DATA AND SIGNALS

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING MITCH M. ANDAYA

SIGNALS

• Signals are the electrical or

electromagnetic representation of
data.

• Data transmission is the

communication of data by the
transmission or propagation of
electromagnetic signals through
either wired or wireless media
(channel).

• Electrons when propagated either in

a guided media or free space creates
electromagnetic waves or signals.

Data and Signals

SIGNALS

• Signals are the actual

electromagnetic voltages/waves
transmitted on a physical
wired/wireless medium.

• In other words, electromagnetic

signals are used to carry
information from one end to the
other over the physical media.

• Electromagnetic signals can be

either analog (continuous & can
take infinite values) or digital
(discrete and take only a finite
set of values).

Data and Signals

ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Analog Signal

An analog signal is a
continuous signal
that can assume all
possible values
(infinite) within its
given range.

Data and Signals

ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Discrete Signal

A discrete signal is a
signal that can
assume only certain
values within its
given range.

Data and Signals

ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Digital Signal high, on, or 1

A digital signal is a
discrete signal that
can assume only two
possible values
(binary).

One value if referred

to as high, on, or 1
while the other value
is low, off, or 0. low, off, or 0

Data and Signals

ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL SIGNALS
• Comparison of Analog Clock and Digital Clock

An analog clock that has

hour, minute, and second A digital clock that reports the
hands gives information in hours and the minutes will
a continuous form; the change suddenly from 10:35 to
movements of the hands 10:36.
are continuous.

Data and Signals

ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL SIGNALS

• The main advantage of digital signals over analog signals is that

the precise signal level of the digital signal is not vital.

This means that digital signals are fairly immune to the

imperfections (noise) of real electronic systems which tend to
distort analog signals.

Data and Signals

ANALOG SIGNALS

• The sine wave is the most fundamental form of an

analog signal.
magnitude
Sinusoidal
Signal or Sine
Wave
time

Data and Signals

ANALOG SIGNALS

• A signal's strength is
magnitude
measured through the
signal amplitude.
amplitude

time • Amplitude can be measured

in terms of voltage, current
or power; and
measurements of volts (V),
amperes (A) and watts (W),
respectively.
• In electromagnetic transmission the commonly used measurement
is power (watts).

• Signal power indicates how much distance a signal can last. The
higher the power level, the further it can reach.

Data and Signals

ANALOG SIGNALS

magnitude
• Sinusoidal signals are
repeating by nature. A cycle
is the part of the signal that
time repeats itself.

• The period () is the time

for the signal to make one
period complete cycle (measured
in seconds).

• How often a signal cycle repeats itself is a measure called

frequency (f), its unit being in cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).

Data and Signals

ANALOG SIGNALS

magnitude
• The relationship
between frequency and
period is given by the
time equation:

1
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
period 

• For example, if the period of the cycle  = 0.0005 sec, then

the frequency of the signal is f = 1 / 0.0005 = 2,000 cycles
per second or Hz.

Data and Signals

ANALOG SIGNALS

magnitude • The wavelength () is the

length of one cycle in
meters:

time 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

=
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

wavelength where the speed of light is

approximately
300,000,000 m/s.

• So if the operating frequency is 900 MHz, then the wavelength is

computed to be  = 300,000,000/900,000,000 = 0.333 m (1.1
feet).

Data and Signals

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

• So far, the sine amplitude f = 1 00 Hz

wave has been
shown in the time-
domain plot. 5

• The time-domain time

plot shows changes

in signal amplitude
with respect to
time (it is an
amplitude-versus-
time plot).

Data and Signals

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

• To show the
relationship between amplitude
amplitude and
frequency, a
frequency-domain
plot is used 5

• A frequency-domain frequency
plot is concerned with 1 00 Hz

only the peak value

and the frequency.

• Changes of amplitude
during one period are
not shown

Data and Signals

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS
amplitude f = 1 00 Hz

• It is obvious that the frequency

domain is easy to plot and conveys 5

the information that one can find in

a time domain plot. time

• The advantage of the frequency

domain is that we can immediately
see the values of the frequency and amplitude
peak amplitude.
5
• A complete sine wave is represented
by one spike. The position of the 1 00 Hz
frequency

spike shows the frequency; its height

shows the peak amplitude.

Data and Signals

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

• The frequency domain is more compact and useful when dealing

with more than one sine wave.

amplitude f = 1 00 Hz A = 1.25
F = 200 Hz

time

A = 2.5
F = 400 Hz

Data and Signals

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

amplitude
5

2.5

1 .25

frequency
1 00 Hz 200 Hz 400 Hz

Data and Signals

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

• It is obvious that the frequency domain is easy to plot and conveys

the information that one can find in a time domain plot.

• The advantage of the frequency domain is that we can

immediately see the values of the frequency and peak amplitude.

• A complete sine wave is represented by one spike. The position of

the spike shows the frequency; its height shows the peak
amplitude.

• A complete sine wave in the time domain can be representedby

one single spike in the frequency domain.

Data and Signals

BANDWIDTH

• The bandwidth of a channel

refers to the width of the
band (or range) of
frequencies that the channel
can convey to a distant
receiver that the receiver can
understand.

• In other words, it is the

difference between the • For example, telephone
lowest and highest frequency wires can transmit signals
a channel can carry. with frequencies ranging
from 300 Hz to 4,000 Hz.
• Channel bandwidth is also
called channel capacity. It's bandwidth is therefore
4,000 – 300 = 3,700 Hz.

Signals and Transmission Media

BANDWIDTH

• If the signal to be transmitted is composed of several sinusoidal

signal components, then the bandwidth of a signal refers to the
width of the band (or range) of frequencies occupied by that signal.

• The bandwidth of the signal is the difference the lowest and

highest significant frequency of the signal.

• Bandwidth is very important in designing communication systems

since it dictates the type of channel suitable for the transmission of
a particular signal.

• For effective signal transmission:

BW of Channel > BW of Signal Being Transmitted

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

• Actual signals used for transmission are complex,

non-sinusoidal signals or aperiodic signals.

Voice
Signal

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

Video
Signal

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

+v

1 0 1 1 0 0 1
t
Digital
Signal
-v

Bit Period

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

• According to the studies of Joseph Fourier (Fourier Theory),

all non-sinusoidal signals are actually made up of sinusoidal
component signals called frequency components.

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

Non-Sinusoidal Signal

Sinusoidal Signals
(Frequency Components)

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

• Some important points regarding the

frequency components:

1. The frequency of each component is

unique.
2. The number of frequency components
is infinite. Which means the highest
frequency is infinite.
3. So in theory, the bandwidth of a non-
sinusoidal signal is infinite.
4. As a general rule, the higher the
frequency of a component, the lower
its amplitude.
5. The higher frequency components will
have very small amplitudes such that
they may be considered negligible.
6. Therefore, there will be a finite Sinusoidal Signals
number of significant components.
(Frequency Components)

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

• The bandwidth of complex non-sinusoidal aperiodic

waveforms is just the difference between the lowest
frequency and the highest significant frequency.

• In order for a communication system to work effectively,

the channel must be able to accommodate all the
significant frequency components.

• And since not all of the frequency components are

transmitted, the signal form or shape may be somewhat
degraded.

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH
• Case Study 1: The Human Voice and The Telephone System

amplitude
The human voice is
mainly made up of
frequency components
ranging from 0 Hz to
12,000 Hz.

freq
2 KHz 4 KHz 6 KHz 8 KHz 1 0 KHz 1 2 KHz

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH
• Case Study 1: The Human Voice and The Telephone System

amplitude If a communications
channel is to convey the
entire frequency range
of human sounds, it
must have a minimum
frequency near zero and
a bandwidth of more
than 12,000 Hz.

freq
2 KHz 4 KHz 6 KHz 8 KHz 1 0 KHz 1 2 KHz

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH
• Case Study 1: The Human Voice and The Telephone System

Because of technology
limitations and cost
amplitude trade-offs made during
the design of the public
telephone system, this
system can only handle
a small part of the total
bandwidth of the
human voice.

freq Telephone System

2 KHz 4 KHz 6 KHz 8 KHz 1 0 KHz 1 2 KHz
Bandwidth:

300 Hz to 4,000 Hz

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH
• Case Study 1: The Human Voice and The Telephone System

So only the human

only these voice components from
amplitude components are 300Hz and from 4,000
transmitted Hz are transmitted.

However, this range is

sufficient to convey
messages to distant
listeners.
freq
2 KHz 4 KHz 6 KHz 8 KHz 1 0 KHz 1 2 KHz This range is the
portion of the voice
bandwidth that can
produce the greatest
power.
Signals and Transmission Media
FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH
• Case Study 1: The Human Voice and The Telephone System

only these
amplitude components are
transmitted
Since not all
components are not
transmitted, the
human voice seems
to be different in
live listening from
how it sounds over
freq the telephone lines.
2 KHz 4 KHz 6 KHz 8 KHz 1 0 KHz 1 2 KHz

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

• Equalizers – amplify selected frequency components

Signals and Transmission Media

FOURIER THEORY AND BANDWIDTH

• Equalizers – amplify selected frequency components

Signals and Transmission Media

DIGITAL SIGNALS

• In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information

can also be represented by a digital signal.

• For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a o as

zero voltage.

5v

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

0v

Bit Period

Data and Signals

DIGITAL SIGNALS

5v

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

0v

Bit Period

• Most digital signals are aperiodic, and thus period and frequency
are not appropriate characteristics.

• Instead of frequency, bit rate is used to describe digital signals.

The bit rate is the number of bits sent per second, expressed in
bits per second (bps).

Data and Signals

DIGITAL SIGNALS

5v

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

0v

Bit Period

• The bit period () or bit time of a digital signal is the

number of seconds per bit.

1
𝜏=
𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Data and Signals

FOURIER THEORY AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

• Case Study 2: Digital Signals 1

amplitude
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time
1

Digital signals consist of a

1 Component

large number of frequency 0

components. 1
1

2 Components

The more components that 0

are transmitted, the better

1 2

the original signal is

1
4 Components

approximated at the
receiver side. 0
1 2 3 4

1
8 Components

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Data and Signals

FOURIER THEORY AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

• Case Study 2: Digital Signals 1

amplitude
0

If digital signals are

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time
1

transmitted over a channel

1 Component

with a limited bandwidth, 0

only those components that 1

are within the bandwidth of 1

2 Components

the transmission medium

are received. 0
1 2

1
4 Components

It has to be ensured that the

acceptable number of 0
1 2 3 4

components are 1
8 Components

transmitted.
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Data and Signals

FOURIER THEORY AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

Take note that the bit rate of a digital signal will have an impact on
the bandwidth required.

The faster the data rate of a digital signal, the higher the
bandwidth will be required since the frequency components will
be spaced farther apart.

Therefore, a limited
bandwidth will not only
affect the accuracy of the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 digital signal, but will also
limit the data rate that
can be used for
transmission.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Data and Signals

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
• Signals travel through transmission media which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment.

• This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium

is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received.

• Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion,

and noise.

Data and Signals

ATTENUATION

• Cables and the air-interface are not

perfect and, hence, absorb some of the
signal energy.

• This absorption of energy results to a

weakening or fading of the signal strength.
So when signals get to the destination,
they are not as strong as when they were
sent.

• This weakening process is referred to as

Attenuation.

• As the separation between the sender and

receiver becomes farther, the heavier the
effect of attenuation to the signal.

Data and Signals

ATTENUATION

• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify

the signal.

Data and Signals

DISTORTION

• Distortion means that the

signal changes its form or
shape.

• This is because each

frequency component of
a transmitted signal has
its own propagation
speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own
delay in arriving at the
final destination.

Data and Signals

DISTORTION
• Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is
not exactly the same as the period duration.

• In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases

different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the
composite signal is therefore not the same.

Data and Signals

NOISE

• Noise is any unwanted energy tending to interfere with the signal to be

transmitted.

• Types of Noise
1. External Noise. This is noise originating from outside the communication
system.
2. Internal Noise. This is noise originating from within the communication
system.

Data and Signals

EXTERNAL NOISE

• Atmospheric Noise. This

type of noise is mainly due
to spurious radio waves
that tend to induce
unwanted voltages in the
antenna.

It is also known as static.

Example: Lightning
discharges during
thunderstorms.

Data and Signals

EXTERNAL NOISE

• Extraterrestrial Noise. This noise

comes from outer space.

Extraterrestrial noise is divided

into two groups:

1. Solar Noise. Noise due to the

intense heat from the sun.
This is most severe during
corona flares or sunspots.

2. Cosmic Noise or Blackbody

Noise. This is noise due to the
distant stars. What they lack
in distance, they made up for
it in numbers.

Data and Signals

EXTERNAL NOISE

• Man-Made Noise
or Industrial Noise

This noise is
produced by man-
made devices such
as automotive
ignition, electrical
motors,
fluorescent lights,
and radiation from
high-voltage lines.

Data and Signals

INTERNAL NOISE

• Thermal Agitation Noise or Johnson Noise or White Noise.

This noise is due to the random and rapid movement of

electrons in any resistive component.

Electrons "bump" with each other.

Data and Signals

INTERNAL NOISE

• Shot Noise. This noise is

due to active devices
present in any
communication system.

It is caused by the random

fluctuations in the arrival
of electrons or holes at the
collector of transistors.

When amplified, shot noise

will sound like lead shot
falling over a metal
surface.

Data and Signals

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

• Noise is fundamental. They are physically part of

nature and little can be done to totally eradicate
them. They can however, be minimized.

• In the study of noise, it is not important to know

the absolute value of noise. Even if the power of
the noise is very small, it may have a significant
effect if the power of the signal is also small.

• What is important is a comparison between noise

and the signal.

Data and Signals

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

• The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or noise figure is the ratio of signal

power to noise power.
𝑃𝑠
SNR =
𝑃𝑛

• Example:

Ps1 = 5 w Ps2 = 50,000 w

Pn1 = 0.05 w Pn2 = 5 w

SNR1 = 5/0.05 = 1,000 SNR2 = 50,000/5 = 1,000

Both systems have the same performance.

Data and Signals

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

• Ideally, SNR =  (when

Pn = 0).

• In practice, SNR should

be high as possible.

• An SNR ≥ 1,000 is
acceptable.

Data and Signals