Page |1

Topic
2 Bounds
2 Order of Operations
2 Estimations & Calculations
3 Ratios
3 Indices
4 Percentages
5 Factorising
6 Substitution
6 Forming algebraic expressions
7 Linear Equations
9 Rearranging
10 Quadratic equations
15 Forming quadratic equations
16 Linear simultaneous equations
18 Pythagoras’ Theorem
19 Trigonometry
20 General Triangle
20 Radians
22 The graphs of Sinθ, Cosθ, Tanθ
24 Averages and spread of a set of data
32 Probability
37 Irrational numbers
47 The intersection of two graphs
48 Perpendicular bisector of AB
49 Differentiation
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 Bounds

Calculations involving Bounds

 The lower bound of a sum or product may be found by combining the lower bounds. The upper
bound of sum or product by may be found by combining the upper bounds.

 The lower bound of a difference may be found by subtracting the upper bound from the lower bound.
Upper bound from subtracting lower bound from upper bound.

 The lower bound of a quotient is found by dividing the lower bound by the upper bound. The upper
bound is found by dividing the upper bound by the lower bound.

i)
A cube has sides of length 3.7 cm ,correct ¿ 1decimal place ,∧a mass of 250 g , correct ¿ the nearest 10 g .

a) Find thebounds of the length of the sides of thecube .

b) Find thebounds of the mass of the cube .
c) Find thebounds of the total surface area of the cube ¿ 3. d . p .
d) Find thebounds of the volume of thecube ¿ 4. s . f .
e) Find thebounds of the density of the cube∈ g/cm−3 ¿ 3. s . f

a) Lower = 3.65cm, Upper = 3.75cm

b) Lower = 245g, Upper = 255g
c) Lower bound = 3.652x6 = 79.935cm2, Upper bound = 3.752x6 = 84.375cm2

d) Lower bound = 3.65cm3 = 48.63cm3, Upper bound = 3.75 cm3 = 52.73cm3

245 255
e) Lower bound = ( lower )
upper 3.75 3 = 4.65 g/cm-3, Upper bound = ( upper
lower ) 3.653
= 5.24 g/cm-3

 Order of Operations

 Brackets
 Order (indices)
 Divide
 Multiply
 Add
 Subtract

 Estimations & Calculations

 An estimate gives a rough idea of the size of a number, usually of the correct order of magnitude
(e.g. in the hundreds when the correct answer is in the hundreds)

 To estimate the value of a calculation

i) Round each number to one significant figure.

i) Then perform the calculation with the rounded numbers

19.573 × ( 99.4−90.87 ) 203 × ( 100−90 )

= 7578 to 3.s.f. Or rounded to 1.s.f = = 10000
2.18 ×3.87 2× 4
estimate.
 Page |3

 Ratios

 A way of comparing the relative size of 2 or more numbers. To simplify a ratio, divide through by a
common factor. To find the ratios of fractions, multiply the denominator to find a common factor:

5 2 15 14
i) : (multiply denominators) 7x3=21 (multiply numerators) 3x5 & 7x2 = :
7 3 21 21
1 3 2 24 24 24
ii) : : ⇒ 2x4x3=24 x1: x3: x2 ⇒ 12:18:16 = 6:9:8
2 4 3 2 4 3

Dividing in a given ratio

 Called the Unitary method because you are finding the value of one.

i) Add the numbers in a ratio.

ii) Divide the quantity by the total of the numbers to obtain the value of 1 part.
iii) Multiply up by each number in the ratio.

 Indices

 A positive integer (whole number) index just says how many are multiplied together: 33 = 3x3x3 =
9

Indices that are positive fractions

 A fractional index represents a root

1
n
i) x = √x n

3 3
4 3
ii) 81 4 = ( √ 81) = 3 = 27

Negative Indices

 Represents a reciprocal (one over something)

1
i) x−n=
xn

1 1
ii) 3-2 = 2 =
3 9

−m
1
iii) x n = m
n
x
−2
3 1 1 1 1
iv) 8 = 2 = = =
22 4
3 2
8 3 (√ 8)

Rules of Indices
1 1 2
 When multiplying x n x x n add the powers together: 3 x 3 x 5 x 3 = 15 x 3
 Page |4

8 x8 y 4 4 2 3
 When dividing subtract the powers: x y
2 x6 y 3

 When applied to (brackets) multiply with other indices within ( )

3
i) ( 2 x 4 y−2 ) 12
= 8x y
−6

2
4 x5 16 x 10
ii)
( ) 3 y4
=
9 y8

Indices applied to fractions

 Apply the index to the numerator and denominator separately

2 3 23 8
i) ()5
⇒ 3=
5 125
3
3
16 3
( √4 16 ) 23 8
16 4
ii) ( )
81
4
⇒ 3⇒ 4
81 4 ( √ 81 )
3
⇒ 3=
3 27

 For a negative index, turn the fraction upside down to find its reciprocal
5
5 5
1
100 2 ( √ 100 )
❑ −5
2 −1
3 3 9 100
i)() () ()
3
⇒
2
=
2
ii)
100 ( ) ( )⇒
2
⇒
9
2
5
92
=
(√ 9)
5

 Percentages

62 31
 To write a percentage as a fraction, write it over 100 62 % ⇒ =
100 50

 To change a percentage into a decimal, divide it by 100 (move decimal point 2 places to the
left) 62 %=0.62

Finding a percentage of a quantity

 Change the percentage into a fraction and then multiply by the quantity

70
70 % of 200= ×200
100

 Change percentage into a decimal and multiply by the quantity

12 % of 9 ⇒0.12 ×9=1.08

1 1
 Combine simpler percentages: 50 % ⇒ 10 %=
2 10

Finding one quantity as a percentage of another

 To find A as a percentage of B

A A
i) write as a fraction: ii) Multiply by 100% = ×100
B B
 Page |5

Percentage Change

 This is calculated as the actual change as a percentage of original value.

actual change
% change = x 100%
original change

 Factorising

Factorising by a common factor

 A factor is something that will divide exactly into something else

Factors of 8 x 2
1248
1 x2 x4 x8 x
1 x2 2 x 2 4 x 2 8 x 2

 Common factors are factors of all the terms in an expression.

 To factorise by a common factor:

i) Take highest common factor to the front

ii) Write other factors of each term inside brackets:

a) 10 x+ 4=2(5 x+ 2)
b) 12−9 x=3(4−3 x )
c) 8 xy +16 xz=8 x ( y +2 z)
d) 14 abc−7 ab=7 ab ( 2c −1 )

Factorising quadratic expressions

 A quadratic expression is of the form

ax 2 +bx +c
 Expanding involves the removal of brackets
( x +2 )( x +3 )
⇒ x 2 +3 x+2 x +6
⇒ x 2 +5 x+6

 Factorising involves the reverse process to expanding – i.e. putting into brackets

Quadratics with no number term

x 2+ 2 x
 Factorise by taking common factors
i) x 2+ 2 x=x (x +2)
ii) x 2−10 x=x ( x−10 )
iii) 3 x 2+ 6 x =3 x (x +2)
iv) 12 x−18 x 2=6 x ( 2−3 x )

Factorising a Trinomial Quadratic (Trinomial has all three terms):

( x +2 )( x +3 ) =x2 +5 x +6
 Page |6

∑ of 5 must constitute the product of 6.i . e :2+3=5 ,2 ×3=6

i) x 2+ 3 x +2=( x+2 ) ( x+ 1 )
ii) x 2+ 4 x +3=( x+3 )( x +1 )
iii) x 2+ 12 x +32=( x +8 ) (x + 4)

Trinomial Quadratics with a ≠ 1

2 x2 +7 x +3

Always look common factors for

( x +3 ) ( 2 x +1 )
Decomposition
2 x2 +7 x +3

a b c

i) Multiply a & c 2 ×3=6

ii) Look for 2 numbers in b which make the sum of b and the product of a × c

b=6+1 a × c=6 ×1

iii) Break the x term down into the 2 separate terms (7 x becomes 6 x∧x )
Thus
2 x2 +7 x +3
2 x2 +6 x + x +3

iv) Take common factors of the first 2 terms and take common factors of the last 2 terms

2 x ( x +3 ) +1 ( x +3 )

v) Take common factor bracket to the front, and move 2 x∧+1 to the last bracket

( x +3 ) (2 x+1)

i) 3 x 2+5 x−2
⇒ 3 x 2+ 6 x−x−2
⇒ 3 x ( x +2 )−1 ( x +2 )
¿ ( x+ 2 )( 3 x−1 )

ii) 3 x 2−11 x+ 6
⇒ 3 x 2−9 x−2 x+ 6
⇒ 3 x ( x−3 )−2 ( x−3 )
¿ ( x−3 ) ( 3 x−2 )

 Substitution (Evaluation of Formulae)

 Replace symbols by numbers and evaluate according to BODMAS

−32=−9
 Page |7

(−3 )2=−9

 When raising a negative number to a power, write it inside brackets and type in brackets on a
calculator.

 Forming Algebraic Expressions

 Algebra can be used to abbreviate statements: e.g. The area of a rectangle may be found by
multiplying it’s length by its width:

A=Area, L=Length, W=Width. therefore: A=LW

Forming and simplifying expressions

i) The ∑ of the cubes of the two consecutive integers starting at x

( x 3 ) + ( x+ 1 )3
⇒ ( x 3 ) + ( x +1 ) × ( x+1 ) × ( x +1 )
⇒ ( x 3 ) + ( x +1 ) × ( x 2+ x + x +1 )
⇒ ( x 3 ) + ( x 2 + x 2+ x 2 + x + x 2+ x + x +1 )
⇒ 2 x 3+ 3 x 2 +3 x+1

ii) A hospital has n wards with m patients . A nurseis required for every p patients ,∧a sister
is required for every q nurses . Find:

nm
a)The number of nursesrequired
p

nm
b) The number of sisters required
pq

 Linear Equations

 Equations with no power higher than one. E.g. 5 x+ 3=2

 A linear equation is satisfied by one value, called the solution or the root. Solve an equation by
undoing the operations performed on it by performing inverse.

Balancing Method

 Think of ‘=’ as maintaining balance, like two sides of a pair of scales. Do the same to both to
bring balance to the force
i) 41−10 x=21 (add 10 x to each side)
⇒ 41=21+10 x (subtract 21 from each side)
⇒ 20=10 x (divide each side by 10 to find value of x ¿
x=2

Linear equations with terms Involving x on both sides

 Look for the side with the most ‘ x ’ and gather all x on that side
 Page |8

i) 7 x +12=2 x+17 (subtract 2 x from each side)

⇒ 5 x +12=17 (subtract 12 from each side)
⇒ 5 x=5 (divide each side by 5 to find value of x )
x=1

Linear equations involving brackets

 Expand brackets and then simplify by collecting like terms. Once done, rinse and repeat above
steps because repetition is fun!
5 ( 10−2 x )−1=2 ( 3 x+ 1 )−17
⇒ 50−10 x −1=6 x +2−17
⇒ 49−10 x=6 x−15
49=16 x−15
64=16 x
x=4

Linear equations involving fractions

 Multiply through the whole equation with a common multiple of denominators to cancel out the
denominator:

10 x 7 x 4 x
i) − − =−4 (multiply through by 12 ¿ clear the fraction ¿
4 6 2

120 x 84 x 48 x
⇒ − − =−48 (divide the numerators ¿ cancel out the denominators)
4 6 2

⇒ 30 x−14 x−24 x =−48

⇒ −8 x=−48
x=6

8 x+2 11 x −3 6 x +1 11
ii) + − = (multiply through by 48)
3 2 8 4

48(8 x +2) 48( 11 x −3) 48(6 x+ 1) 528

⇒ + − = (divide away the denominators)
3 2 8 4

⇒ 16 ( 8 x+ 2 )+ 24 ( 11 x−3 )−6 ( 6 x +1 )=132 (expand brackets )

⇒ 128 x+ 32+264 x−72−36 x−6=132 ( simplify )
⇒ 356 x−46=132 ¿)
⇒ 356 x=178
1
x=
2

Forming linear equations

 To solve a problem by forming an equation:

i) Identify the unknown as x , for example.

ii) Express everything else in terms of x .
iii) Use information given, to form an equation in x
iv) Solve the equation.
 Page |9

v) Relate back to original problem.

i) The length of a rec tangle is 5 cmmore than its width∧its perimeter is 28 cm

2 L+ 2 L−5−5=2 L+2 L−10

let x=length
∴ width=x−5
⇒ 2 x+2 x−10=28
⇒ 4 x−10=28
⇒ 4 x=38
⇒ x=9.5
width=4.5

ii) Bert has two bank accounts, each containing £ x . Bert withdraws £200 from the first account and
deposits it in the second account, after which the second account contains three times as much as
the first account. Find and solve an equation in x

x x

Absolute Absolute

Bankers (A) −£ 200 + £ 200 Bankers (B)

(Bank B now holds 3 times more money than Bank A, so 3 times the amount in Bank A will
equal that within Bank B)

∴ 3 ( x−200 )= x+200
⇒ 3 x−600=x+200
⇒ 2 x−600=200
⇒ 2 x=800
x=400

 Rearranging

 When using a formula, we can rearrange the terms to find the value of an unknown. To rearrange
the terms we need to appreciate their effect on one another

GmM =F r 2

To make m the subject, understand that it is being multiplied by G∧M . Remove these effects
by applying their opposites in reverse BODMAS order to both sides or else one will get jealous
 P a g e | 10

GmM F r 2
=
GM GM

Fr 2
∴ m=
GM

m
i) make m the subject T =2 π
√ K
(remove √ ❑ by squaring ¿

m
⇒ T 2=4 π (multiply by K ¿
K

⇒ KT 2=4 πm (divide by 4 π ¿

KT 2
=m
4π

 Quadratic Equations ( x 2−9 x +20=0 Make sure one side is equal to zero)

 May be solved by

i) Factorising
ii) Formula
iii) Completing the square
iv) Graph

Solving by factorising
x 2−9 x +20=0 (factorise)
⇒ ( x−4 ) ( x−5 )=0
(set each factor equal to zero (since a product equals 0 only when multiplying a 0))
⇒ x−4=0∨x−5=0
∴ x=4∨x=5

i) 3 x 2+ 9 x +3=2 x 2 +2 x−9 (move terms over one side and make the other
side 0)
⇒ x 2 +7 x+12=0 (factorise)
⇒ ( x +3 ) ( x + 4 ) =0
x=−3∨x=−4

ii) 5 x 2−14 x+ 8=2−x−x 2

⇒ 6 x 2−13 x+ 6=0
⇒ (a × c=36−4±9=b−4 ×−9=c)
⇒ 6 x 2−9 x−4 x+ 6=0
⇒ 3 x ( 2 x−3 )−2 ( 2 x−3 )=0
 P a g e | 11

⇒ 2 x−3=0∨3 x−2=0
⇒ 2 x=3∨3 x=2
3 2
x= ∨x=
4 3

Solving via the quadratic formula

a x 2+ bx+ c=0

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a

 We can use the Quadratic Formula to solve Quadratic Equations by substituting a b∧c with the
values of the equation
4 x2 +6 x−37

abc

 a takes the coefficient value of the square x term, b takes the coefficient value of the x term,
and c takes the value of the constant term:

4 x2 +6 x±37=0

−6 ± √6 2−4 ×4 ×−37
x=
2 ×4

−6 ± √ 628
x=
8

−6−√ 628 −6+ √ 628

x= ∨x=
8 8

x=−2.38 x=−3.88

Solving with the graph of a quadratic equation

 The graph is a curve called a parabola. The solution (or roots) of a x 2+ bx+ c=0 may be found
by finding the x co-ordinates where the curve of y=ax 2+bx + c would intersect the x axis.

2 Roots 2 Repeated Roots No Real Roots

Example:
y=2+ x −x2 (between x=−4∧x=4 ¿
 P a g e | 12

Hence, find the roots of 2+ x−x 2=0

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
+2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−x 2 −16 −9 −4 −1 0 −1 −4 −9 −16
y −18 −10 −4 0 2 2 0 −4 −10

Solutions are x=−1∨x=2 (where the curve would intersect x axis when y=0)

 When the x 2 term is negative, the curve rises (like above). When the x 2 term is positive, the
curve droops

The vertex and the line of symmetry of a quadratic graph

Vertex (point where the line of symmetry meets the maximum or minimum
traverse of the curve)

 
Line of symmetry
 
 Co-ordinates of the vertex and the equation of the line of symmetry may be found by completing
the square.

 The minimum value of x is also the equation of the line of symmetry.

Solving via completing the square

( x +3)2 (is a perfect square)
⇒ ( x +3 ) (x +3)
 P a g e | 13

⇒ x 2 +3 x+3 x +9
⇒ x 2 +6 x+ 9

Consider: x 2+ 6 x+ 9+1
⇒ ¿ (is not a perfect square)

 Completing the square enables us to find the coordinates of the vertex

i) y=x 2−8 x +19

(halve the coefficient of x and place in brackets with x 2, placing brackets around both and moving
the indices outside of the brackets. Apply the square of the halved coefficient, subtracting a positive
term and adding a negative term)

y=¿
⇒ y=¿

(cont......)
min value=¿ 4 ¿
min value would occur when x−4=0
∴ x=0
line of symmetry=4
coordinates of vertex=( 4,3)

Completing the square when the x 2 term is negative

y=−x2 +6 x +3
(take the minus sign as a factor of the x 2 and x terms)
⇒ y=−( x 2−6 x )+ 3
⇒ y=−¿
⇒ y=−¿
⇒ y=12−¿
 P a g e | 14

max value=¿ 3 ¿
max value would occur when x−3=0
∴ x=3
line of symmetry=3
coordinates of vertex=(3,12)

i) y=x 2 +6 x +14
⇒ y=¿
⇒ y=¿

min value =−3

min value would occur when x+ 3=0
∴ x=−3
line of symmetry=−3
coordinates of vertex=(−3,5)
ii) y=−x2 −10 x +7
⇒ y=−( x 2+10 )+ 7
⇒ y=−¿
⇒ −¿
⇒ y=−¿

max value=5
min value would occur when x+ 5=0
∴ x=−5
line of symmetry=−5
coordinates of vertex=(−5,32)
 P a g e | 15

iii) y=−x2 +2 x−5

⇒ y=−¿
⇒ y=¿
⇒ y=¿

min value=¿−1¿
min value would occur when x+ 1=0
∴ x=−1
lin e of symmetry=−1
coordinates of vertex=(−1 ,−6)

 Forming quadratic equations

 Just like forming linear equations, but a bit squarer.

ii) A groupof x people go on a trip , for which the price of a ticket is £ ( x−5 ) .The total
cost was £ 500.

a) Form∧solve an equation∈¿ x : x ( x−5 )=500

x 2−5 x−500=0
( x−25 ) (x +20)
Price of a ticket must be £ 20 , as−£ 25 is just too good ¿ be true .

ii)
A rectangular garden has dimensions of 20 metres by 12 metres . The garden consists of a central
rectangular lawn surrounded by a pavement , which has a width of x metres at each side of the lawn .
The area of thelawn is 128 m2
 P a g e | 16

12m

20m

a) Form∧solve an equation∈¿ x
( 20−2 x ) ( 12−2 x ) =128
⇒ 240−40 x−24 x +4 x2 =128
⇒ 4 x 2−64 x +240−128=0
⇒ 4 x 2−64 x +112=0
⇒ x 2−16 x +28=0
⇒ ( x−2 ) ( x−14 ) =0
⇒ x−2=0∨x−14=0
x=2∨x=14

iii) The area of both the rectangles∧the square are equal.

2 x−4

x +5 x +2

(cont......)
a) Form and solve an equation in x :

( x +5 ) (2 x−4 ) =( x+2 ) ( x +2)

⇒ 2 x2 −4 x +10 x−20=x2 +2 x+ 2 x +4
⇒ 2 x2 +6 x−20=x 2+ 4 x +4
⇒ x 2 +2 x −24=0
⇒ ( x +6 ) (x−4)
x=−6∨x=4
( x must be 4 as −6 is a negative term)

 Linear simultaneous equations

 Two equations in two unknowns. (say x∧ y ,for example)

5 x+ 2 y =17
3 x−2 y=7

Eliminating a variable
 P a g e | 17

 Add or subtract the equations so that one variable is eliminated.

 A variable could be eliminated only if it had the same coefficient (sign doesn’t matter) in both
equations.

 If this is not initially the case, we can multiply through one equation or both equations.

(¿ 1)5 x+ 2 y =17
⇒ (¿ 2) 3 x−2 y=7

(Different signs so add to cancel out)

⇒ (¿ 1)+(¿ 2)¿ eliminate y values
⇒ 8 x=24
x=3

x=3 in (#1)
(substitute
⇒ 5 ×3+2 y=17
⇒ 15+2 y=17
⇒ 2 y=2
y=1

(substitute x=3 in (#2)

3 ×3−2 y=7
9−2 y=7
2−2 y=0
−2 y=−2
y=1

i) (¿ 1) 3 x+ 2 y =18
⇒ (¿ 2) 4 x+ y=19

¿
so that the variable can be eliminated ¿

(¿ 2) x 2⇒(¿ 3) 8 x +2 y =38
⇒ (¿ 1) 3 x+ 2 y =18

( ¿ 3 )∧ ( ¿1 ) now have the same y coefficient . However this time , both have the same signs ¿
of adding ¿ cancel out , subtract the equations :

(¿ 3) – (¿ 1)¿ eliminate y values :

⇒ 5 x=20
x=4
(substitute x=4 (#2)
⇒ 4 × 4+ y=19
⇒ 16+ y =19
y=3

ii) (¿ 1) 4 x+7 y =13

 P a g e | 18

⇒ (¿ 2) 3 x−5 y=20

(again, multiply the equations in order that the variable can be eliminated )

(¿ 1)× 3⇒ (¿ 3) 12 x+21 y=39

(¿ 2)× 4 ⇒ (¿ 4 ) 12 x−20 y=80

(¿ 4 )– (¿ 3) ¿ eliminate x values :

⇒ −41 y=41
y=−1

(substitute y=−1 in (#2)

⇒ 3 x−5 ×−1=20
⇒ 3 x+ 5=20
⇒ 3 x=15
x=5

Forming linear equations

i) Two friends enjoy cakesat thelocal coffee shop :

The total cost of 1 cream slice∧3 doughnuts is £ 2.20
The total cost of 3 cream slices∧1 doughnut is £ 2.60
Let x= price of a cream slice , Let y= price of a doughnut .

(¿ 1) x +3 y=220
⇒ (¿ 2) 3 x+ y=260
(¿ 2)× 3⇒ (¿ 3) 9 x +3 y=780
(¿ 3) – (¿ 1)⇒ 8 x=560
x=70 ¿

⇒ (¿ 2) 3 ×70+ y =260
⇒ (¿ 2) 210+ y =260
(¿ 2) y=50

∴ price of a cream slice=70 p price of a doughnut=50 p

Substitution method

 Rearrange (if necessary)to make either x∨ y the subject of one equation.

 Substitute for that variable in the other equation
 Solve the resulting equation to find that unknown
 Substitute that value in either equation to find the other unknown.

i) (¿ 1) 3 x+ 7 y=19
⇒ (¿ 2) x−2 y=2

(rearrange equation (#2) to make x the subject)

 P a g e | 19

⇒ (#3) x=2+2 y

(substitute (#3) in (#1)

⇒ 3 ( 2+2 y )+7 y =19

⇒ 6+ 6 y+7 y =19
⇒ 6+13 y =19
⇒ 13 y=13
y=1

(substitute y=1 in (#3)

x=2+2 ×1
x=4

Non linear simultaneous equations

 When one or both equations are not linear, i.e. quadratic: Use substitution.

i) (#1) y=x 2−5 x +3

⇒ (#2) 4 x+ y=5

(substitute y=x 2−5 x +3 in (#2)

⇒ 4 x+ x 2−5 x +3=5
⇒ x 2−x−2=0
⇒ ( x +1¿ ( x−2 ) =0
x=−1∨x=2

(substitute x values from (#2) in (#1)

When x=−1 ⇒ y=(−1)2−5 ×−1+3

⇒ y=9

When x=2 ⇒ y=(2)2−5 ×2+3

⇒ y=−3

x=−1 , y=9∨x=2 , y=−3

 Pythagoras’ Theorem

 The sum of the squares of the two shorter sides is equal to the square of the hypotenuse.
 P a g e | 20

a 2+b 2=c 2∨c2−a2=b 2∨c 2−b 2=a2

 Trigonometry

 Connects sides and angles of right angled triangles

 Trigonometry relates the ratio of two sides with an angle.

 When you can’t see the angles no more, you’re in trouble, baby. You’re in trouble.

D
E

A
C
B

Opp Opp
Sinθ= or Opp=Sinθ × Hyp or Hyp=
Hyp Sinθ

Adj Adj
Cosθ= or Adj=Cosθ× Hyp or Hyp=
Hyp Cosθ

Opp Opp
Tanθ= or Opp=Tanθ × Adj or Adj=
Adj Tanθ

SOH-CAH-TOA

Angle of elevation and angle of depression

 P a g e | 21

 Angle of elevation is an angle above the horizontal

 Angle of depression is an angle below the horizontal

 General Triangle
A
The Sine Rule

a b c
to find a side: = =
SinA SinB SinC
b c
SinA SinB SinC
to find an angle: = =
a B c

C B
a

The Cosine Rule

2 2 2 b2 +c 2−a 2
a =b +c −2 bcCosA or CosA =
2bc

a 2+ c2 −b
b 2=a2 +c 2−2 acCosB or CosB=
2 ac

a2 +b2−c 2
c 2=a2+ b2−2 abCosC or CosC =
2 ab

Area of a triangle

1
 ×product of 2 sides × Sin ofθ between them:
2

1 1 1
bcSinA acSinB abSinC
2 2 2
 P a g e | 22

 Radians

 A different measure of angle, more useful than degrees when performing differentiation or
integration.

 1 radian is the angle subtendered by an arc of length equal to the radius.

 Therefore, there are 2 π radians in a full circle. We also know that there are 360° in a circle. So,
there are 360° per 2 π radians and 180° per π radians. Dividing 360° by 2 π give us the value of
about 57.2957° per radian. A radian is equal to 57.2957°. Also, by dividing 2 π radians by 360°
we get about 0.0174532 radians per degree. A degree is equal to 0.0174532 radians.

Circumference ¿ 2 πr
⇒ 360 °=2 π rad
⇒ 180 °=π rad
π
⇒ 1 °= rad
180

π
∴ multiply no . of degrees by
180

π
 64 ° ⇒64 × =1.12 rad
180

 We often prefer to have angles in radians expressed in terms of π

90 1 π
i) 90 ° ⇒ ⇒ π rad ¿ rad
180 2 2

50 5 5π
ii) 50 ° ⇒ ⇒ π rad = rad
180 18 18
 P a g e | 23

540
iii) 540 ° ⇒ =3 π rad
180
 To change radians to degrees
π rad=180 °
180
1 rad=
π
180
multiply number of radians by
π

 If the number of radians is expressed in terms of π

π
i) rad
4

1
×180
4

¿ 45 °

 The graphs of sin θ , cos θ , tan θ

 On a set of axes, angles are measured anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis. So 30° would be
drawn as follows

 The angles which lie between 0° and 90° are said to lie in the first quadrant. The angles between
90° and 180° are in the second quadrant, angles between 180° and 270° are in the third
quadrant and angles between 270° and 360° are in the fourth quadrant

 In the first quadrant, the values for sin , cos and tan are positive.
In the second quadrant, the values for sin are positive only.
 P a g e | 24

In the third quadrant, the values for tan are positive only.
In the fourth quadrant, the values for cos are positive only.

 This can be summed up as follows

 
 In the fourth quadrant, C os is positive, in the first, All are positive, in the second, S∈¿ is positive
and in the third quadrant,T anis positive. This is easy to remember, since it spells "cast".

 The graphs of Sin and Cos are periodic, with periods of 360° (in other words the graphs repeat
themselves every 360°).
The graph of cos is the same as the graph of sin though it is shifted 90° to the right or left. For
this reason Sin x = Cos(90−x ) and Cos x = sin(90−x )
 P a g e | 25

 Note that Cos is an even function:- it is symmetrical in the y -axis. Sin is an odd function.
 The graph of Tan has asymptotes. An asymptote is a line which the graph gets very close to, but
does not touch. The red lines are asymptotes.
 Averages and spread of a set of data

σ =Sigma ,=standard deviation of a population μ ( mu )= population , Mean

¿

 Averages indicate central tendencies. E.g. Mode, Median, (arithmetic) Mean.

 Spread indicates dispersion. E.g. Range, Interquartile range, Standard deviation.

Mode

 Mode is the value with the greatest frequency (the most common value)

5 7 1216 14 97 Mode=7
( single value that occursthe most ¿

 If there are two modes, the set is called bimoda l. We don’t usually accept more than two
modes, we just say there is no mode.

Median

 The median is the middle value once the data are arranged in order

5 7 1216 14 97

5 7 7 9 1214 16

9 is themedian

Mean
Total of data
Mean=
Number of data

5 7 1216 14 97

70
=10
7

Range

 Range is the greatest value minus the smallest value

5 7 1216 14 97

Range=16−5=11

Interquartile range (Q 2)

 Interquartile range (Q 2) = Upper quartile (Q 3) minus Lower quartile (Q 1)

 The lower quartile is the middle value of all data before the median.
 P a g e | 26

 The upper quartile is the middle value of all data after the median.

i) 5 7 1216 14 97

( split the ' order ed' set at the the median)

5 7 7 9 1214 16

Q1 Q2 Q3

Lower quartile=7 ( Q1 ) Upper quartile=14(Q 3)

Interquartile range=( Q 2 )−( Q 1 )=7

ii) 4 7 8 8 1012 15 16

Q1 Q2 Q3

7+8 12+15
Q 1= =7.5 Q 3= =13.5
2 2

Interquartile range=13.5−7.5=6

Standard deviation

 Deviation is the difference from mean.

 To find the mean deviation:

mean deviation= ( ∑( x−μ)

n )
mean of : 57 12 16 14 9 7=10

x Deviation x−μ
5 5−10 −5
7 7−10 −3
12 12−10 2
16 16−10 6
14 14−10 4
9 9−10 −1
7 7−10 −3
∑( x−μ) 0

0
( ∑( x−μ)
n ) =¿ =0
7
 P a g e | 27

 The mean deviation would always be 0 since the positives balance the negatives. To overcome
this we could find the mean absolute deviation by ignoring signs

x |olute| Deviation x−μ

5 5−10 5
7 7−10 3
12 12−10 2
16 16−10 6
14 14−10 4
9 9−10 1
7 7−10 3
∑( x−μ) 24

24
=3.43
7

 In fact, to overcome the problem of signs, each deviation is squared. Then we can obtain the
standard deviation
∑¿¿

x Absolute Deviation x−μ

5 ¿ 25
7 ¿ 9
12 ¿ 4
16 ¿ 36
14 ¿ 16
9 ¿ 1
7 ¿ 9
∑¿ 100

100
√ 7
=3.78

Standard deviation of a population

∑ x2 ∑ x 2
√∑¿ ¿¿ or
√ n
− ( ) known as :
n
σ ( sigma ¿

Standard deviation of a sample

∑ x2 ∑ x 2
√∑¿ ¿¿ or
√ n
−
n ( ) known as : S

Unbiased estimate of the population standard deviation (from a sample)

 P a g e | 28

√∑¿¿¿ known as : σ hat ¿

(Computer displays for deviation)

mean=¿
standard deviatio n=xσn
unbiassed estimate of S . D .=xσn−1

Problems involving the mean

 Problems are usually easier to solve by considering totals rather than means.

Total of data
mean=
Number of data

∴Total of data ¿ Mean × Number of data

∑ x=n

i) A set of 10 data have a meanof 7 :

Total=7 ×10=70

ii) The mean journey time ¿ work during Monday ¿ Thursday one particular week was 48
mins . After Friday the meanwas 50 mins . Find how long the journey took on Friday :

Total time for Monday ¿ Thursday =4 × 48=192mins .

Total time for Monday ¿ Friday=5× 50=250 mins .
∴ Journey time on Friday =250−192 ¿ 58 mins .

iii) ¿ a school project , a r andom sample of 20leaves ¿ each of two particular plants of the
same variety but growing∈different conditions was taken∧the lengtho f each leaf measured .

The mean length of leaf of the sample ¿ ¿ plant A was 12.5 cm.

The total length of the leaves of the sample ¿ plant B w as 42 cmmore thanthat of the sample ¿
plant A .

find the meanlength of leaf of the sample ¿ plant B :

( mean ×number of data=total of data ) 12.5 ×20=250

(total of data of plant A=total of data of plant B−42)

250+ 42=292(total of data of plant B)

292
=meanlength of leaf of the sample ¿ plant B=¿ 14.6
20

Averages and spread of data in a frequency table

 P a g e | 29

i) The children∈a class were asked how many×they had been ¿ thecinema this term .

No .of visits 0 1 2 3 4 5
No .of children 8 6 6 4 2 1

Find : a ¿ Mode
b ¿ Median
c ¿ Mean ¿ 3. s . f
d ¿ The range
e ¿The interquartile range
f ¿ The standard deviation

No .of visits x No .of children f fx fx2

0 8 0 0
1 6 6 6
2 6 12 24
3 4 12 36
4 2 8 32
5 1 5 25
∑ f =27 ∑ fx=43 ∑ f x 2=123

a ¿ Mode ( value withthe greatest frequency ) ¿ 8

b ¿ Median(middle value once the data are arranged ∈order) n=∑ f

1 1
position of median= ( n+1 )= ( 27+1 ) ¿ 14
2 2

median=14 th value=¿ 1

Total of data
c ¿ Mean ( Number of data )

∑ fx 43
¿ ¿ 1.59
∑f 27

d ¿ Range ( greatest value minus the smallest value ) ¿ 5−0 ¿ 5

e ¿ Interquartile range (Q2 )=Upper quartile(Q 3)minus Lower quartile(Q1 )

median=14 th value ,∴ Q1∧Q3 are 13 values either side .

1
position of Q 1= ( 13+1 )=7 Q 1=7 th value ¿ 0
2
1
position of Q 3=14 + ( 13+1 )=21 Q 3=21 st value ¿ 3
2

2 2
f ¿ Standard deviation ( for frequency table ) ∑ f x − ∑ fx
∑f √
∑f ( )
 P a g e | 30

2
401 107
√ 35
−( ) ¿ 1.45
35

Averages and spread of data in a grouped frequency table

 A grouped frequency table involves classes (or class intervals) of data

Mass ( kg ) frequency
40< m≤ 50
50<m ≤60
60< m≤70
70<m ≤80

Lower class boundaries Upper class boundaries

a< b means a isless thanb

a ≤ b means a isless than∨equal ¿ b

i) The breaking strength of each of a sample of 100 cables manufactured by a company

was found ¿ be as followed :

Breaking strength ( B Tonnes ) No .of cables

0< B ≤1.0 5
1.0< B ≤2.0 23
2.0< B ≤2.5 31
2.5< B ≤3.0 25
3.0< B ≤ 4.0 10
4.0 <B ≤ 6.0 6

Find : a ¿ The modal class

b ¿ Anestimate of :(¿ 3. s . f )

i¿ Mean

ii ¿ Sample standard deviation

c ¿ ( Using linear interpolation ) An estimate of :(¿ 3. s . f )

i¿ Median
 P a g e | 31

ii ¿ Interquartile range

Modal class

 The modal class is the class with the greatest frequency density .

frequency
Frequency density =
class width

Class width=upper class boundary−lower class boundary .

Breaking strength B Tonnes frequency Class width frequency density

0< B ≤1.0 5 1.0 5
=5
1.0
1.0< B ≤2.0 23 1.0 23
=23
1.0
2.0< B ≤2.5 31 0.5 31
=62
0.5
2.5< B ≤3.0 25 0.5 25
=50
0.5
3.0< B ≤ 4.0 10 1.0 10
=10
1.0
4.0 <B ≤ 6.0 6 2.0 6
=3
2

a ¿ ∴ Modal class=2.0<≤ 2.5

( since this isthe class with the greatest frequency density )

Mean

∑fx
 Mean ¿
∑f
2 2
Sample standard deviation ¿ ∑ f x − ∑ fx
∑f √ ∑f ( )
Upper class boundary + Lower class boundary
where x=Midpoints ¿
2 )
Breaking strength B Tonnes frequency midpoint x fx fx 2
0< B ≤1.0 5 0.5 2.5 1.25
1.0< B ≤2.0 23 1.5 34.5 51.75
2.0< B ≤2.5 31 2.25 69.75 156.9375
2.5< B ≤3.0 25 2.75 68.75 189.0625
3.0< B ≤ 4.0 10 3.5 35 122.5
4.0 <B ≤ 6.0 6 5.0 30 150
 P a g e | 32

∑ f =100 ∑ fx=240.5 ∑ f x 2=671.5

∑fx 240.5
b¿ i) Mean ¿ ¿ ¿ 2.41
∑f 100

∑ f x2 ∑ fx 2 2
671.5 240.5
ii) Sample standard deviation ¿
√ ∑f
−( )
∑f
¿
√ 100 (
−
100 ) ¿ 0.965 t onne s

Linear Interpolation

 Linear interpolation assumes data are evenly spread within each class.

1
 For grouped data : Positon of median ¿ n
2
1
Position of lower quartile ¿ n
4
3
Position of upper quartile ¿ n
4

1 1
Position of median ¿ n= × 100 ¿ 50 thvalue
2 2

Breaking strength B Tonnes frequency

0< B ≤1.0 5
1.0< B ≤2.0 23
2.0< B ≤2.5 31

(1.0< B ≤2.0) 5+23=28 thvalue (2.0< B ≤ 2.5)

5+23+31=59 th value (2.5< B ≤3.0)

Median (50 th value ) is somewhere within 2.0< B ≤ 2.5 ,between 28 th∧59 th values.

28 th value 50 th value 59 th value

2.0 Q 2 ¿. 2.5

c¿
1
n−28 th value 50−28
i) Lower class boundary+ ¿ 2 ×Class width=2.0+ ×2.5−2.0
59−28
59th value−28th value

linear interpolation median ¿ 2.35 Tonnes

 P a g e | 33

1 1
ii) Position of lower quartile ¿ n= × 100 ¿ 25 th value.
4 4

Q 1is somewhere within 1.0<B ≤ 2.0 , between 5 th∧28 thvalues .

5 th value 25 th value 28 th value

1.0 Q 1 ¿ . 2.0

1
n−min value
4
Lower class boundary+ ×Class width
max value−min value

25−5
Q 1=1+ ×(2.0−1.0) ¿ 1.87 Tonnes
28−5
3 3
Position of upper quartile ¿ n= × 100 ¿ 75 thvalue .
4 4
Q 3is somewhere within 2.5< B ≤3.0 , between 59 th∧84 th values .

59 th value 75 th value 84 th value

2.5 Q3 ¿. 3.0

3
n−min value
4
Upper class boundary+ ×Class width
max value−min value

75−59
Q 3=2.5+ ×(2.5−3.0) ¿ 8.90 Tonnes
84−59

Position of interquartile range ¿ Upper Quartile Range (Q3)-Lower Quartile Range (Q1)

¿ 8.90−1.87 ¿ 7.03 Tonnes

 Probability

 A measure of how likely something is to happen.

Trial Anactivity ∨experiment . E . g . Flip a coin

Outcome A result of a trial.

E . g . When flipping a coin, the outcomes are the head∨the tail

Event A particu lar outcome∨set of outcomes . E . g . When rolling a die :

 P a g e | 34

the event score 6 is achieved by one outcome

the event score more than 4 is achieved by two outcomes(5∨6)

Notation

 P(A) means the probability of event A

 The probability scale:

1
0 1
2

impossible 50/50 definite

Theoretical probability

 Based on equally likely outcomes.

No . of succesful outcomes
P ( event )=¿
Total No. of possible outcome

Success means achieving theevent

 A fair die is rolled(equally likely)..........

1
P ( score 3 )=
6

3 1
P ( odd score ) = =
6 2

2 1
P ( score 5∨more )= =
6 3

3 1
P ( score less than 4 ) = =
6 2

Empirical (or experimental) probability

 Based on relative frequencies in past results.

No . of successful trials
P(event ) ¿
total No. of trials
 P a g e | 35

 Whentested , 3 out of 10,000 components were found ¿ be faulty .

3
P(component is faulty ) ⇒ ¿ 0.0003
10000

 The value of an empirical probability may vary as the number of trials increases. The greater the
number of trials, the more reliable the result.

empirical
probability

number of trials

Mutually exclusive events

 These are events which cannot happen at the same time.

If A∧B are mutually exclusive :

P ( A ∪ B ) =P ( A )+ P( B)

∪ means∪( which means o r ' )

 when a coinis flipped ,the events head∧tail are mutually exclusive .

 The diagram below demonstrates the events the ∑ on the diceis 4 (E) ∧¿
at least on e of the dice is5 (F)whentwo dice are rolled .The outcomes∈the event F
are coloured ¿∧theoutcomes ∈the event E are coloured ¿ .
These events are mutually exclusive since there are no events coloured both ¿∧¿ .
 P a g e | 36

T h e same events can alsobe represented by a venn diagram

Exhaustive events

 Events are exhaustive if every possible outcome is included within them.

 If A and B are exhaustive, the P ( A ∪ B ) =1

The law of total probability

 Suppose events A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

P ( A ∪ B ) =1 since A∧B are exhaustive

P ( A ) + P ( B ) =1 since A∧B are mutually exclusive

 The law of total probability says that the total of probabilities of any number of exhaustive and
mutually exclusive events is 1.

Special case
 consider the events A∧ A' ( notA )

A∧A ' are exhaustive

A∧A ' are mutually exclusive ( because they cannot happen at the same time )
 By the law of probability:
P ( A ) + P ( A ' )=1
 P a g e | 37

∴ P ( A ' ) =1−P ( A )

 The eye colour of each person∈a group was recorded .The probability of each
eye colour was as follows :

Colour brown ¿ ¿ hazel

Probability 0.45 x 0.16 0.09

( assume for this group that these eye colours are exhaustive∧mutually exclusive )

A person ¿ this groupis selected at random. Find the probability that their eye colour is:

a ¿ ¿∨hazel
b ¿ not brown
c ¿¿
d ¿¿

solution:

a ¿ P ( G )+ P ( H) ¿ 0.16+ 0.09=0.25
b ¿ 1−P(brown) ¿ 1−0.45=0.55
c ¿ 1−P(blu e' ) ¿ 1−( 0.45+ 0.16+0.09 ) =0.3
d ¿ P ( ¿ ) =0
Independent events

 Events A and B are independent if P( B) does not depend on whether A happened or not.

P ( A ∩ B )=P ( A ) × P ( B )

' ∩ ' means∩¿

 These combinations may be shown on a tree diagram

P( B) P ( A ∩ B )=P( A)× P( B)

P( A)

P( B ') P ( A ∩B ' ) =P( A)× P(B' )

P( B) P ( A ' ∩ B ) =P ( A ' ) × P(B)

P( A' )
 P a g e | 38

P( B ') P ( A ' ∩ B' ) =P ( A ' )× P( B' )

when working accross tree diagrams , multiply

 A bag contains 5 ¿ beads∧3 ¿ beads . A bead is selected at random ,then replaced ;

then a bead is selected at randomagain .

a ¿ Draw a tree diagram ¿ show all combinations of colours an d their probabilities .

b ¿ Find the probability that :
i¿ beads are the same colour .
ii ¿ Beads are different colour .
iii ¿ There is no ¿ bead .
iv ¿ At least one bead is ¿ .

5 3
solution : where B has ¿ W has probability
8 8

5 5 25
a¿ B2 P ( B 1 ∩ B2 ) ¿ × =
8 8 64

B1

5 3 15
W2 P ( B 1 ∩W 2) ¿ × =
8 8 64

3 5 15
B2 P ( W 1 ∩B 2) ¿ × =
8 8 64

W1

3 3 9
W2 P ( W 1 ∩W 2 ) ¿ × =
8 8 64

25 9 17
b ¿ i¿ P ( same clour )=¿ P ( B 1 ∩ B2 ) + P ( W 1 ∩W 2 )=¿ + =
64 64 32

15 15 30 15
ii ¿ P ( different colour )=¿ P ( B 1 ∩W 2) + P ( W 1 ∩ B2 )=¿ + = = ∨¿
64 64 64 32
1−P(same colour)

9
iii ¿ P(no ¿) P ( W 1∩W 2 )=¿
64
 P a g e | 39

55
iv ¿ P ( at least one ¿bead ) ⇒ P ( B 1 ∩B 2 ) + P ( B 1 ∩W 2 ) + P (W 1 ∩ B 2 )=¿
64

9 55
¿ 1−P ( W 1∩ W 2 ) ⇒ 1−¿ =
64 64

 Tree diagram displaying outcomes of the flip of a coin∧die throw

1
each outcome when rolling a diehas a probability ,∧each outcome when flipping a coin has
6
1
2

∴ P ( one die rollis even∧coin is head )=¿

P ( 2∩ H ) + P ( 4 ∩ H )+ P ( 6 ∩ H ) =¿

1 1 1 1 1 1
× + × + × ⇒
6 2 6 2 6 2

1 1 1
+ + ⇒
12 12 12

3
=¿
12

1
4

 Irrational numbers

 A number isrational if it may be expressed as the ratio of the two integers (i.e. as a vulgar fraction).
Otherwise it is irrational .

examples of irrational numbers:

 Infinite non recurring decima ls: π , e

 Squareroots of non square numbers : √ 2 , √ 3 , √ 5 , √ 6

( √ 4 is the square root of a square number )
SURDS
3 3 3 3
 Cube roots of non cube numbers: √ 2 , √3 , √7 , √ 9
 Other roots that are not exact .
 P a g e | 40

Infinite recurring decimals (very repetitive.......)

 0.7 ˙ means 0.7777777 .............

 0. 1˙ 2 ˙ means 0.12121212.......... .
 0.3 ˙ 45 ˙ means 0.345345345345345 .........

˙ ˙ Dots mark thebeginning∧end of therecurring block of digits. i. e . 7 ˙ means 7 recurring.

Infinite , recurring decimals areirrational .i . e . can be written as a vulgar fraction .

Changing a recurring decimal to a fraction

i) 0.7 ˙ Let x=0.7 ˙ (1)

∴ 10 x=7.7 ˙ (2)
( 2 )−( 1 ) =¿ 10 x−x=9 x
9 x=7.0
7
∴ x=
9

ii) 0.4 ˙ 5 ˙ Let x=0.45 ˙ (1)

∴ 100 x=454.54 ˙ (2)
( 2 )−( 1 ) =¿ 100 x−x=99 x
99 x=454.0
45 5
∴ x= =¿
99 11

Surds

 A surd is an irrational number in the form of a root: √ 2, √3 2

Order 2 Order 3
( square root ) (cube root)

 Rules of combination of surds:

i) √ a × √ b=√ ab
√ 9 × √ 4=3 × 2=6=√ 36= √ 9 × 4

√a = a
ii)
√b b √
√ 36 = 6 =2= 4= 36
√9 3
√
9 √
 P a g e | 41

iii) √ a+ √ b ≠ √ a+b
√ 9+ √ 4=3+ 2=5
√ 9+ 4=√ 13 ≠ 5
iv) √ a−√ b≠ √ a−b
√ 9−√ 4=3−2=1
√ 9−4 √ 5 ≠1

Simplifying a surd (reducing)

√ 8=2 √ 2
smaller number inside theroot
 To simplify a surd write the number inside the root as a product of a perfect square number and
an integer:
√ 8= √ 4 ×2
 Split the surd using √ ab=√ a × √ b:
√ 4 × 2=√ 4 × √ 2
 Evaluate the root of the perfect square number:

√ 4 × √ 2=2 √2

Examples:

i) √ 48 ⇒ √ 16 ×3 ⇒ √16 × √3=4 √3
ii) 3 √ 200⇒ √100 × 2⇒ √ 100 × √ 2 ⇒3 ×10 √ 2=30 √2

Addition and subtraction of surds

 May be done by collecting like terms :

2 √ 5+ 3 √ 5=5 √5

7 √ 2+4 √2=3 √2
 It may be necessary to simplify one or more surds before like surds are apparent:

√ 80+ √ 75+3 √ 45−4 √27

⇒ √ 16 ×5+ √ 25 ×3+ 3 √9 ×5−4 √ 9× 3
⇒ √ 16 × √ 5+ √ 25 × √ 3+3 √ 9 × √ 5−4 √ 9 × √ 3
⇒ 4 √ 5+5 √3+ 9 √5−12 √ 3
¿ 13 √ 5−7 √ 3

Multiplying surds
√ a × √ b=√ ab
 P a g e | 42

⇒ √ x × √ x =√ x × x
⇒ √ x 2=x

Examples:

i) √ 5 × √ 5=5
ii) 3 √ 5× 4 √ 5
⇒ 3 × 4 × √5 × √5
⇒ 12 ×5
¿ 60

iii) 7 √ 3 ×5 √2
⇒ 7 ×5 × √3 × √ 2
¿ 35 √ 6

Expanding brackets involving surds

 Just like in algebra each term in the first set of brackets is multiplied by each term in the second
set of brackets:
( 2 x+1 ) ( 3 x−4 )
⇒ 6 x 2−8 x +3 x−4
¿ 6 x 2−5 x−4

i) ( √ 7+ √ 5 ) (2 √ 7− √ 5)

( remember : √ x × √ x=x )

⇒ 2 ×7−√ 35+2 √35−5

⇒ 14−5=9+ ( 2 √ 35−√ 35 ) =√ 35
¿ 9+ √35

ii) ( 4 √ 2+ 3 √ 5 ) ( 7 √ 2−2 √ 5 )
⇒ 28 ×2−8 √ 10+21 √10−6 ×5
⇒ 56−8 √ 10+21 √ 10−30
¿ 26+13 √ 10

‘Conjugation’

 The conjugate of m √ a+n √ b. (i .e . change sign between terms)

Examples:
3+2 √ 5∧3−2 √ 5

5 √ 3−√ 2∧5 √ 3+ √ 2

−7+ √8∧−7−√ 8

 When an expression is multiplied by its conjugate, the product is rational ( i. e .has no surds )
 P a g e | 43

Examples:
( √ 5+ √ 2 ) ( √ 5−√ 2 )
⇒ 5−√ 10+ √10−2
¿ 5−2=3

( 7 √ 5−2 √ 3 ) ( 7 √5+ 2 √ 3 )
⇒ 49× 5+14 √ 15−14 √15−4 × 3
¿ 245−12=233
Dividing surds (rationalising the denoominator )

 We would accept a surd in the numerator, but not in the denominator.

 In effect, we have to make the denominator rational.

One term in denominator

7
3 √5

(multiply top∧bottom by the surd which appears∈thedenominator )

7 7 × √5 7 √5
⇒ =¿
3 √5 3 √5 × √5 15

3 √7 3 √7 × 2 √ 3 3 √ 21 √ 21
i) ⇒ ⇒ =¿
2 √3 2 √ 3 ×2 √ 3 6 2

Two terms in the denominator

3
√ 5+ √2
(multiply top∧bottom by the conjugator of the denominator )

3 ( √ 5−√ 2 )
=¿
( √ 5+ √2 ) ( √ 5− √2 )

3 ( √ 5−√ 2 )
=¿
5−√ 10+ √ 10−2

3 ( √ 5−√ 2 )
3

3 √5+ √ 7 ( 3 √5+ √ 7 )( 2 √ 7+ √ 5 ) 6 √ 35+ 3× 5+2 ×7+ √ 35

i) ⇒ ⇒ ⇒
2 √ 7−√ 5 ( 2 √ 7−√ 5 )( 2 √ 7+ √ 5 ) 4 ×7+ 2 √ 35−2 √ 35−5
6 √35+15+ 14+ √ 35
=¿
28+2 √35−2 √35−5

7 √ 35
23
 P a g e | 44

3 √ 7−√ 5 ( 3 √ 7−√ 5 ) ( √ 7−√ 5 ) 3× 7−3 √35−√ 35+ 5 21−435+ 5

ii) ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ =¿
√7 +√ 5 ( √ 7+ √ 5 ) ( √ 7−√ 5 ) 7− √ 35+ √ 35−5 2
13−2 √ 35
1

Pythagoras’ theorem involving surds

x
4 √2 m

6 √3 m

( 4 √ 2 )( 4 √ 2 ) + ( 6 √ 3 ) ( 6 √3 ) ⇒
16 ×2+36 × 3=32+108=140

√ 140⇒ √ 4 ×35 ⇒ √ 4 × √ 35=¿

2 √ 35 m

Exact solutions of quadratic equations

 Solutions given in surd form.

solution of a x 2+ bx+ c are givenby quadratic formula.

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a

 find the exact solutions of x 2 +8 x+ 4=0∈their simplest forms :

−8 ± √8 2−4 × 1× 4 −8 ± √64−16 −8 ± √ 3 ×16 −8 ± √3 × √16

x= ⇒ x= ⇒ x= ⇒ x= ⇒
2 ×1 2 2 2

−8 ± 4 √ 3
x= ⇒ −4 ±2 √ 3
2
 P a g e | 45

∴ x=−4 +2 √3∨x=−4−2 √ 3

 find the exact solutions of 2 x 2−4 x ± 1=0∈their simplest forms :

−(−4)± √(−4)2 −4 × 2×−1 4 ± √ 16−−8 4 ± 24

x= ⇒ x= ⇒ x= √ ⇒
2× 2 4 4

4 ± √4 × √6 4 ± 4 √6
x= ⇒ x= ⇒ 1 ±1 √ 6
4 4

∴ x=1+ 1 √ 6∨x=1−1 √ 6

Coordinate geometry

Cartesian Axes :

                     
                   A  
     C                
                     
                     
                     
                     
   D                  
                 B    
                     

is called the origin

 Any point in 2D space can be identified uniquely by an ordered pair of coordinates ( x , y )

A ( 3,2 ) B ( 2,−4 ) C (−3,1) D(−4 ,−3)

The midpoint of two points

A=( x 1 , y 1 ) B ( x2 , y 2 )
y

y2 B
 P a g e | 46

y1
A

x
x1 x2

coordinates of midpoint M :

M ( x +2 x , y +2 y )
1 2 1 2

Examples:
i) A ( 3,6 ) B ( 5,8 )

3+5 6+ 8 8 14
M , ⇒ , =¿ midpoint=(4,7)
2 2 2 2

ii) A (−7 ,−5 ) B (−3,11 )

−7±3 −5+11 −10 6

M , ⇒ , =¿ midpoint=(−5,3)
2 2 2 2

iii) The midpoint of A ( 3,9 )∧B (−1,5 ) is also the midpoint of C ( 6,9 ) ∧D.

Find thecoordinates of point D :

3+(−1) 9+5 2 14
mAB= , ⇒ , =(1,7)
2 2 2 2

mAB ( 1,7 )−C ( 6,9 ) =(−5 ,−2)

∴ point D=mAB−( 5,2 )

( point D must be ¿the¿∧below mAB as point C is¿the ¿of ∧above mAB)

⇒ ( 1,7 )−( 5,2 ) ¿(−4,5)

point B point A point C

 P a g e | 47

9                                        
8      
                                 
 
7                                      

6                                        
 
5                                      
 
4                                      

3                                        

2                                        

1                                        

0                                        
-1
                                       

-2                                        

¿ mAB , ¿ point D , ¿ gradientCD ,

¿ gradientAB
The distance between two points

y
B
y2

y 2− y 1

y1
A

x
x1 x2

x 2−x 1

 AB is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, so by Pythagoras’ theorem:

A B2=¿

distanc e 2=¿
 The difference may be required to a particular level of accuracy, or in surd form.

Examples: i) A ( 1,4 ) B(4,9)

A B2=¿

⇒¿

⇒ 32 +52 =34

∴ AB=√34 or 5.83 ¿ 3. s . f
 P a g e | 48

ii) A ( 1,3 ) B(0 ,−4)

AB =(0−(−1))2 + (−4−3 )2
2

⇒ 12 + (−7 )2
⇒ 50
⇒ AB=√ 50
⇒ √ 25 × √ 2
¿ 5 √ 2units

The gradient of the line between two points

positive gradient

negative gradient

Gradient measures steepness .

height difference∈ y
Gradient m= =
base d ifference∈x

y 2− y 1
m= height
x 2−x 1
base
Examples:

i) A ( 1,4 ) B(4,16)

y 2− y 1 16−4 12
m= ⇒ ⇒ m=4
x 2−x 1 4−1 3

ii) A (−2,3 ) B (2,1)

1−3 −2 1
⇒ ¿−
2−(−2) 4 2

The equation of a straight line

 The equation of a straight line may be written in the form: y=mx+c

Where......... m=gradient
c=intercept y coordinate ¿)
Example:
2 x+3 y −5=0
 P a g e | 49

( rearrange ¿make y the subject )

⟹ 3 y=−2 x+5

−2 5
⟹ y= x+
3 3

−2 5
m= c=
3 3

(note :mis negative , hence downward incline )

C ( 53 )
x

Parallel lines and perpendicular lines

Suppose line L1 has gradient m1

Suppose line L2 has gradient m 2

If L1∧L2 are∥m1=m2

If L1∧L2 are perpendicular m 1 × m2 =−1

−1
∴ If L1∧L2 are perpendicular m2 =
m1

(Turn upside down∧change the sign)

m1 m 2 if ∥¿ m2 if perpendicular
3 3 −1
3
-5 -5 1
5
1 1 −4
4 4
−1 −1 6
6 6
3 3 −4
4 4 3
−2 −2 5
5 5 2
 P a g e | 50

 The intersection of two graphs

 Find where two graphs intersect by solving their equations simultaneously. Must remember to
give solutions as pairs of coordinates .

Example: A line L has equation x + y +1=0

And a curve C has equation y=x 2−5 x +2

Find thecoordinates of their point of ∩:

x + y +1=0 ( 1 )
y=x 2−5 x +2(2)

Substitute y=x 2−5 x+ 2∈(1)

x + ( y=x 2−5 x +2 ) +1=0

⟹−4 x + x 2+3=0
⟹ ( x−1 )( x−3 )=0
x−1=0∨x−3=0
∴ x=1∨x=3

Substitute x=1∈( 2 ) y=12−5 × 1+ 2=−2

Subs titute x=3∈ ( 2 ) y =32−5 ×3+2=−4

∴ coordinates=( 1 ,−2 ) ,(3 ,−4 )

(Treat the same as nonlinear simultaneous equations , except giv e the answers∈coordinates instead)
 Perpendicular bisector of AB

 AB is the line segment joining points A&B.

 The perpendicular bisector of AB is a straight line which is perpendicular to AB and which passes
through the midpoint of AB

midpoint

perpendicular bisectionof AB

 To find equation of perpendicular bisector of AB:

i) Find coordinates of midpoint of AB: m(x m , y m)

ii) Find gradient of AB: m1
iii) Find gradient of perpendicular to AB: m2
 P a g e | 51

iv) Find equation from: y− y m=m2 (x−x m )

Example
Find theequation of the perpendicular bisection of the points A ( 1,3 )∧B ( 5 ,−5 )
¿ the form ax +by +c=0

A ( 1,3 ) B ( 5 ,−5 )

 coordinates of midpoint of AB

m ( x +2 x , y +2 y )
1 2 1 2

1+5 3+(−5)
⟹m ( 2
,
2 )
m=(3 ,−1)

 gradient of AB

y 2− y 1 −5−3 −8
m 1= ¿ = ¿−2
x 2−x 1 5−1 4

 gradient of perpendicular ¿ AB

m 2=
−1 1
¿
m1 2

 equation of perpendicular bisector of AB

y− y m=m 2 (x−x m )

∴ y− y 1=m(x−x 1 )

1
⟹ y−(−1)= ( x−3)
2

( ×2¿ clear the fraction )

⟹ 2 ( y +1 ) =1( x−3)

⟹ 2 y +2=x−3

⟹ 0=x −3−2 y−2

⟹ x−2 y−5=0

 Differentiation
 P a g e | 52

200
 Suppose a vehicle travels 20m in 10 seconds. Then is average speed is =20 m/s−1
10
 It may not have had this spread all the time. What if we wanted to know its speed at any
instant.

200 m

distance Constant Speed

time 10 s

200 m

distance Variable Speed

time 10 s

change∈distance
Speed is givenby ¿ gradient of graph
change∈time
 So if speed is constant, then the gradient would be constant. i.e. straight line graph.
 If speed is variable, then the gradient would be variable. i.e. curved graph.
 The instantaneous speed is found by finding the instantaneous rate of change of distance
with respect to time.
 This is given by the gradient of the curve at that time, which is itself defined as the gradient of
the tangent to that curve at that time.

all tangents touch the

line of the curve

 P a g e | 53

 The instantaneous rate of change of a variable y with respect to a variable x may be found
by finding the gradient of the curve (the gradient of the tangent to the curve at any point)
 Drawing tangents and finding gradient is tedious and inaccurate. Better to use differentiation.
 This is a limiting process which allows an instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x
to be found. Also, it allows the gradient of a curve to be found.

y=f (x )

Chord PQ

Q
y +δy

δy

P
y

x x +δx
δx
tangent

 As Q gets closer to P, so the gradient of chord PQ gets closer to the gradient of tangent at
P.

gradient of tangent at P=limit Q → P gradient of thechord PQ

(the limit isthe value app roached by the gradient of chord PQ as Q → P)

dy δy
= limit as δx →0
dx δx

dy
is called : i) The (first) derivative
dx
ii) The (first) differential
iii) The gradient function

Example:

y=x 2

Q
2
( 3+ δx )
 P a g e | 54

δy

P
9

3 3+ δx
δx
P(3,9)

δy=¿

δy
gradient of thechord PQ =¿
δx

δx 3+ δ x2 δy δy
δx
1 4 7 7
0.1 3.1 0.61 6.1
0.01 3.01 0.0601 6.01
0.001 3.001 0.006001 6.001

gradient of thetangent ¿ y=x 2 at P ( 3,9 ) :

δy
limit δx → 0 =6
δx

Differentiation of k x n (Where k∧n are numbers)

δy
y=k xn =kn x n−1
δx

i) Multiply by the original power .

ii) Reduce power by 1

Alternative notation

i) f ( x )=k x n
f ' ( x )=k x n−1

' f dashed of x ' (derivative of )

d
ii) ( k x n )=k x n−1
dx

Examples:
 P a g e | 55

 y=3 x 2

dy
=3 ×2 × x 2−1=6 x 1
dx

 y=5 x 3

dy
=5 ×3 × x 3−1=15 x 2
dx

 y=−3 x 7

dy
=−3 ×7 × x 7−1=21 x 6
dx

Special cases
dy
i) y=k ⟹ =0
dx
¿

dy
ii) y=kx ⟹ =k
dx

dy
iii) y=kx=k x 1 ⟹ =k x 0=k ×1=k
dx

Rational functions
1
i. e .
xn

 Bring the x term to the top by changing the sign of the power, then differentiate.

Examples:
2 dy 10
 y= 5 ⟹ 2 x ⟹ dx =10 x ∨ 6
−5 −6

x x

3 3 x−2 dy −6 x−3 −3 x−3 3

 y= 2 ⟹
4
⟹ =
dx 4
⟹
2
= 3
4x 2x

Roots

 Rewrite root as a power, then differentiate.

Examples:
1 dy
−1
3
 y=6 √ x ⟹6 x 2 ⟹ =3 x 2 ¿
dx √x
 P a g e | 56

1 dy 2 −23 ¿ 2
 y=2 √3 x ⟹2x 3 ⟹ = x 3
dx 3 3 √ x2

8
−1
dy 1 −3 −3
4
 y= ⟹ 8 x 2 ⟹ =8×− × x 2 ⟹ 4 x 2 ¿− 3
√x dx 2 √x
Differentiating a series of terms

 A series of terms is a set of expressions separated by +¿ or −¿.

 Differentiate a series by differentiating term by term.

Examples:
dy
 y=x 3 +5 x 2−7 x−9 ⟹ =3 x 2 +10 x−7
dx

dy 3 2
 y=x 3 +5 x 2+ x 3−3 x +1 ⟹ dx =8 x −15 x +2 x −3

The gradient of a curve

tangent at P
P

 The gradient of a curve at a point P is defined as the gradient of the tangent to the curve at
point P.
 To find the gradient of the curve at P:

dy
i) Differentiate the fraction ¿ find (the gradient function)
dx

dy
ii) Evaluate at P
dx

Example:
 A curve has equation y=x 3−4 x 2+ 2 x−1

find the gradient of the curve at ( 2 ,−5 )

dy
y=x 3−4 x 2 +2 x−1⟹ =3 x 2−8 x +2
dx
 P a g e | 57

dy
At ( 2,−5 ) : =3 × 22−8 ×2+2 ( substitute 2 for x value) ⟹ m=−2
dx

6
 A curve has equation y=6 x−
x

find the gradient of the curve at ( 1,0 )

6 dy
y=6 x − ⟹ 6+6 x−1 ⟹ =6+ 6 x −2
x dx

dy 6
At ( 1,0 ) : =6+ 2 ⟹ m=12
dx 1

 A curve has equation y=2 x 3−3 x 2+ 6 x −7

find the coordinates of the points where the gradient is18

dy
2 x3 −3 x2 +6 x−7 ⟹ =6 x 2−6 x +6
dx

dy
where m=18 : =18
dx

∴ 6 x2−6 x+6=18 ( subtract 18)

⟹ 6 x 2−6 x−12=0 ⟹ x2 −x−2=0 ( divide through by 6 )

⟹ ( x+1 ) ( x−2 )

⟹ x+1=0∨x −2=0

∴ x=−1∨x=2

when x=−1 : y=2 ׿

when x=2 : y=2 ×2−3 ×22 +6 ×2−7 ⟹16−12+12−7=9

∴ coordinates: (−1,−18 ) ,(2,9)

The equation of a tangent or a normal to a curve

tangent at P
 P a g e | 58

normal at P

 The normal to a curve is the line through P which is perpendicular to the tangent.

Equation of tangent at P ( x 1 , x 2 ) : y− y 1=mt ( x−x 1)

dy
(
where mt =gradient of tangent mt found by evaluating :
dx
at P )
Equation of normal at P ( x 1 , x 2) : y − y 1=mn( x−x 1)

where mn=gradient of normal

−1
mn=
mt

Example:
162 54
 A curve has equation y= +
x √x

dy
a ¿ find an expression for
dx
b ¿ find an equation of tangent at x=1∈form ax +by + c=0
c ¿ find equation of normal at x=9∈form ax +by +c=0

−1 −3
162 54 2 dy 2
+ ⟹ 162 x−1+54 x ⟹ =−162 x−2−27 x
x √x dx

162 27
¿− 2
− 3
1 (√ x)

162 54
when x=−1 : y= − =216
1 √1
dy −162 27
when x=1 : = 2 − =−189
dx 1 (√ 1)
3

⟹ mt=−189
Equation of tangent where x=1: y− y 1=mt ( x−x 1 )

∴ y−216=−189 ( x−1 )

⟹ y−216=−189 x+189
 P a g e | 59

⟹ y−216+189 x−189=0

⟹ 189 x + y −405=0

162 54
where x=9 : y= + =36
9 √9

dy −162 27
⟹ = 2 −
dx 9 (√ 9)
3

⟹ mt=−3

1
∴ mn=
3

c ¿ Equationof normal at x=9 : y− y 1=mn( x −x¿¿ 1)¿

1
∴ y−36= ( x−9 )
3

⟹ 3 ( y−36 ) =1 ( x−9 )

⟹ 3 y−108=x −9

⟹ 0=x −9−3 y +108

⟹ x−3 y +99=0