SOCSCI 1110 REVIEWER • Make an argument to support your thesis.

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHICAL WRITING • In order to strengthen your argument, anticipate and answer
objections to it.
What is a philosophy paper?
• Briefly conclude by explaining what you think your argument has
Philosophical essays prove some point through the use of
established
rational argument. A philosophical essay is not about flowery
language, story-telling techniques, or surprising the reader. The The philosophical essay generally follows a very simple
beauty of a philosophical essay is found in your ideas; the structure:
language that you use is only a tool for conveying these ideas
1. State the proposition to be proved
to the reader. The art is in proving one’s point clearly.
2. Give the argument for that proposition
Examples of Big Questions: 3. Show that the argument is valid.
4. Show that the premises are true
• How should we live?
5. State the upshot of what has been proven.
• Is there free will?
2 Philosophical Arguments (logical steps from obviously true
• How do we know anything? premises to an unobvious conclusion)

• or, What is truth? negative argument- is an objection that tries to show that a claim,
theory, or argument is mistaken; if it does so successfully, we say
How to structure a Philosophy Paper? that it refutes it
• Begin by formulating your precise thesis. positive argument- it tries to support a claim or theory, for
• Define technical or ambiguous terms used in your thesis or your example, the view that there is genuine free will, or the view that we
argument should never eat animals. Positive philosophical arguments about
the Big Questions that are ideal are extremely hard to construct,
How to structure a Philosophy Paper? and philosophers interested in formulating or criticizing such
arguments usually end up discussing other questions that may at
• If necessary, motivate your thesis (i.e. explain
first seem pedantic or contrived.
to your reader why they should care about it.
• Explain briefly how you will argue in favor of your thesis.
• If necessary, explain the argument you will be critiquing.
PREMISES or BASIS of ARGUMENTS • do so in your own words and according to your own clear
understanding of the logical steps involved in it.
EVIDENCE
• If a philosopher’s argument seems obviously wrong, then you
• sometimes empirical evidence from psychology, physics or other
probably do not understand it properly.
fields of inquiry can be put to good use in philosophical arguments.
Certain conventions are helpful and generally expected in
• Requisite of the types of arguments referred either as Reductio or
philosophical writing: CONVENTIONS
Question – begging argument
• Avoid direct quotes.
EXAMPLE OF A REDUCTIO
• Use first person personal pronouns and possessive pronouns
Premise 1: People sometimes ought morally to do what they are not
freely; signpost.
in fact going to do.
• Say exactly what you mean, and no more than you need to say.
Premise 2: If a person morally ought to do something, then they
could do what they ought to do (Principle that “Ought implies can”). • Be careful with specialized language.
Premise 3: If a person is in fact going to do one thing, then it is not On the context of Big Questions: the satisfactions of philosophy
the case that they could do something else (Determinism). are often derived from, first, discovering and explicating how they
are logically connected to the Big Questions, and second,
Conclusion (from 2 and 3): People never ought morally to do what
constructing and defending philosophical arguments to answer
they are not in fact going to do
them in turn. Good philosophy proceeds with modest, careful and
EXAMPLE OF A QUESTION - BEGGING ARGUMENT clear steps.

Premise (1): I have religious experiences. 5 Methods of Philosophizing

Premise (2): If anyone has religious experiences, then God exists. 1. Socratic Method

Conclusion: God exists. 2. Phenomenological method

SOURCES 3. Dialectical Method

• You may freely use the arguments of other philosophers in your 4. Speculative method, or the method of abstraction
papers as long as you credit them appropriately, and also do your
5. Cartesian Method
own philosophical thinking
Hallmarks of 5 Philosophizing Methods questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and
underlying presuppositions.
SOCRATIC METHOD- Teach students to think for themselves
Plato and Socrates as prominent figures in the evolution of
DIALECTICAL METHOD- any systematic reasoning, exposition or
Dialectic Method.
argument that juxtaposes opposed or contradictory ideas and
usually seeks to resolve their conflict : a method of examining and Plato, (born 428/427 BCE, Athens, Greece — died 348/347,
discussing opposing ideas in order to find the truth Athens), ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates (c. 470 –
399 BCE), teacher of Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE), and founder of the
CARTESIAN METHOD- a systematic process of being skeptical
Academy, best known as the author of philosophical works of
about (or doubting) the truth of one's beliefs, which has become a
unparalleled influence.
characteristic method in philosophy.
The Cartesian Method of Doubt
PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD- the main objective of which is
the direct investigation and description of phenomena as - To overcome scepticism be an ultra specific in method.
consciously experienced, without theories about their causal - One bad apple in a basket corrupts the others – it must, like
explanation and as free as possible from unexamined all doubtful beliefs, be rejected.
preconceptions and presuppositions. - Anything that is not certain must be rejected.
- Anything that is capable of being doubted at all must also be
SPECULATIVE METHOD, OR THE METHOD OF ABSTRACTION-
rejected.
a philosophy professing to be founded upon intuitive or a priori
- What is left will offer certain foundations upon which to build
insight and especially insight into the nature of the Absolute or
our knowledge.
Divine
Phenomenological method - the direct investigation and
Methods of Philosophizing
description of phenomena as consciously experienced, without
The Socratic Method- Socrates (470 - 399 BC) was a Greek theories about their causal explanation and as free as possible from
philosopher who sought to get to the foundations of his students' unexamined preconceptions and presuppositions.
and colleagues' views by asking continual questions until a
Speculative method, or the method of abstraction- a philosophy
contradiction was exposed, thus proving the fallacy of the initial
professing to be founded upon intuitive or a priori insight and
assumption. This became known as the Socratic Method, and may
especially insight into the nature of the Absolute or Divine broadly
be Socrates' most enduring contribution to philosophy.
: a philosophy of the transcendent or one lacking empirical bases :
The Socratic method (also known as method of Elenchus, elenctic
theoretical as opposed to demonstrative philosophy
method, or Socratic debate) is a form of cooperative argumentative
dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering
ETHICS An ethical behavior is an action that is following the rules of what
is considered correct in society. On the contrary a moral behavior is
WHY STUDY ETHICS?
driven by the desire to be good.
Studying ethics will improve one’s ability to engage in difficult moral
Ethical Perspectives
dialogue with people who have different perspectives from his/her
own. It will help a person live consistently with his/her values and • Utilitarian ethics focuses on the greatest good for the greatest
think reflectively about those values as one learn more about the number of people,
world and his/ her place in it.
• Deontological ethics emphasizes that certain actions, regardless
practical reasons to study ethics. Studies show that people who of their outcomes, are inherently right or wrong.
study ethics have a significant advantage in the workplace — one of
• Virtue ethics highlights the importance of developing virtuous
many career - oriented reasons to consider making the study of
character traits and acting in accordance with those traits.
ethics a part of your collegiate life.
Objectives of ethics?
What is ethics?
• to help us decide what is good or bad, better or worse, either in
Ethics is a branch of philosophy
some general way or with regard to particular ethical issues. This is
• It is also called moral philosophy generally called normative ethics.
• Ethics, or moral philosophy, asks basic questions about the good • to establish principles and moral standards of behaviour
life, about what is better and worse, about whether there is any
• equip human with intellectual capacities for responsible moral
objective right and wrong, and how we know it if there is.
judgment
• is a vital aspect of human life and plays a critical role in shaping
Ethics - related concepts
our behavior, relationships, and society. By reflecting on our moral
values and principles and applying them in our daily lives, we can • metaethics. Metaethical inquiry asks questions about the nature
cultivate a more compassionate and just world for all. of ethics, including the meaning of ethical terms and judgments.
Questions about the relation between philosophical ethics and
Ethics is based on well-founded standards of what is morally good
religion
and bad and morally right and wrong for the society.
• ethical dilemmas and moral quandaries - problem in the
Ethics stablish the rules that individuals need to follow fort the
decision - making process between two possible options, neither of
survival of the society. Therefore, ethics are subjective and
which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective.
communal
4 Types of Ethical Dilemmas
 ethics.” Each culture then constructs virtues, narratives, and
institutions on top of these foundations, thereby creating the unique
moralities we see around the world, and conflicting within nations
too.
MORAL FOUNDATION THEORY
argues that there are five basic moral foundations:
(1) harm/care,
(2) fairness/reciprocity,
(3) ingroup/loyalty,
(4) authority/respect, and
(5) purity/sanctity.
1) Care/harm:
Ethics and Ethical Reasoning
This foundation is related to our long evolution as mammals with
3 FOUNDATION of ETHICS
attachment systems and an ability to feel (and dislike) the pain of
1. virtue ethics others. It underlies virtues of kindness, gentleness, and nurturance.

2. consequentialist ethics 2) Fairness/cheating

3. deontological or duty - based ethics. This foundation is related to the evolutionary process of reciprocal
altruism. It generates ideas of justice, rights, and autonomy. [Note:
MORAL FOUNDATIONS THEORY In our original conception, Fairness included concerns about
Moral Foundations Theory was created by a group of social and equality, which are more strongly endorsed by political liberals.
cultural psychologists to understand why morality varies so much However, as we reformulated the theory in 2011 based on new
across cultures yet still shows so many similarities and recurrent data, we emphasize proportionality, which is endorsed by everyone,
themes. but is more strongly endorsed by conservatives)

In brief, the theory proposes that several innate and universally

available psychological systems are the foundations of “intuitive
3) Loyalty/betrayal Ethical intuitionism is the idea that true, objective information about
morality is accessible to people just through intuition
This foundation is related to our long history as tribal creatures able
to form shifting coalitions. It underlies virtues of patriotism and self - Ethical intuitionism also holds that there can exist no complete
sacrifice for the group. It is active anytime people feel that it’s “one scientific or empirical deconstruction of moral goodness, as it is
for all, and all for one.” fundamental and non - natural.
4) Authority/subversion emotivism
This foundation was shaped by our long primate history of • the view that moral judgments do not function as statements of
hierarchical social interactions. It underlies virtues of leadership and fact but rather as expressions of the speaker’s or writer’s feelings.
followership, including deference to legitimate authority and respect
• Emotivism is a theory that claims that moral language or
for traditions.
judgement are neither true nor false; express our emotions; try to
5) Sanctity/degradation influence others to agree with us.
This foundation was shaped by the psychology of disgust and Bad points of Emotivism
contamination. It underlies religious notions of striving to live in an
• Emotivism says that moral statements just express our feelings
elevated, less carnal, more noble way. It underlies the widespread
idea that the body is a temple which can be desecrated by immoral • It become unpopular with philosophers because the theory that led
activities and contaminants (an idea not unique to religious the Emotivists to think that moral statements were meaningless has
traditions). fallen from favour.
the difference between normative and descriptive claims. • in practical terms, Emotivism falls down because it isn't very
satisfying. Even (most) philosophers think moral statements are
Normative claims make value judgments
more than just expressions of feeling.
Descriptive claims do not make value judgments
• it's perfectly possible to imagine an ethical debate in which neither
Understanding Ethics - related Key Terms (Moral Theories) party has an emotion to express.
intuitionism • Non - philosophers also think there is more to ethics than just the
expression of an attitude or an attempt to influence behaviour. They
Ethical intuitionism is the meta - ethical view that normal ethical
want a better explanation and foundation for shared standards of
agents have at least some non - inferentially justified ethical beliefs
morality than Emotivism can provide.
and knowledge (Cowan, R, 2015).
Objectivism • Ethical Subjectivism (or Moral Subjectivism) is the meta -
ethical belief that ethical sentences reduce to factual statements
• Objectivism holds that reality is an absolute — that facts are facts,
about the attitudes and/or conventions of individual people, or that
regardless of anyone’s hopes, fears, or desires. There is a world
any ethical sentence implies an attitude held by someone. It is
independent of our minds to which our thinking must correspond if
therefore a form of Moral Relativism in which the truth of moral
our ideas are to be true and therefore of practical use in living our
claims is relative to the attitudes of individuals.
lives, pursuing our values, and protecting our rights.
METAETHICS vs NORMATIVE ETHICS
• we ought to desire things that are good — with an emphasis on
the goodness of the thing - in - itself apart from our subjective (2 major branches of ethics)
responses
metaethics focuses on determining the meaning and objectivity of
• There must be objective reasons that ground our subjective and moral concepts of good and bad, or right and wrong.
emotional responses to things
normative ethics attempts to determine which character traits are
• Objectivists hold that values have an objective reality — that they good and bad, which actions are right and wrong.
are objects available for knowledge
Subjectivism
• Subjectivism is the theory that perception (or consciousness) is
reality, and that there is no underlying, true reality that exists
independent of perception.
• It does not claim that "all is illusion" or that "there is no such thing
as reality", merely that the nature of reality is dependent on the
consciousness of the individual. In an extreme form, it may hold that
the nature and existence of every object depends solely on
someone's subjective awareness of it.

MORAL:
Types of subjectivism - The term comes from BOTH the Latin (meaning “mores”)
• Metaphysical Subjectivism is the idea (as described above) and the Greek (meaning “ethos”)
there is no underlying, true reality that exists independent of Each derives their meaning from the idea of custom.
perception or consciousness.
MORALITY Refers to MORALITY IN RELIGION
- Certain Customs - Morality is usually essential to the religion’s practice.
- Certain precepts - The moral principles are grounded in revelation and divine
- Certain Practices of Peoples and Cultures authority of that religious belief system.
- Positive or Descriptive Morality: is used to describe actual
MORALITY AND LAW
beliefs and customs of a culture
- Laws are instituted to promote social and individual well
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
being.
- Refers to philosophical or theoretical reflection on morality - Laws resolve conflicts of interest
- Your author terms these theories “Ethical Theories” - Laws promote social harmony.
- These theories come from moral philosophical reflections. - Morality also does all of these three
- The systematic endeavor to understand moral concepts and - Ethics may judge that some laws are immoral without
justify moral principles and theories denying that those same laws are valid laws.
- Moral Philosophy analyzes concepts and terms like:
LAW AND MORALITY DIFFER
right/wrong, ought and good/evil.
- Seeks to establish principles of right behavior to serve as a - According to the concept of “Intent”
guide for individuals and groups - Bad intentions (mens rea) is factored into the legality of a
- Investigates which values and virtues are important for a criminal act.
worthwhile life in society - But no one can be punished for only thinking bad thoughts
according to the law.
ETHICS
- The enforcement of Law has physical (imprisonment) and
- Refers to the whole domain of morality and moral financial (fines) sanctions.
philosophy - Only sanctions of conscience or reputation enforce morality.
- Both areas are connected by common concerns in different
MORALITY AND ETIQUETTE
ways through: Values, Virtues, Principles and Practices.
- Etiquette determines what is polite social behavior
MORAL PRECEPTS CONCERN SOCIAL NORMS
- Morality determines what is correct or right social behavior.
- Morality has a normative aspect in that it has a distinct - Not obeying social custom in some cases can be considered
guiding function which is also shared by religion, law and immoral.
social etiquette. -
- Morality functions differently in religion, law and social
etiquette.
RELIGION, LAW, & ETIQUETTE HAVE LIMITATIONS IN OVERRDINGNESS
SOCIETY
- An authority that takes precedence over other
- Religion- rests on authority that some people question. considerations including aesthetic prudential and legal
- Law- every social ill does not have a law and all rules can concerns.
not be enforced - When principles conflict, one must override the other(s) for
- Etiquette- Does not go to the depth of what is existentially an action to be morally justified.
important
PUBLICITY
TRAITS OF MORAL PRINCIPLES
- Moral principles must be known by all and must be made
Central to morality are moral principles which have these five traits: public
- Keeping a moral principle secret would defeat the purpose
- Prescriptivity
of having a moral principle.
- Universalizability
- Overridingness PRACTICABILITY
- Publicity
- Moral Principles must be workable to all in the general
- Practicability
society.
PRESCRIPTIVITY - Rules must not be too much for anyone person.
- Rules must take human limitation into consideration
- This refers to the practice or action guiding nature of
- Difference in ethical standards occur over time and place
morality
- This trait of moral principles advises people and influences ETHICAL ASSESSMENT
action
- Generally there are four domains which evaluate rules of
UNIVERSALIZABILITY right conduct
- Action
- Moral principles must apply to all who are in relatively the
- Consequences
same situation.
- Character
- They must apply to all evaluative judgments.
- Motive
- They must be used consistently.
1. ACTION
- Actions are usually termed right or wrong
“right” can be ambiguous term
Right can mean - They hold that there is something inherently good or right about
certain actions and wrong or bad about other actions.
- Obligatory or
2. CONSEQUENCES
- permissible
- Actions based on the foreseeable outcome of a course of decision
RIGHT ACTION – 2 TYPES
- Theories that focus on consequences in determining what is
- Optional Act- An act not obligatory or wrong to do: not your duty to
moral/right or immoral/wrong are termed:
do or not to do
- Teleological Ethical Theories
- Obligatory Act- An act you must do; you may not refrain from doing
it. ‘Telos’ is greek and means goal directed.
WRONG ACTS 3. CHARACTER
- One has an obligation or duty to refrain from doing the action. - Character reflects actions that emphasize virtue.
- One ought not to do the action at all - Virtue empowers character to do good.
- It is not an act that is permissible for one to do/ - Most moral theories consider virtue important
SUPEREROGATORY ACTS - But, virtue is not always central to all moral theories.
- These actions are within the range of permissible acts. 4. MOTIVE
- These are highly altruistic acts - Moral actions take into account the intention or motivation of the
actor prior to the act itself
- These are not required or obligatory acts.
- The full assessment of an act considers intention or motive.
- They exceed what morality requires
- Motive and intent are relevant factors in any given action.
- They go beyond “the call of duty”
NEED FOR MORALITY
DEONTOLOGICAL ACTS
- Why do we need morality? There are many responses to
- “Deon” is from the greek word ‘Duty’
this question.
- These theories emphasize the nature of an action.
 - Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) stated: Humans create a ‘ MORALITY- Informal framework of values, beliefs, principles,
social contact or convenant’ to create a standard of social customs, and ways of living (e.g christianity, buddhism)
morals to counteract our ‘state of nature’ as he saw
VIRTUE ETHICS- Begins with the insights that actions shapes our
humanity.
character/ what we do determines who we become
PURPOSES OF MORALITY
DEONTOLOGY- come from the greek word “deon” which means
- Morality is the force in humanity that can keep us within a “duty” A theory created by IMMANUEL KANT saying that DO
human behavior that advocates decency and respect WHAT’S RIGHT SIMPLY BECAUSE IT’S RIGHT (e.g promise)
- Morals are a set of rules that if everyone follows them,
- It also reminds us the DIGNITY OF EVERY PERSON
nearly everyone will flourish.
- These rules restrain our freedom in order to promote greater CONSEQUENTIALISM- A thinking that focuses on the outcome/
freedom and well being for us and for all in society. BEST ACTIONS, BEST RESULTS
- There are generally five purposes of morals that are related
but not all identical. UTILITARIANISM- Pleasure is good, pain is a=bad- JEREMY
BENTHAM/ JOHN STUART MILL (create the best outcomes)
MORALITY
MORAL INTUITION- Gut feelings that affects how we act
- Morality is the most important subject on earth.
- Without it, we can not promote the good of humanity. ETHICAL JUDGEMENT- Act of valuing what is right or wrong
- Moral rules are not relative supported by facts.
- MORAL OBJECTIVISM- Moral norms or principles are valid for
- everyone (e.g killing is bad)
- They are not totally absolute; they can override one another.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM- action considered to be morally right if
THE GOAL OF MORALITY one’s culture approves it.
- To create happy virtuous people SUBJECTIVE RELATIVISM- Action is morally right if one approves
- To create and support flourishing communities based on it.
order and justice
- To provide guidelines for people to achieve the above Moral Rightness or wrongness is relative to individuals.
- To promote the good of morality
EMOTIVISM- Emotions/attitudes
LAW- enforceable standars/formal rules on how should we behave
in our society.