 4. Express the following as a single fraction

This section has covered a lot of ground, so to check your progress. Try
activity number 9 on the next page.
As we have previously seen the bracket is a useful device for grouping terms or
quantities, however care must be exercised when the removal of brackets is
necessitated.

Consider a rectangle whose sides are respectively 5 and 3 units, as shown in

figure 1. The area of this rectangle is the product of the two sides ie 5 x 3 = 15.
If however, the sides are now expressed as (3+2) and (2+1), then the area would
still be obtained from their product, but to achieve this a particular sequence of
operations would be required.

Multiplying the sides together may be written as:

(3 + 2)(2 + 1)
Example 1

Multiply (x - 3) by (x - 7)

(x-3)(x-7)
x2-7x-3x+21
x2 - lOx + 21

Example 2

Multiply (2x - 5) by (4x + 3)

(2x-5)(4x+3)
8x2 + 6 x - 2 0 x - 1 5
8x2-14x-15

Example 3

Remove the brackets from (3y - 7)(2y - 2)

6y2 - 6y- 14y + 14

6y2 - 20y + 14
In the last section the multiplication of bracketed terms is fairly
straightforward, provided the rules are followed. On occasions, however the
reverse process is sometimes required. This is not so easy, and may require a
trial and error approach.

Consider the example of (x + 4)(x + 2)

Multiplying the brackets together gives:

x2 + 2x + 4x + 8

x2 + 6x + 8
To return to the original bracketed pairs it is necessary to first start with a pair
of brackets:

( )( )

given that the first term, in the expression x2 + 6x + 8 is x2 and that this is the
product of x and x, an x may be placed in each of the brackets.

(x )(x )

The last term is 8 and this is obtained either from the product of 8 x 1 or 4 x 2,
but only the sum combination of 4 and 2 will provide 6, the value of the middle
term. So, inserting 4 and 2 into the bracketed pair gives:

(x 4)(x 2)

As every term in x2 + 6x + 8 is positive there are no complications with sign

allocation. Both the 4 and 2 will be positive.

ie, (x + 4)(x + 2)

This process is known as 'factorisation' with the quadratic expression

x2 + 6x + 8 being factorised into (x + 4)(x + 2).

Example (1) Factorise x2 + 8x + 15

= (x )(x )

Now 15 is obtained from the product of

15 x 1
or 5x3

but only the sum of 5 and 3 will give 8, thus the solution is

= (x + 5)(x + 3)

Example (2) Factorise x2 - 9x + 14

= (x 7)(x 2)

For the product of 7 and 2 to be +14 and their sum to be -9,

both must be negative, ie

(x-7)(x-2)
is probably the best method, however factorisation provides and alternative
method.

Consider the quadratic equation,

x 2 - 10x+ 16 = 0

Factorising the LHS of the equation gives

(x- 8)(x-2) = 0

It follows that either x-8 = 0

from which x= 8

or x-2 = 0
from which x= 2
Linear Equations

An equation is a statement that shows equality between two expressions, for

example 1m = 1000mm. Equations may be thought of as a simple beam
balance with the fulcrum of the balance situated at the equals sign (=).
If balance is to be maintained, and a weight is removed from one side the same
weight must be removed from the other (at the same distance from the fulcrum)
to maintain balance. If the weights are doubled (x 2) on one side then they
must be doubled on the other. The equals sign (=) is important so that what is
done to one side must be done to the other.

Like a balance anything may be done to one side of the equation, provided that
exactly the same is done to the other side, so that equilibrium is maintained.
Examples of linear equations are:

7 - x = 21 and 5x - 6 = 20

You will notice that linear equations contain only x or other symbol, raised to
the power 1 (ie x1}. This index is rarely written. Higher powers such as x2, x3
etc, do not occur in linear equations.

Linear equations are also known as 'equations of the first degree' or just
'simple equations'. When presented with a linear equation, such as x + 1 = 5, it
is necessary to 'solve' the equation for x. This means that the unknown term
'x' is to be isolated on one side of the equation. For the example given it would
be necessary to remove the +1 from the left-hand side. To do this subtract 1,
but remember what is done to one side, exactly the same must be done to the
other, so 1 is also subtracted from the right-hand side leaving x = 4.

ie x+ 1 = 5
(to isolate x) x+ 1-1=5-1
x= 4
The equation is now said to have been 'solved', and the value of x = 4 is said to
'satisfy' the equation.
Indices and Powers

In previous work on areas and volumes it was shown that 3 x 3 = 32

and 2 x 2 x 2 = 2 2

You will remember that the small digit was known as the index and the
number to which the index is attached was called the base.

The index is the power to which the base is to be raised and indicates the
number of times the base is multiplied by itself.

There are six basic laws that relate to indices. Note that these laws only apply
to indices with the same base.
Simultaneous Equations

Equations will often contain more than one unknown. The equation x + y = 6
is an example, and cannot be solved without further information. It simply
provides a relationship between the unknowns. If however, another equation
could, at the same time or simultaneously, be formed containing the same
unknowns, then a solution would be possible. For example, if, under the same
conditions, a further relationship of say 2x + 3y = 15 was obtained then a
solution for x and y would be obtained thus:
Having obtained a value for x (=3) this value can now be substituted into eithei
of the original equations to obtain the value of y.

Thus substituting x = 3 into equation 1

3+y=6
••• y = 6 - 3
.-. y= 3

A final check can now be made, by substituting the values of x and y into the
remaining equation 2.

2x+ 3y = 15

Hence the left hand side value is 2x3 + 3x3 (a value of 15) and equal to the
right hand side.

Example 2. Solve the following simultaneous equations for x and y.

4x- 3y = 18 (1)
x+ 2y = -1 (2)

To eliminate y 4.x- 3y = 18 x2
x+ 2y = -1 x3
Second Degree and Quadratic Equations

So far we have solved equations where the unknown 'x' has had one value.
However, equations of the second degree or quadratic equations contain terms
of x2 and when solved these will provide two answers. For example consider
x 2 = 1.

The solution for x is Vl which has two answers +1 and -1. (ie 1 x 1 = 1 and
-1 x-1 = 1)

Often you will find that quadratic equations take the general form of

ax2 + bx + c = 0.

The quadratic equation x2 - 5x - 6 = 0 is an example. By comparison, it can be

seen that a = 1, b = -5 and c = -6.

There are several ways to solve such equations, but one very straightforward
method involves the use of the 'quadratic formula'.
As you have seen this method is lengthy but can be used to solve any quadratic
equation provided it is, or can be put into the form sot2 + bx + c = 0.

Example 2 Solve the quadratic equation x2 - x = 20

In the form ajc2 + bx + c = 0, this becomes.

x2-x-2Q = 0

where a = 1, b = -1 and c = -20

A check on your answers can easily be made, by inserting each value of x in
the original equation and checking that the equation still works out.

ie x. = 5, hence the left-hand side of the equation x2 - x = 20

is 52 - 5 = 20, equal to the right-hand side.

for x = -4 the left hand side becomes

(-4)2 - (-4)
= 16 + 4
= 20, again equal to the right-hand side.

Note: Should you, at any time in your solution of quadratic equations, arrive at
a situation which requires you to find the square root of a negative
quantity, then you will be unable to proceed any further, as a solution is
not possible using the mathematical principles you have considered so
far in this unit.

Now try the following problems (Activity 12). As before you will be able to check
your answers for yourself.
Common Logarithms (logs)

Used extensively in the days when there were no electronic calculators or

computers. They made the process of division and multiplication simpler (in
particular when dealing with large numbers). Since the introduction of
calculators common logarithms (logs to the base 10) are little used, but other
logs (logs to the base e for example) are part of some equations and therefore in
current use).

Indices, as you will have appreciated, are used to simplify problems, and you
will remember that the problems you encountered required the indices to have
the same base. This is a very similar situation to that used with Common
Logarithms, or Logarithms, in which numbers are written to a common base of
10 and raised to some power.

For example since 1000 = 103 we say that the Logarithm of 1000 is 3.
Ten itself is ten raised to the power 1, (10 1 ). The one is not usually written
hence since.

Of course any value may be expressed to be base 10 and raised to a suitable

power.

Considering this last example, logioSO = 1.6990, the logarithm itself, can be
seen to be made up of two parts, the 1 and 0.6990. Special names are given to
each part.

The 1 (in this case), or number in front of the decimal point is called the
characteristic of the logarithm, whilst the number behind the decimal point, ie
0.6990 is called the mantissa.

Tables of common logarithms (logarithms to the base 10) (log tables) are
available for any number. These provide the value for the mantissa but leave
the value of the characteristic to be decided by inspection.

(These tables are supplied in booklet form to include log tables, antilog tables,
and possibly many other mathematical tables and data. Many calculators have
log and antilog functions).
Studying these examples you will probably have noticed that the characteristic
is simply one less than the number of digits to the left of the decimal point in
the original number.

ie: the number 257 would have a characteristic of 2.

the number 7460 would have a characteristic of 3.
the number 97642 would have a characteristic of 4.

A most important fact to remember is that the mantissa is always positive, but
as we shall see, the characteristic may be either positive or negative.

Continuing with these examples, lets now consider the number 0.07.

You will notice that the negative sign now appears above the characteristic
instead of in front, this is deliberate and is to avoid making the whole number
negative (remember that the mantissa is always positive). Written in this way it
is termed 'bar' and the above logarithm is spoken as 'bar' two point eight, four,
five, one.

A negative characteristic will always occur with numbers of less than 1. Again
this can be obtained quickly by inspection. Simply count the number of zero's,
including the one before the decimal point, the total will be the value of the bar
number.

ie: 0.4 characteristic is 1

0.04 characteristic is 2
0.004 characteristic is 3

Putting numbers into logarithmic form is done to make calculations easier,

however, before attempting questions that make use of logarithms we must
understand the reverse process, that is how to obtain an ordinary number from
log number.
To do this cmtilogarithms are used. Again tables of antilogarithms (antilogs)
exist, which eliminates the need to search through the main body of numbers
in the log tables.

If, for example, having made your calculations in logarithmic form, you end up
with a log of 3.7521, then using the antilog tables and the mantissa part of the
log only, 5650 is obtained.

Now consider the characteristic of 3 the answer is 0.00565. (moving the

decimal point three places to the left from the standard form 5.650.

Note: You may find that in many situations that logio is now abbreviated to
simply Ig or log.

Now lets look at the use of logarithms in solving problems.

Multiplication

This operation is achieved by adding the logarithms of the quantities involved.

Example 1 57.43 x 2651

By reference to log tables

Ig 57.43 = 1.7591
Ig2651 = 3.4234

Adding 5.1825

Using the antilogs, to convert this logarithmic value back into an ordinary
number, gives 1523. Considering the position of the decimal point from the
characteristic gives an answer of 152300. (moving it 5 places to the right from
the standard form 1.523

Division requires the subtraction of logarithms.

Example 2 25.34^0.0751
This question has become much more complex, due to the 'bar' quantity
involved. Remember that the mantissa is always positive, so during the
subtraction of 9 from 4, just after the decimal point, 10 had to be 'borrowed'
from the next column to make the 4, 14. Having "borrowed1 ten it was then
necessary to 'pay' this back. This made the 2 or (-2) become 1 since
-2 + 1 = -1. Subtracting 1 from 1 gave a characteristic of 2, ie (1- [-1]).

To divide 2 by 3, could prove difficult, however by changing 2 into 3 makes it

easier to divide by 3, but this changes the value, so to return to the correct
value, 1 is added to the 3 .
Finally, before leaving this section on logarithms, you may encounter Naperian
or natural logarithms. These have a base 'e' where 'e' is a mathematical
constant of value approximately equal to 2.718. The use of 'e' is often related
to the field of growth and decay and is a more convenient base than 10 when
dealing with higher mathematics. The symbol ln is used for natural logarithms
and like common logarithms, tables of values are available.

Binary and Denary Systems

The mathematics covered so far has dealt with numbers from 0 to 9 and since
it uses ten figures it is called the decimal or denary system. Ten is the radix of
decimal numeration and of common logarithms (a radix is the number or
symbol used as a basis of a numeration scale).

Since computers work on whether there is or there is not a signal, a system

having a radix of 2 has become very important in computer design. Such a
system is known as the Binary system and has only two figures or digits
0 and 1. These in turn are known as 'bits', the name being formed from the
words binary and digits.
Lets now consider the denary number 1111. And understand how it is
constructed. By breaking the number down, we can see that it consists of one
thousand, one hundred, one ten and unity. Putting these in columns, shows
the formation of the number.

The binary number 1111, however has a totally different value and uses
powers to the base 2. Again, using columns to illustrate this.

To avoid confusion between binary and denary numbers a subscript 2 or 10

can be used as appropriate.

Thus (1111)2 = (15)io

Example 1. Convert the binary number 10101 into a denary equivalent.

Working from the right to the left we have ascending powers of 2.

Working in reverse (from a denary number to a binary number) a method
known as the 'remainder' method' may be used. This involves successive
division by 2, noting whether there is or not a remainder.

Example 3. Using the previous denary number of 37 check that the equivalent
binary number is 100101.
Addition of binary numbers

When adding binary numbers the following laws apply.

We have covered a lot of ground in this section, now reinforce what you have
learnt by working through Activity 14 on the next page.

The Hexadecimal System

You will recall that the two digits '0' and T in the binary system were called
bits. In the organisation of the computer memory, bits may be arranged in
groups of 8 and these are called bytes. These may be conveniently arranged in
groups of 4.
Combinations of 4 bits - 0100, 1100, 0110, etc will allow 16 unique patterns to
be produced. To allow for this a numbering system with a base of 16 is used.
This is called the Hexadecimal system or hex for short.

The hex system was devised as a shorthand to present binary patterns.

The following table shows the coding of the hex system from 0 to F with the
associated denary and binary number

The use of the alphabet after digit 9 in the hex system keeps the hex coding for
a four bit binary word to a single digit.

A sixteen bit binary number such as

0001010101101100

can be coded to hex by taking each set of 4 bits and allocating each set a hex
code, ie:
Geometry

The following section deals with basic geometric constructions, with all arcs
being drawn using compasses.

1. To construct a parallel line to another

The compass radius is set to the required distance apart for the parallel
line and two arcs are constructed. A line is drawn to just touch the top of
the arcs.

2. To bisect a line

The compass radius is set to greater than half the line length and arcs
are constructed above and below the line from each end of the line A and
B, leaving the radius unaltered. A line joining these two intersections
bisects the line.

3. To erect a perpendicular from a point on a line

The compass is open to any radius and with the compass point placed at
'A', where the perpendicular is to be erected, two arcs are struck on each
side of 'A'. These then form the centres of two further arcs, drawn with
the compass radius increased. Where these intersect a line can be
drawn to A which will be perpendicular to A.
4. To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line

An arc is drawn from the point (A) with the compass set at a radius
greater than the distance to the line, to cut the line at C and D. The
radius of the compass is now reduced and two further arcs are drawn
with the compass point at C and D to intersect at E. A line drawn from
'A' through E will form a perpendicular to the line.

Using the point where the two lines intersect as a centre 'A', an arc is
drawn cutting both lines at B and C. These now form the new centres of
two additional arcs drawn with the same but reduced radius that
intersect at D. A line drawn through this point to A, bisects the angle.

6. To construct an angle of 60° to a line

 The compass point is centred at the point 'A' to which the angle is to be
drawn and set to any radius AB, arc BC is drawn. Without changing the
radius, the compass is now centred at B and an arc is drawn to cut CB
at D. A line drawn through D to 'A' will form an angle of 60° with AB.

30° can be obtained by bisecting 60°.

7. To divide a line into a number of equal parts

To the required line (AB), a second, construction line (AD), is drawn at

any angle. Using a compass set at any radius the number of required
divisions (in this case 9) is stepped off equally along the construction
line. The final point 'D' is then joined to the end of the original line (B).
Parallel lines are then drawn to this line from each of the stepped-off
points, dividing the line into the required number of equal parts.

8. To divide a line proportionally

The same method, as for 7, may be used. For this example, the line is
required to be divided proportionally into a ratio of 2:3:5. The
construction line AD is therefore divided into 10 parts (i.e. 2 + 3 + 5) and
parallel lines drawn in the same ratio as that required.
Graphs

Graphs provide a visual representation of data and show, in many cases, the
variation of one quantity with another. The most common form of graph is one
which uses a pair of straight lines, known as axes, that are drawn at right
angles to each other. Such a pair of axes are known as rectangular or
Cartesian axes.

The horizontal axis is referred to as the x-axis, and the vertical axis as the y-
axis (y for high). The point where these two axes meet or cross is called the
origin and is given the symbol '0'. Conventionally values, along the x-axis, and
to the right of the origin, are considered positive, whilst those to the left are
negative. Likewise with the y-axis, values above the origin are considered
positive, whilst those below negative.
To locate a point on the graph both a value of x and a value of y are required.
These are often written in brackets with the x-value always written first (x,y).
Values of x and y that locate a point on a graph are called the 'co-ordinates' of
the point, further, the x-distance from the y-axis is called its 'abscissa' and the
y-distance from the x-axis is called its 'ordinate'. Co-ordinates measured in
this way are called 'Cartesian co-ordinates'.

The graph above shows the location of two points with the co-ordinates of (5,4)
and (-2,-6).

Many relationships between two quantities are directly proportional. A practical

example of this is that achieved in a tensile test, which involves the gradual
extension of a metal rod by the application of a slowly increasing load.
On a straight line graph this constant (value) is often achieved by selecting any
two points on the graph, as shown below.

This constant, in the general case, is a measure of the slope of the graph and is
given the symbol 'm'.

Thus —=m
x
Or y = mx

With straight line graphs that do not pass through the origin, the relationship
y=mx alters to
y = mx + c

Where 'c' is a value measured on the y-axis, from the origin to where the graph
cuts the y-axis.
This relationship is an important one and is called the 'straight line law'.

Of course not all straight line graphs will have a positive gradient, as the one
above, ie rising from left to right, and not all values of 'c' will be positive. The
graph below has both a negative gradient (falling from left to right) and a
negative value of 'c'.

Lets now consider graphs of particular equations.

Consider 2y - 4x = 6
Rearranging this into the form y = rruc + c

We obtain 2y = 4x + 6 (transposing the -4x to the other side changes it's sign

y = 2x + 3 (dividing through by 2)
By comparison with the straight line law, y = rnx + c, it can be seen that

(a) the gradient 'm' has a value of +2.

And (b) the value of c is +3

A gradient of 2 would be 2 units vertical for every 1 unit horizontal.

Thus the drawing of the graph that represent the equation is made easy,
requiring the location of only two points,
The point where the two graphs cut each other provides the solution to the
simultaneous equations, ie for this question x=3 and y=3.

It is worthwhile studying how coefficients and constant affect the position of

the graph representing algebraic equations, so try now activity 16.
If you feel confident with straight-line graphs lets move on to some that are a
little more complicated. You will probably have realised by now that if x, raised
to the power of 1 (understood but rarely written) occurs in the equation, then
the equation is a linear equation, ie when represented graphically will produce
a straight line.

Now if x is replaced by x2 the graph will become curved. Quadratic equations

take the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0. These can be solved graphically and will
produce a curve when a range of values, both negative and positive are selected
for x and plotted against the corresponding values of y.

Lets consider the quadratic equation y = x2 - 5x + 6.

By giving x values from -3 to +5, the corresponding values of y can be obtained

using the formula, as below.

The values of x when y = 0 ie, +2 and +3 are the roots of the equation.

This graph forms a curve known as a parabola. It is a shape that frequently

occurs in engineering and you should recognise equations that form it.

Other common engineering situations, such as a gas being compressed in a

cylinder, produce curves known as hyperbola when pressure is plotted against
volume. (Refer to the piston on the next page - it shows the rise in pressure
with a reduction in volume).
The sine wave or sine curve is obtained by calculating the sine of an angle for
all angles from zero to 360° and plotting on a graph .

Plane Trigonometry

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals primarily with the

relationships between the sides and angles of a triangle. To study these
relationships, consider an arm AB, of unit length, revolving in an anticlockwise
direction about point A, which is fixed.
As it revolves it can be imagined that a right angled triangle ABC is formed with
the right angle at C.

As the arm revolves the lengths of the sides, BC and AC, change. These
lengths, are of course, related to the angle 9 formed at the centre. If this is the
included angle, then the side BC is known as the opposite (to the angle) and
the side AC is known as the adjacent (to the angle). If the arm itself, is
considered as the third side of the triangle then it is called the hypotenuse and
is always the longest side.

Three basic relationships are made that involve the angle 9 and sides of the
triangle.

The first is the sine ratio (often shortened to 'sin' but still pronounced sine).

Sets of tables exist for all three ratios between the angles of 0° and 90°. They
are used in a similar way to logarithmic tables although care should be taken
with the mean difference columns.
The mean differences for sine and tangent are added but those for cosine are
subtracted. Instructions to this effect are usually written above the mean
difference columns.

It is useful to know some of these ratios, for instance consider the arm (units
length, lying horizontal.

In this position
Lets now see how these ratios are applied.

All that is known about the right-angled triangle BAG shown below, is the
length of the hypotenuse AB and the included angle BAG ( = 30°)- It is required
that the lengths of the other sides, of the triangle, AC and CB are calculated.

At this point it is worth noting one of the most important relationships that
exists concerning right angled triangles, that is Pythagoras' Theorem.
The theorem states that in any right angled triangle, the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square on the other two sides.

In general, AB2 = BC2 + AC 2

The example above shows this relationship

ie 52 = 32 + 42
25 = 9 + 16

Armed with this and the former ratio it is obvious that many different
approaches are now available in solving right angled triangles for either sides
or angles, so now try Activity 16 on the next page.
Polar Co-ordinates

From our work on graphs we are aware that a point on the graph may be
located by knowing it's co-ordinates, ie a value of x and a value of y, which we
expressed as (x,y). These are known as Cartesian or rectangular co-ordinates.

However, there is another way of locating such a point and this uses the
distance (r) from the origin and an angle (9) measured anticlockwise from the x-
axis to the line joint the point to the origin. Such co-ordinates (r,0) are known
as 'polar co-ordinates' and are shown below.

It is also useful to be able to convert from polar c-ordinates to rectangular co-

ordinates and vice-versa.

Using the trigonometrical ratios of the previous section it can be seen that:
LBP September 2001

JAR66 module 1 mathematics - additional reading material re number

systems, particularly Octal.
Most digital transmission in today's modern aircraft uses various types of
number systems. Typically these would be decimal, binary, octal and
hexadecimal, or various forms of these systems.

Decimal System

This is the system in everyday use, there are 10 digits (0 to 9 inclusive), so it

has a Tsase' or 'radix' (number of digits used in the system) of 10. Taking the
number 72306 can be written as:

3 was used because it is an easy number to show you that any number to
the power of nought is equal to 1.
It can be seen that the decimal system is based on successive powers of 10,
the number with the smallest value (10°) is known as the least significant
digit (LSD) and the number with the highest value (104 in my example) is
known as the most significant digit (MSD).
The disadvantage of the decimal system for use in a digital computer is that
the circuits which would be used, eg transistors, would have to have 10
discrete levels at collector current. For example OmA (milliamps) = 0,
1mA = 1, 2mA = 2, 3mA = 3 etc. Such a system would be extremely difficult
to operate because:

(a) Any variation of power supply would cause errors.

(b) Component tolerance would have to be virtually zero, and be
unaffected by temperature variations.
(c) Component values will change with age.

Any errors from the above may cause an error increment of one or two,
giving an incorrect output (eg instead of 8 [correct reading] it might be
7 or 9).

Precision is important, and to expect a circuit to be infallible in

distinguishing between 10 different magnitudes of current is a bit much.

Where accuracy and speed are important it would be better to use a system
which has just two states. Reliance is high because the circuit is either
HIGH (voltage level) or LOW (voltage level) or ON and OFF and component
characteristics variations are unimportant.

The system that is the basis of today's digital processing is the "two states"
BINARY SYSTEM.

The Binary System

This has a base or radix of 2. As in the decimal system, we can represent

any number in successive powers of 2.
From the table it can be seen that the binary number is longer than the
decimal number but because of the very fast switching speeds of modern
r.imiits this does not present a problem. Also because nf the reliability of the
two-state system, the practical advantages gained by using binary numbers
are considerable.

ACTIVITY: Write the successive powers of 2 for the following decimal

numbers and then expand to finally give the binary number.

(a) 19 (c) 15-125

(b) 29 (d) 22-0625

This method is OK but when you get larger numbers it becomes much more
difficult, to convert from decimal to binary, the successive division by two
may be employed, the 'remainder' of any division (which must be either 0 or
1) is then recorded successively in a separate column. The following
examples show the method used.
The following example shows you how to convert decimal fractions to binary.

You use successive multiplication by two, recording the carries and then
reading DOWN the carries column.

Convert 0-615 to binary form

Conversion of a decimal fraction to a binary fraction

The next example shows how to convert a mixed decimal number to binary.
Note that it must be treated in two parts as shown.

Example

Conversion of Binary to Decimal

Assume we have a binary number eg, 1011012

The easy way to convert this is to write the powers of 2 above each bit
position starting from left and working towards the right eg:
32168421 ^_ the powers added

1 0 1 1 0 1

So it can be seen that the number is:

32 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 45io (there are no 16s and no 2s but one of each of

the other values - 32, 8, 4 8s 1)
The Octal System
In the binary system the number of bits in a word can be quite lengthy and
problems can occur such as the high possibility of an error in manipulating
so many digits.

The octal system helps lessen these difficulties, being more compact and
easily converted back to decimal or binary.
The system uses the base or radix 8, this means of course, to convert from
decimal to octal we divide by 8 then record the remainders as before and
read upwards to get the octal number.

To convert this number to binary split each octal number into it's three
figure binary number and join together.
Hexadecimal System
This system has a base or radix of 16 and is used again where large binary
numbers are handled to cut down possible errors. Since we have only ten
different digit symbols (0 to 9 inclusive) six other symbols have to be used
these are the letters A to F inclusive. The table below shows the three
numbering systems already considered and the hexadecimal system.
ACTIVITY: Convert the following Binary numbers to Hexadecimal

(a) 11100010 (b) 1111111 (c) 111001

Convert the following Hexadecimal codes to Decimal

(a) 2D (b) 1AF (c) 21A

Convert the following Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal

(a) 1632 (b) 494 (c) 5174

Convert 178ie to Decimal, Binary and Octal

Convert EFi6 to Decimal, Binary and Octal

Binary Coded Decimal BCD

There are several forms of this system but we shall concentrate on the 8421
code. It is used in display read-out systems, decoders and counters.

It is called an 8421 code as each digit is weighted from left to right 8421 in
powers of 2.

You might be thinking that this is the same as the binary code, however,
with numbers from 10 upwards each number is represented by the 4 bit
code.

Example 1110 to BCD

is 0001 0001 leaving a space between each group of four digits.

ACTIVITY: Convert the following decimal numbers to BCD

(a) 94 (b) 529 (c) 2947

Convert the following BCD numbers to decimal

(a) 011100001001 (b) 001101100100

By way of a summary and to enable a comparison to be made between a

number representation in the various systems and codes, consider the
decimal number 347.

DECIMAL 347
BINARY 101011011
8421 BCD 0011 0100 0111
OCTAL 533
HEXADECIMAL 15B

When a number such as decimal 347 is converted into any binary form the
corresponding group of binary digits is known as a WORD. Each word is
formed of a number of BITS (BINARY DIGITS) and this represents the word
length.

Principle of Adding, Subtracting, Dividing and Multiplying binary numbers.

Adding

The rules are similar to those when adding decimal numbers, eg 5+5 = 0 and
carry 1 to the next higher 'power' column, and 1 + 1 in binary results in 0
carry 1.
Check this by converting binary 1010 to see if the answer is correct

Computers cannot divide, they carry out division by repeated subtraction,

which is in itself done by an addition process.

Positive and Negative Numbers

The computer needs to distinguish between positive and negative numbers.

For storage purposes only there is usually an additional bit added which
identifies whether the number is positive or negative, eg:

'0' for positive numbers

T for negative numbers

As mentioned, this is a convenient method for storing numbers but does not
allow direct subtraction of one number from another.

By inverting the number and adding 1 we get the negative of the number.
This process is called TWO's COMPLEMENT.

The Twos Complement process involves inverting each bit in a word and
adding 1