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Analog and Digital Signals

Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals

can have an infinite number of values in a range;
digital signals can have only a limited number of
values.

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 In data communications, we
commonly use periodic analog signals
and aperiodic digital signals.
Note:

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 Simple Analog Signals: Sine Waves
s(t) = A.sin(2ft+)
A: peak amplitude
f: frequency, t: time, : phase

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 Units of Frequency and Periods
Period Equivalent Frequency Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms) 103 Hz

103 s kilohertz (KHz)

Microseconds (ms) 106 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz

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 Nanoseconds (ns) 109 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps) 1012 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

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 Frequency is the rate of change with
respect to time. Change in a short span
of time means high frequency. Change
over a long span of time means low
frequency.

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 Note:

If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal

changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

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 Phase

Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero

Phase is measured in radians or degrees: 360o means 1 cycle shifted

Question: A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with respect to

time zero. What is its phase in degrees and radians???

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 Sine Wave: Examples

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 Sine Wave: One more example

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 Note:

An analog signal is best represented in

the frequency domain.

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 Frequency Domain

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 Use of Sine Waves
A power company sends a single sine wave with
frequency 60Hz to distribute electric energy to
houses and businesses
We can use a single sine wave to send an alarm to
a security center
But single sine waves are useless in data
communications. WHY?
Think about phone conversation

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 Composite Analog Signals

Note:

In reality, signals are more complicated

than sine wavesas a combination of
sine waves with => can
be represented different frequencies,
amplitude, and phases
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 (using Fourier transformation)

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 Fourier Transformation
s(t)=A sin(2f t+ ) + A sin(2f t+ ) + A sin(2f t+ ) +
1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 3

Found by the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier in the early 1900s

s(t)=(4A/) sin(2ft) + (4A/3) sin(23ft) + (4A/5) sin(25ft) +

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 Combination of Single Sine Waves

Result of combination of only the first 3 harmonics

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 Frequency Spectrum
The description of a signal using the frequency domain and
containing all its sine-wave components is called the frequency
spectrum of that signal

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 Signal Over Transmission Medium

Signal corruption: Transmission medium may block or weaken

some frequencies. As a result, the output signal may be different
from the input signal.
Perfect medium: preserve frequency, amplitude, and phase
values

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 Bandwidth of Transmission Medium
Note:

The bandwidth is a property of a

medium: It is the difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies
that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.
Telephone line: Bandwidth between 3KHz and 4Khz

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 Analog Bandwidth

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 Analog Bandwidth: Example 1

Exercise: If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is the
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10V.

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 Analog Bandwidth: Example 2

A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency

is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of
the same amplitude.

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 Analog Bandwidth: Example 3
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000
and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000
Hz).

Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?

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 Digital Signals

Data can be represented as a digital signal: 1 as a positive voltage and 0 as a zero

voltage
Most digital signals are aperiodic => frequency or period is irrelevant. Instead,
we use the terms bit rate and bit interval

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 Digital Signal = Composite Analog Signal
Imagination: A digital signal can be considered as
a composite analog signal with an infinite number
of frequencies (using Fourier transformation).
Thus: the bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite

Question: How to transmit digital signals over a

transmission medium???
What is the minimum required bandwidth B in Hz of
the transmission medium if we want to send a digital
signal of n bps?

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 Bandwidth Requirement: Example
Every second 6 bits are generated by the computer
E.g., 000000, 111111, 010110, 000011, etc.
How to simulate these signals
Using a single-frequency analog signal?
Using a multi-frequency analog signal?

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 Example: Using One Harmonic

Bandwidth requirement: 3Hz

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 Use More Harmonics
N bits. The case where most changes occur is
01010101010101
To get better quality, use Fourier transformation
Fundamental freq n/2, the third-harmonic freq 3n/
2, the fifth-harmonic freq 5n/2,
=> B > n/2+3n/2+5n/2+

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 Medium Bandwidth Requirement
Bit Harmonic Harmonics Harmonics Harmonics
Rate 1 1, 3 1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5, 7

1 Kbps 500 Hz 2 KHz 4.5 KHz 8 KHz

10 Kbps 5 KHz 45 KHz 80 KHz

20 KHz

100 Kbps 50 KHz 200 KHz 450 KHz 800 KHz

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 B = n/2+3n/2+5n/2+...
The more harmonics, the better quality, the higher bandwidth required

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 Digital Bandwidth

Note:

The maximum bit rate that can be

passed by the transmission medium
The analog bandwidth of a medium is expressed in hertz;
the digital bandwidth, in bits per second.

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 I am so Confused ?!?!?!!!
B > n/2 => n < 2B => digital bandwidth must
be smaller than 2B BUT:

Analog bw of telephone lines: [3Khz, 4Khz]

=> digital bandwidth must be at most 8Kbps But,
dial-up speed ~~ 30Kbps, how come????
BECAUSE: modulation techniques allow to group multiple bits in one
single period of an analog signal (TO BE DISCUSSED LATER)

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 Use Digital or Analog Signal?
e.g., cables in LAN

e.g., analog cellular

There are two types of links: low-pass link and band-pass link

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 Note:

Digital transmission needs a

low-pass channel.
Analog transmission can use a band-
pass channel.

Question: can analog signals be transmitted in a low-pass link?

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 Digital vs. Analog
Digitals advantage:
Digital design less expensive and more reliable
Greater dynamic range and error detection and
recovery by the use of coding

Many sources can be combine (voice, video, data) and

sent over the same channel
Digitals disadvantage More
bandwidth needed

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 Baseband vs. Broadband Signals
Baseband signal: frequency spectrum extends
from 0 to some maximum frequency (similar to
low-pass channels property)
Broadband signal: frequency spectrum belongs to
a range between a min freq and a max freq
(similar to band-pass channels property)

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 Data Rate Limits
How fast can we send data (in bps) over a link?
The answer depends on
Bandwidth available
Levels of signals we can use

Quality of channel (level of noise)

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 Signal Levels

2
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 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bitrate
bitRate = 2 Bandwidth log2L
L: the number of signal levels used to represent data
Bandwidth: analog channel bandwidth
Example: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth
of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Bit Rate = 2 3000 log2 2 = 6000 bps

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 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
channelCapacity = Bandwidth log2(1+SNR)
SNR: signal to noise ratio statistical ratio of the
signal power and noise power
Bandwidth: analog channel bandwidth

Consider an extremely noisy channel with SNR is almost

zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal
is faint. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0) =

B log2 (1) = B 0 = 0

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 More Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?

First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper

limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number
of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 L L = 4

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 Transmission Impairment

Transmission medium is not perfect => impairment in signal

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 Attenuation

The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals

or a signal at two different points
dB = 10 log (P /P )
10 2 1

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 Attenuation: Example
Imagine a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to half. This means that P2 = 1/2
P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5P1/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5)

= 10(0.3) = 3 dB

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 Why do We Use dB?

What if we use the metrics dB = 10(P /P ) instead of

2 1
10log (P /P ) to tell the difference between the two
10 2 1
signals?

dB = 3 + 7 3 = +1

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 Distortion

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 Noise

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 Throughput

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 Propagation Time

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 Wavelength

Wavelength (for electromagnetic signals)

= speed-of-light / frequency
= 3*108 (m/s) / frequency

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 Common Wavelengths
Band Approximate Center Wavelength (m)

Voice ~ 1 Khz 300,000

Audiophile ~ 10 Khz 30,000

Broadcast AM ~ 300
1000 Khz

Broadcast FM ~ 100 Mhz 3

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 Satellite ~ 10 Ghz 0.03
Fact: Reception heard on FM radio is more sensible to mobility
than that on AM radio

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 Dielectric Constant
Ability of a material to resist Wavelength = (1 / freq) *
the formation of an electric (Lightspeed / sqrt(dielectic))
field within it
Material Dielectric constant
Free space 1.0
Air 1.0006
Metallic conductors 1.2-1.6
Rubbers 3.0
Glass 7.5

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 Exercise
Consider an electromagnetic wave moving in a
metallic conductor with a dielectric constant of
1.15
What is the propagation speed of this metallic
conductor?
How much longer would it take the wave to travel
1000 miles than the same wave traveling in free space?

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 Radio Frequency Bands
Band name Frequency, Wavelength Example uses

ELF 330 Hz, 100,000 km 10,000 km

SLF 30300 Hz, 10,000 km 1000 km Power line, lower end of human hearing
ULF 3003000 Hz, 1000 km 100 km
Human voice
VLF 330 kHz, 100 km 10 km Military communication, end of human
hearing
LF 30300 kHz, 10 km 1 km Navigation, time signals, AM
longwave broadcasting
MF 3003000 kHz, 1 km 100 m AM broadcasts
HF 330 MHz, 100 m 10 m Shortwave broadcasts and amateur radio
VHF 30300 MHz, 10 m 1 m FM and television broadcasts
UHF 3003000 MHz, 1 m 100 mm television broadcasts

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 SHF 330 GHz, 100 mm 10 mm microwave devices, mobile phones, wireless
LAN
EHF 30300 GHz, 10 mm 1 mm Next frontier for communications

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 Power Radiation

How far can receiver receives a signal from transmitter?

Power radiates isotropically
Knowing power when transmitting
Knowing power received

d Ptransmitter
Ptransmit = 4d2 * Preceive
Preceiver

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 Modulation Techniques
Digital to Analog Modulation
Modulation Devices
Analog to Analog Modulation
Analog to Digital Modulation
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 Digital to Analog Modulation

Digital-to-analog modulation: the process of changing one of

the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information
in a digital signal
Forget me not: characteristics of a sine wave are amplitude,
frequency, phase.

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 Carrier Signal
Sender
Produce a high-frequency signal that acts as a basis for
the information signal => carrier signal
Modulate the carrier signal to reflect the digital
information. The information signal is called the
modulating signal
Receiver
Tune in the carrier frequency to receive

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 Digital-Analog Modulation Schemes

Amplitude shift keying Frequency shift keying Phase shift keying

Quadrature shift modulation

All a,f,p changes combined

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 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Only amplitude is varied to represent binary 1 or 0

Peak amplitude during each bit duration is constant

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 Amplitude-Shift Keying
One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at
constant amplitude
Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier

s(t)= Acos0(2fct)binary binary 10

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 where the carrier signal is Acos(2fct)

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 Bit rate is the number of bits per second
- More important in speaking of computer efficiency

Baud rate is the number of signal units

per second that are required to represent those bits
-More important in speaking of data transmission

-Determine the bandwidth required to send the signal

Note:

Bit Rate vs. Baud Rate

Analogy in transportation: a baud is analogous to a car while a bit is analogous to a passenger
(1: male, 0: female). The number of cars determines the traffic; that of passengers does not

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 Baud Rate Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000
signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the
bit rate
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries

6 bits, what is the baud rate?

Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

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 ASK (2)
Disadvantage
Highly susceptible to noise interference because ASK relies on
amplitude to differentiate between 1 and 0
Need a great gap between amplitude values so that noise can be detected and
removed

OOK (on/off keying)

A popular ASK technique
Zero voltage represent a bit value (e.g., 0)
Save energy in transmitting information
On voice-grade line, up to 1200bps
Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

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 ASK: Bandwidth Requirement

Question: What is the min bw for an ASK signal transmitting at

2000 bps? The transmission mode is half-duplex.

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 ASK: Example
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz),
draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the
carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume
there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.

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 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Only frequency is varied to represent binary 1 or 0

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 Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency
()

 where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but opposite
amounts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
More than two frequencies are used
More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to
error

si ( t )= Acos2fit 1 i M
f i = f c + (2i 1 M)f d
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
 M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element
 MFSK
One signal element encodes L bits
Element interval = T =LT seconds
s
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
Total bandwidth required 2Mf
d
Minimum frequency separation required 2f =1/T
d s
111
 FSK vs. ASK
FSK
Less susceptible to error
On voice-grade lines, up to 1200bps
Commonly used for high-freq (3-30 Mhz) radio

Also used at even high freq on LANs that use coaxial

cable

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 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Only phase is varied to represent 1 or 0

2-PSK: only 2 phase values are used, each for 1 or 0

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 4-PSK

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 Constellation (or Phase-State) Diagram

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 PSK: Baud Rate and Bandwidth

Same as in ASK, but can transmit

more bps given same bandwidth
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 PSK: Questions
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate? Transmission is in half-duplex
mode.

For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,

which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit
rate is 3 times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.

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 PSK: Drawback
Why not combine PSK and ASK: x variations in
phase with y variations in amplitude result in xy
variations => increase bit rate

Modulation device is not able to

distinguish small differences in phase
=> limit BitRate
Note:

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 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
A combination of ASK and PSK: both phase and amplitude varied
#amplitude shifts << #phase shifts
Lower susceptible to noise than ASK, higher bit rate than PSK

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 8-QAM

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 16-QAM

Better susceptible to noise because

-Not all possibilities are used

-Sometimes, Amp and Phase have a relationship

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 Example: QAM Modulator

s(t) = d (t)cos(2f t) + d (t)sin(2f t)

1 c 2 c

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 QAM: Bandwidth
Bandwidth requirement is the same as in ASK and PSK

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 QAM: BitRate vs. Baud Rate
Modulation Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit Rate

ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N

4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N
16-QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N
32-QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N
64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N
128-QAM Septabit 7 N 7N
256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N

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 Modem Standards
Modem = Modulator/Demodulator
Telephone modem:

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 Telephone Line Bandwidth

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 V.32 Modem

Use 32-QAM
Data is divided into 4-bit sections, each adding a redundant bit to
form a 5-bit => reduce value density => reduce noise interference
(how?)
baud rate = 2400 (why?)
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 V.32bis Modem

1st modem standard to support 14,400bps

Can adjust upstream or downstream speed depending on line or
signal quality
Use 128-QAM => 6-bit data => Bit rate = 14,400 bps

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 V.34bis Modem
960-point constellation => bit rate = 28,800 bps
1664-point constellation => bit rate = 33,600 bps

33.6Kbps: max bit rate of traditional modems

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 Traditional Modems

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 56K Modem: V.90

Max: 33Kbps

Max: 56Kbps
8000 samples/s, 8 bits/sample,
7bits per data => 56Kbps
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136
 56K Modem: V.92
Similar to V.90
Modem can adjust speed
If noise allows => upload max 48 Kbps, download still
56 Kbps

V.92: can interrupt the Internet connection when

there is an incoming call (if call-waiting service is
installed)

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 Analog to Analog Modulation
Representation of analog information by an analog signal
Why do we need it? Analog is already analog!!!
Because we may have to use a band-pass channel
Think about radio
Schemes
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)

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 Amplitude Modulation: AM

Carrier signal is
modulated so that its
amplitude varies with the
changing amplitudes of
the modulating signal

Freq, phase remain same

s(t) = (1+n x(t))cos(2 f t)
a c

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 Example: AM
Let x(t) = cos(2fmt)
Derive an express for s(t)
Answer:
s(t) = cos(2fct) +
(na/2)cos(2(fcfm)t) +
(na/2)cos(2(fc+fm)t)

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 AM: Bandwidth

Audio signal bandwidth is ~5Khz => an AM radio

station needs a minimum 10Khz

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 AM Band Allocation

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 Frequency Modulation: FM

Freq. of carrier signal is

modified to reflect the
changing amplitudes of
the modulating signal

Amp., phase remain

same

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 FM: Bandwidth

The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal is usually 15 KHz. Therefore, an

FM station needs at least a bandwidth of 150 KHz. The FCC requires
the minimum bandwidth to be at least 200 KHz (0.2 MHz).

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 FM Band Allocation

In some areas, FCC requires that only alternate bandwidth

allocations be used
Question: how FM many stations can operate at any
one time?

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 Phase Modulation: PM
Only phase is varied to reflect the change of
amplitude in modulating signal
Require simpler hardware than FM
Use in some systems as an alternative to FM

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 Analog Data to Digital Signal
Once analog data have been converted to digital
signals, the digital data:
can be transmitted using NRZ-L
can be encoded as a digital signal using a code other
than NRZ-L
can be converted to an analog signal, using previously
discussed techniques
 Pulse Code Modulation
Based on the sampling theorem
Each analog sample is assigned a binary code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM) samples

The digital signal consists of block of

n bits,
where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a
PCM pulse
Pulse Code Modulation
 By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is
only approximated
 Leads to quantizing noise
 Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNRdB = 20log2n +1.76 dB = 6.02n+1.76 dB
 Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by 6 dB,
or a factor of 4
 Analog input is approximated by staircase function
 Moves up or down by one quantization level () at
each sampling interval
 The bit stream approximates derivative of analog
signal (rather than amplitude)
 1 is generated if function goes up
 0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
 Delta Modulation
Two important parameters
Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
Sampling rate
Accuracy improved by increasing sampling rate
However, this increases the data rate
Advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity of
its implementation
 Growth in popularity of digital techniques for
sending analog data
 Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
 No additive noise
 TDM is used instead of FDM
 No intermodulation noise
 Conversion to digital signaling allows use of more
efficient digital switching techniques
 Spread the information signal over a wider
bandwidth to make jamming and interception more
difficult
 Initially purposed for military and intelligence requirements
 Can transmit either analog or digital data using an
analog signal
 Spread Spectrum
Sending Receiving

Feed signal into a channel encoder Digit sequence is used


To produce analog signal with narrow bandwidth to demodulate the
around some center frequency
spread spectrum signal

Modulation using a sequence of digits
Spreading code or spreading sequence Signal is fed into a


Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random channel decoder to
number generator recover data


Purpose: to increase bandwidth of signal to be
transmitted
 Why Waste of Spectrum?
Immunity from various kinds of noise and
multipath distortion
Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
Several users can independently use the same
higher bandwidth with very little interference
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Invented by actress Hedy Lamarr at age 26
Signal is broadcast over seemingly random
series of radio frequencies
Signal hops from freq to freq at fixed
intervals
Hedy Lamarr
(1913-2000)
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter, picks up message
Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips
IEEE 802.11
Attempts to jam signal on one frequency 300-ms interval
succeed only at knocking out a few bits
 FHSS Using MFSK
MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency every Tc
seconds by modulating the MFSK signal with the FHSS
carrier signal
For data rate of R:
duration of a bit: T = 1/R seconds
duration of signal element: Ts = LT seconds

Tc Ts - slow-frequency-hop spread spectrum

Tc < Ts - fast-frequency-hop spread spectrum
 MFSK
One signal element encodes L bits
Element interval = T =LT seconds
s
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
Total bandwidth required 2Mf
d
Minimum frequency separation required 2f =1/T
d s
FHSS + MFSK Example 1
FHSS + MFSK Example 2
 FHSS Performance Considerations
Large number of frequencies used
Results in a system that is quite resistant to
jamming
Jammer must jam all frequencies

With fixed power, this reduces the jamming power in

any one frequency band
 Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits
in the transmitted signal
 Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency
band
 Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
 E.g., a 10-bit code spreads the signal to a band 10 times larger
than a 1-bit code
 One technique combines digital information stream with
the spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR
DSSS: using XOR
 DSSS Using BPSK
Information signal d(t) [sequence of +1 as 1 and -1 as 0]
BPSK signal sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2 fct)
A = amplitude of signal
fc = carrier frequency
d(t) = discrete function [+1, -1]
PN sequence c(t) [takes values +1, -1]

At sender: s(t) = sd(t) c(t)

At receiver, multiply s(t) with c(t) to get original information

DSSS Using BPSK
DSSS+BPSK: Example
 If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
 For a 1 bit, A sends code as chip pattern
 <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
 For a 0 bit, A sends complement of code
 <-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>
 Receiver knows sender s code
and performs electronic decode function
 <d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern
 <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = senders code
 User A code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>
 To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1>
 To send a 0 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1> User B code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1>
 To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1>
 Receiver receiving with As code
 (As code) x (received chip
pattern)
 User A 1 bit: 6 -> 1
 User A 0 bit: -6 -> 0
 User B 1 bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored
 Orthogonal Codes
Orthogonal codes
All pairwise cross correlations are zero
Fixed- and variable-length codes used in CDMA systems
For CDMA application, each mobile user uses one sequence in
the set as a spreading code Provides zero cross correlation among all
users
Types
Walsh codes
Variable-Length Orthogonal codes
 Set of Walsh codes of length n consists of the n rows
of an n n Walsh matrix:
 W1 = (0)
WW
 n = dimension of the matrix W2n
= Wnn W2nn
 Every row is orthogonal to every other row and
to the logical not of every other row Requires
tight synchronization
 Cross correlation between different shifts of Walsh sequences
is not zero
CDMA for Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum
 Spread data rate by an orthogonal code
(channelization code)
 Provides mutual orthogonality among all users in the
same cell
 Further spread result by a PN sequence
(scrambling code)
 Provides mutual randomness (low cross correlation)
between users in different cells