DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

MAT 141
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND MECHANICS

by

R.A. Jokotola and Bashir Salam

Department of Mathematics,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.

i
Introduction and Course
Objectives

, The book consists of three main areas, namely: Coordinate Geometry, Vec-
tors and Mechanics. Coordinate Geometry provides a bridge between algebra
and geometry that makes it possible for geometric problems to be solved al-
gebraically (or analytically). It also allows us to solve algebraic problems
geometrically, but the former capability is far more important especially when
numbers are assigned to essentially geometric concepts. The association be-
tween algebra and geometry is made by assigning numbers to points.
The idea of vector is introduced which focus on displacement, addition and
subtraction of vectors. Other areas covered include differentiation, integration,
scalar and triple product of vectors which leads to expression for calculating
area and volume of shapes.
The book also describes behaviour of objets in circular motion, relate it
to the projectile and its motion. It discusses the Simple Harmonic Motion
(SHM), Elastic String, Simple and Conical pendulum. The book describe the
dynamics of objects on smooth and rough inclined plane, connected particles,
momentum and impulse, and principle of conservation of momentum. Other
areas include effect of forces on rigid body and the resultant of such forces in
equilibrium, center of mass and moment of inertia up to three dimension.

ii
Lecture 1
Coordinate Geometry I

1.0 Introduction
A plane is divided into four equal parts formed by two perpendicular lines
denoted as x andy axes. Each of the four divisions of the plane is called a
quadrant. The point where the lines intersect is the origin.
On the x-axis, any point to the right of the origin is positive, and negative
to the left. On the y-axis, any point above the origin is positive and negative
below.

Figure 1.0

1.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) Have the notion of a point in a plane

1
 (ii) Determine the distance betweenany two points in a plane.

(iii) Divide a straight line in the ratio say r : s

(iv) Determine mid-point of the line joining two points.

(v) Calculate the slope of a straight line.

(vi) Write equation of a straight line

1.2 A point in a plane

A point in a plane is an ordered pair (coordinate pair) from a number on
x-axis and a number on y-axis.

Figure 1.2

The point assigned to the pair is the point where the perpendicular to the x-
axis, at a intersect the perpendicular to the y-axis at b. Hence, every point has
a pair and every pair has a point. The distance Oa and Ob is known as abscissa
and ordinate of the point p(a, b) respectively.

2
1.3 Pre-Test 1

Figure 1.3

Find the co-ordinate of the point

(a) A (b) H
(c) Ū (d) R

1.4 Distance between two points

Let A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) be two points on the plane. The distance
between the points using Pythagora’s Theorem is

Figure 1.4
p
AB = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 ) units (1.4)

3
1.5 Dividing a straight line in the Ratio r : s
Suppose point H(a, b) divides the line joining the points A(x1 , y1 ) and
B(x2 , y2 ) in the ratio r : s
Then, using the figure below:

Figure 1.5

Triangles AM R ad RP B are similar.

... AR : RB = r : s

and
AM AR r
= = (.5a)
RP RB s
Similarly,
RM AR r
= = (1.5b)
BP RB s
From Figure 1.5,
AM a − x1 r
= =
RP x2 − a s
and solving for ‘a’ gives
rx2 + sx1
a= (1.5c)
r+s

4
From
AR b − y1 r
= =
RB y2 − b s
Solving for b you obtain
ry2 + sy1
b= (1.5d)
r+s
1.6 Mid-Point of a Straight Line
Suppose M (a, b)is the mid-point of the line joining the points A(x1 , y1 ) and
B(x2 , y2 ). Then, the ratio r : s = 1 : 1 and the ordered pair of M is
x2 + x1 y2 − y1
a= ; b=
2 2
1.6.1 Example
Given the points N (4, 7) and B(2, −1). Find the:

(i) distance of line N B

(ii) mid-point of the of the line N B

(iii) Coordinates of the point that divides the line N B in ratio 1 : 3.

Solution

(i) Let x1 = 2, x2 = 4, y1 = −1, y2 = 7. Then, the distance,

p √
N B = (4 − 2)2 + (7 + 1)2 = 2 3 units

(ii) Suppose M (a, b) is the mid-point of the distance NB, then,

472
a= = 3, b = 3
2
... the mid-point is (3, 3).

(iii) Suppose H(a, b) divides the line in the ratio r : 3 = 1 : 3, then,

5
a= ; b=1
2
 
5
and the co-ordinate of H is ,1 .
2

5
1.7 The slope of a straight line
The slope of a straight line is the measure of the tangent of the angle ψ
makes with the x-axis. Let A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) be two points on a straight
line. Then, the slope, is
Opposite y2 − y1
slope s = tan ψ = =
Adjacent x2 − x1

Figure 1.7

1.7.1 Example
Find the slope of the line through H1 (0, 4) and H2 (5, 1).

Solution
Let x1 = 0, x2 = 5, y1 = 4, y2 = 1.
3
Slope, s = − .
5
Remark
Hence, y decreases 3 units whenever x increases 5 units.

1.8 Equation of a straight line

1.8.1 Definition
An equation for a line is an equation that is satisfied by the co-ordinates
of the points that lie only on the line.

6
1.8.2 Remarks
Equation of a straight line is uniquely defined if either:

(i) Two points are given on the straight line or

(ii) One point and the slope of the straight line are given.

In (i), suppose you are given points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) on a straight line,
the slope is
y2 − y1
s= (1.8.2a)
x2 − x1
and point P (x, y) is an arbitrary point on the line. Then, the slope, s is
y − y1
s= (1.8.2b)
x − x1
Equating (1.8.2a) and (1.8.2b), you have
y − y1 y2 − y1
= =s
x − x1 x 2 − x1
⇒ y = s(x − x1 ) + y1
In (ii), if point A(x1 , y1 ) on a straight line with slope s are known, the equation
of the line is obtained by

y = s(x − x1 ) + y1

where P (x, y) is an arbitrary point on the line.

1.8.3 Forms of equation of a straight line

Let P (x, y) be an arbitrary point on the line, then, different forms of equa-
tion of a straight line are:

(i) General linear form:

ax + by = c
where a, b, c are arbitrary constants, and a and b are not both zero.

7
 (ii) Slope intercept form:
y = sx + c
where s = slope, and c is the y-intercept.

(iii) Intercepts form:

x y
+ =1
a b
where a, b are respectively the x and y intercepts.

1.8.4 Example

(a) Find the equation of the straight line through the points (−2, 1) and
(2, −2).

(b) Express the equation in the three different forms.

(c) Find the equation of the straight line whose slope is 1 and y-intercept is
√
2.

Solution

(a) Let x1 = −2, x2 = 2, y1 = 1, y2 = −2 and P (x, y) be arbitrary point on

the line.
Then,
y − y1 y2 − y1
=
x − x1 x2 − x1
−3
y = (x + 2) + 1
4
3 1
y = − x − (slope-intercept equation)
4 2
3 1
y + x = − (General linear equation)
4 2
y x
+ = 1 (intercept equation)
−1/2 −2/3
√
(b) Using y = 5x + c and y = x + 2

8
1.90 Summary

In this lecture,
p we wrote equations:
(i) AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 units, to calculate shortest distance between
A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ).
(ii) Divide a straight line between two points in a given ratio, r : s at point
H(a, b) where
rx2 + sx1
a=
r+s
ry2 + sy1
b=
r+s
(iii) ax + by = c - General linear form
y = sx + c - slope-intercept form.
x y
+ = 1 - Intercept form to describe the equations of a straight line.
a b
1.10 Post-Test 1

(1) Find the slope and the intercepts of the line

(a) y = 3x + 5
(b) 2x − y = 6

(2) Write an equation for the line through the points:

(a) (−2, 0), (−2, −2) in general linear form.

(b) (1, 3), (3, 1) in intercepts form.
(c) (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ) in slope-intercept form.

(3) Write an equation for the line that passes through point H(x, y) with
slope, r

(a) H(x, b), r = 2

(b) H(−1, 1), 4 = −1 in slope-intercept form.

(4) If one end of a line segment is the point (6, −2) and the mid-point is
(−1, 5), find the co-ordinates of the other end of the line segment.

(5) Find the point two-fifth of the way from a point A(5, −1) to B(−4, −5).

9
 (6) Find the co-ordinates of the mid-points of the line segment joining each
of the following points:

(a) (2, 2), (−3, 5)

(b) (4, −1), (3, 3)
(c) (2, 2), (4, 4)

1.11 Solution to Pre-Test 1

(a) A(−h, −9)

(b) H(−4, −4 21 )

(c) Ū (3, h)

(d) R(−h, 0)

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. Godwin A. Odili: Calculus with Co-ordinate Geometry and Trigonome-

try.

3. R.O. Ayeni et.al.: Introductory University Mathematics.

10
Lecture 2
Co-ordinate Geometry of
Straight Line II

2.0 Introduction
This lecture look at the concluding aspects of Equations of lines and planes.
The gradient (slope) of a line is a vital tool for determining whether two lines
are parallel or perpendicular, and the angle of inclination of two lines.

2.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) Determine which lines are parallel or perpendicular.

(ii) Determine distance from the origin to the straight line.

(iii) Determine distance from a point to the straight line.

(iv) Determine the angle between two straight lines.

2.2 Pre-Test 2
Determine the gradient of each of the following:

(a) 8x + 5y = 20

(b) 3x − 6y + 4 = 0

(c) y = 4x + 15

11
 (d) 4x + 5y − 3 = 0

2.3 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Suppose we have two straight lines with equations:

y1 = s1 x + d1 and y2 = s2 x + d2

Then, the equations are:

(i) Parallel if s1 − s2 = 0

(ii) Perpendicular if s1 , x2 + 1 = 0

2.3.1 Illustrations

L1 and L2 are parallel L1 and L2 are perpendicular

since s1 − s2 = 0 since s1 s2 + 1 = 0

Figure 2.3.1

2.4 Distance from the origin to the straight line ax + by + c = 0

Let OH represent the perpendicular distance from the straight line ax +
by + c = 0 to the origin. Suppose line OH makes angle ψ with the positive
x-axis. Then,

12
 .

Figure 2.4
hOAB = ψ (Why?)
From the right-angled triangle OHB,
OH = OB cos ψ (2.4a)
Also, from right-angled triangle OBA,
OA
cos ψ = (2.4b)
AB
From the equation ax + by + c = 0; when x = 0, y = −c/b and when y = 0,
x = −c/a.
Hence, the co-ordinates of point:
A is (0, −c/b)
B is (−c/a, 0)
and the distance
 2 1 1
c2 2
 2 2
c c (a + b2 ) 2
AB = ± + = ±
a2 b 2 a2 b 2
√
c a2 + b 2
= ± (2.4c)
ab
Using (2.4c) in (2.4b) and (2.4b) in (2.4.a) we have
c c ab
OH = · · √
a b ±c a2 + b2
±c
OH = √
a2 + b 2
Remark
The sign of OH is taken as that of c.

13
2.5 Distance from a point (x1 , y1 ) to the straight line ax + by + c = 0

Figure 2.5a

To obtain the perpendicular distance RP from a point R(x1 , y1 ) to the straight

line ax + by + c = 0, we use the following sketch:

Figure 2.5b

14
where

• OH is the perpendicular distance from origin to the straight line ax +

by + c = 0

• T E, DR are perpendicular to OH

• OH makes angle ψ with the positive x-axis.

• E is the foot of the perpendicular distance from R to the x-axis.

2.6 The angle between two straight lines

To obtain the angle ψ between two straight lines L1 given by y = s1 x + c
and L2 given by y2 = s2 x + d, we consider the sketch below:

Figure 2.6

where

• ψ1 is the angle line L1 makes with the positive x-axis.

• ψ2 is the angle line L2 makes with the positive x-axis.

• ψ is the angle between L1 and L2

15
Let tan ψ1 = s1 , τ ψ2 = s2 .
Then,
ψ = ψ2 − ψ1 (Why?)
and
τ ψ = tan(ψ2 − ψ1 )
From the sketch,
hREN = ψ (Why?)
In 4REN ,
RN = RE sin ψ = y1 sin ψ (2.6a)
In 4ET O,
OT = OE cos ψ = x1 cos ψ (2.6b)
RP = DH (Opposite sides of rectangle RP HD)

RP = OH − (OT + T D)
= OH − (OT + RN ) (Why?)
= OH − x1 cos ψ − y1 sin ψ (2.6c)

But from 4OBA,

−a
cos ψ = √ (2.6d)
± a2 + b 2
−b
sin ψ = √ (2.6e)
± a2 + b2
Substituting (2.6e) and (2.6d) in (2.6c), we have
   
−a −b
RP = OH − x1 √ − y1 √
± a2 + b 2 ± a2 + b 2
ax1 + by1 + c
= √
± a2 + b2
... the equation needed to obtain the perpendicular distance from a point say
R(x1 , y1 ) to the straight line ax + by + c = 0 is
ax1 + by1 + c
√ (2.6f )
± a2 + b 2

16
2.7 Summary

In this lecture, we wrote equations:

±c
(i) = √ to determine the perpendicular distance from the straight
a2 + b 2
line ax + by + c = 0 to the origin.
ax1 + by1 + c
(ii) √ to determine the perpendicular distance from a point
± a2 + b 2
R(x1 , y1 ) to the straight line ax + by + c = 0.
ψ2 − ψ1
(iii) tan ψ = to determine the tangent of the angle between two
1 + ψ2 ψ1
straight lines meeting at a point.
And discovered that two lines are:
(i) Parallel if their gradient are sum up to zero (s1 + s2 = 0)
(ii) Perpendicular if the product of their gradient plus one equals zero
(1 + s1 s2 = 0)

tan ψ2 − tan ψ1
=
1 + tan ψ2 tan ψ1
s2 − s1
... tan ψ = (2.6g)
1 + s2 s1
2.8 Examples

(a) Given the points A(4, 4), B(3, 2) and C(9, 5), find the:

(1) Equation of the line AC

(2) Perpendicular distance from B to the line AC.
(3) Equation of the straight line passing through the point B and is
(i) parallel to the line AC.
(ii) perpendicular to the line AC.
(4) Find the tangent of the angle between the lines AB and AC.

(b) The points A(18, −8) and B(−7, −8) are two vertices of an isosceles
triangle ABC with AB = AC. If the altitude AN has the equation
4x + 3y = 48, find the co-ordinate of N and C.

17
Solutions

(a) Let P (x, y) be arbitrary point on the line passing through A(4, 4) and
C(9, 5).

(1) Thus, the equation is

y−4 5−4 1
= =
x−4 9−4 5
and 5y − x − 16 = 0 is the equation of line AC.
(2) Perpendicular distance from point B(3, 2) to the line AC given by
5y − x − 16 = 0 is obtain using
ax1 + by1 + c
√
± a2 + b 2
where x1 = 3, y1 = 2, b = 5, a = −1, c = −16.
Substituting, we have
√
9 9 26
=√ = units.
26 26

1
(3) Gradient of line AC is .
5
Let P (x, y) be arbitrary point. Then, equation of the straight line
passing through the point B and parallel to AC is obtain by
y−2 1
=
x−3 5
... 5y − x = 7

The equation of the line passing through point B and perpendicular

to line AC is given by
y−2
= −5
x−3

... y = 13 − 5x

18
 (4) Slope of:

AB = 2
1
AC = (By 1 above)
5
Using equation (2.6g), the tangent angle ψ between AB and AC is
9
tan ψ =
4  
−1 9
... ψ = tan
7
ψ = 52.120

(b) Sketch

From the sketch,

Line AN ⊥ line B, and from

4x + 3y = 48 (i)
4
y = − x + 16
3

19
Thus, gradient of line AN is −4/3 and gradient of line BC, s2 = 34
(Why?).
Let P (x, y) be arbitrary point on the straight line through points B(−7, −8).
Then, equation of line BC is obtain by
y+8 3
=
x+7 4

4y + 32 = 3x + 21 (ii)

4y − 3x = −11

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we have

y = 4, x=9

and the distance,

p
BN = (9 + 7)2 + (4 + 11)2
= 20 units

But

|BC| = 2|BN | (Why?)

= 40 units
p
|BC| = (x + 7)2 + (y + 8)2
40 = x2 + y 2 + 14x + 16y + 113

x2 + y 2 + 143x + 16y = 1487 (iii)

3
Distance of line N C, through C(x1 , y1 ) and gradient is
4
y−4 3
|N C| = =
x−9 4
4y − 3x = −11

and
1
x = (4y + 11) (iv)
3
20
 Substituting (iv) in (iii), we have

y 2 + 16y − 512 = 0

y = 16 or y = −32

and x = 25 or x = −39
0
... C (25, 16) or C(−39, −32)

Hence C(−39, −32) is the required point.

2.9 Post-Test 2

(1) Find the angle between the lines x + 4y = 12 and y − 2x + 6 = 0.

(2) Given the points A(2, 3) and B(0, −1), find the coordinate of the point
C such that the angle BAC is a right angle and the length BC is 5 units.

(3) Find the distance from the point P (2, 1) to the line y = x + 2.

(4) A particle starts at A(−2, 3) and its coordinate change by −6/5. Write
an equation to predict the position of the particle at any point P (x, y).

(5) Find the acute angle between the lines:

(i) 2y = 3x − 8 and 5y = x + 7
(ii) 2x + y = 4 and y − 3x + 7 = 0

2.10 Solution to the Pre-Test 2

8
(a) Gradient = −
5
1
(b) Gradient =
2
(c) Gradient = 4
|
(d) Gradient = − 5
4

21
Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. Godwin A. Odili: Calculus with Co-ordinate Geometry and Trigonome-

try.

22
Lecture 3
Coordinate Geometry of Conic
Sections I

3.0 Introduction
A cone is a figure with circular base and a pointing end called vertex.

Conic sections are the curves in which a plane cuts a double cone. The curves
(conics) are formed when a plane (section) cuts through the double cones.

23
We need the curves to describe the paths of planets, comets, moons, asteroids,
satellites or anybody that is moved through space by gravitational forces.

3.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) Define conic sections and give example.

(ii) Classify conic sections based on eccentricity.

(iii) Write equation of a circle.

(iv) Write equation of the tangent at the point (x1 , y1 ) on the circle.

(v) Write equation of a parabola.

(vi) Write equation of tangent to the parabola

(vii) Write equation of normal to the parabola.

3.2 Definition (conic section)

A conic section is the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that
the ratio of its distance from a fixed line (focus) to its distance from a fixed
line (directrix) is a constant (Eccentricity).

3.2.1 Illustration

Figure 3.2.1

24
where
F = Focus
P (x, y) = Arbitrary point on the plane
LL0 = Directrix
H = Foot of the perpendicular to the fixed line (Directric) LL0 .
PF
Eccentricity, e = .
PH
3.3 Pre-Test

Figure 3.3

Write an equation for line (i) CD (ii) M N .

3.4 Examples

(i) A plane section which is

perpendicular to the generator
describes a circle.

25
(ii) A plane section cutting
one of the double cones and
which is neither parallel
to a generator nor perpendicular
to the common axis describes
an Ellipse.

(iii) A plane section which is

parallel to a generator
describes a Parabola.

(iv) A plane section which cuts

both cones but does not
pass through the vertex
describes a Hyperbola

3.5 Remarks
(i) The locus is a pair of straight lines if e = ∞.

(ii) The locus is a circle if e = 0

26
(iii) The locus is a parabola if e = 1.

(iv) The locus is an ellipse if e < 1.

(v) The locus is a hyperbola if e > 1.

3.6 Equation of a circle

A circle is the locus of a point P which moves such that it is at a constant

distance r from a focus. Hence, we have

PF = r

and
P C 2 = r2 (Why?)
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = r2 (3.6a)
and expanding (3.6a), we have

x2 + y 2 − 2xx0 − 2yy0 + c = 0 (3.6b)

where
c = x20 + y02 − r2 


and √ (3.6c)
r= x0 + y0 − c


27
3.7 Example
Find the equation of a circle centre (−2, 3), radius 7.

Solution
Let P (x, y) be arbitrary point using equation (3.6b), we have

x2 + y 2 − 2(−2)x − 2(3)y + c = 0

where c = (−2)2 + (3)2 − (7)2 = −39 and, the equation is

x2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y − 39 = 0

3.8 Equation of the tangent at the point (x1 , y1 ) on the circle

x2 + y 2 − 2xx0 − 2yy0 + c = 0

Figure 3.8.1
y1 − y0
Slope of EF =
x1 − x0
and
(x1 − x0 )
Slope of AB = − (Why?)
y1 − y0
Equation of tangent AB
y − y1 x1 − x0
=−
x − x1 y1 − y0
yy1 + xx1 + y1 y0 − yy0 + x1 x0 − xx0 − (y12 + x21 ) = 0
But
x21 + y12 = 2x1 x0 + 2y1 y0 − c

28
and substituting, we have

yy1 + xx1 − y0 (y1 + y) − x0 (x1 + x) + c = 0

xx1 + yy1 − x0 (x1 + x) − y0 (y1 + y) + c = 0 (3.8a)

is the equation of the tangent to the circle.

3.8.1 Example
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle

x2 + y 2 + 10x − 12y + 11 = 0 at (2, 7)

Solution
Using equation (3.8a).
Let P (x, y) be arbitrary point. Then the required equation is

2x + 7y + 5(2 + x) − 6(7 + y) + 11 = 0

where centre of the circle is (−5, 6).

3.9 Equation of a parabola open to the right

A parabola is the set of points in a plane which are equidistant from a
given focus and a directrix in the plane

Figure 3.9

29
where
LL0 = Directrix
V = Vertex coinciding with the origin
H = Foot of the perpendicular from P (x, y) to the directrix
CD = Chord parallel to the directrix (Latus rectum)
From figure 3.9,

P F 2 = (x − x̂)2 + y 2
= (x + x̂)2 (Why?)

But
PF
e= =1
PM
⇒ P F 2 = P M2
... (x − x)2 + y 2 = (x + x̂)2
and
y 2 = 4x̄x (3.9)
is the equation of a parabola.

3.10 Remarks

(i) The equation y 2 = 4x̂x is the simplest (canonical) form of the origin as
its vertex and the point (x̄, 0) as its focus.

(ii) Since y 2 > 0, the curve of the parabola lies entirely on the positive x-axis
positive it x > 0 and on the negative x-axis if x < 0.

(iii) As x → +∞, y → ±∞.

(iv) For any value of x, there are two equal and opposite values of y. Hence,
the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.

(v) The point V is called the vertex of the parabola.

(vi) The length of the latus rectum is 4x̄.

30
(vii) If the vertex of the parabola is a point (h, k) other than the origin, the
equation is of the form

(y − k)2 = 4x̄(x − k)

3.11 Example

(1) Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2 = 8x

(2) Find the equation of the parabola y 2 = 4x̄x with focus (1, 2) and directrix
x̄ = 4.

Solution

(1) Remember that y 2 = 4x̄x and equating, we have

4x̄x = 8x
... x̄ = 2

Thus, focus = F (2, 0)

Directrix = −2.

(2) Let P (x, y) denote an arbitrary point. Then,

P F 2 = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2
P H 2 = (x + 4)2 + (y − y)2 = (x + 4)2

But
PF
e = =1
PH
⇒ = PF2
(x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = (x + 4)2
... x2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 − 4y + 4 = x2 + 8x + 16
... y 2 − 4y − 10x − 11 = 0
is the required equation.

31
3.12 Equation of Tangent to the Parabola
Differentiating the equation y 2 = 4x̄x with respect to x gives
dy 2x̄
=
dx y
... the slope of the tangent to the parabola at the point (x1 , y1 ) is obtained by
2x̄
s1 = (3.12a)
y
and
2x̄
y − y1 = (x − x1 ) (3.12b)
y
3.13 Equation and Normal to the Parabola
The slope of the normal at the point (x1 , y1 ) is obtained by
y1
s2 = − (Why?) (3.13a)
2x̄
and the required equation is
−y
y − y1 = (x − x1 ) (3.13b)
2x̄
3.13.1 Example
Find the point of intersection of the line x − 2y + 6 = 0 and the parabola
2
y = 6x, and the equation of the tangents and normals to the parabola at the
point of intersection.

Solution From
x − 2y + 6 = 0

x = 2y − 6

... y 2 = 6(2y − 6)

⇒ y 2 − 12y + 36 = 0 and the roots are y = y1 = y2 = 6.

Hence, x = 6 and point of intersection is (6, 6) the tangent at (6, 6) is
2x̄
y−6= (x − 6) Using (3.12b)
6
32
But

4x̄ = 6
3
x̄ =
2
Substituting for x̄, we have
1
y − 6 = (x − 6)
2

... 2y − x − 6 = 0
is the required tangent equation.
The normal equation is obtained using equation (3.13b)
y − 6 = −2(x − 6)

... y + 2x − 18 = 0
is the required normal equation.

3.14 Summary

In this lecture, we:

(i) Classify conic section as:
(a) Circle if eccentricity, e = 0
(b) Parabola if e = 1
(c) Ellipe if e < 1
(d) Hyperbola if e > 1
(ii) Wrote equation of: (a) Circle as:
2 2
x + y − 2xx0 − 2yy0 + c = 0
(b) Tangent to the circle at (x1 , y1 ) as:
x1 x + y1 y − x0 (x1 + x) − y0 (y1 + y) + c = 0
(c) Parabola as y 2 = 4x̄x
(d) Tangent equation to the parabola at (x1 , y1 ) as
2x̄
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
y1
(e) Normal equation to the parabola at (x1 , y1 ) as
−y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
2x̄

33
3.15 Post-Test 3
(1) Find the equation of the circle which has the line joining the points
(4, −3) and (−1, 7) as its diameter.
Hint: Centre of the circle is the mid-point of the diameter, and the
radius is half the diameter length.

(2) Find the centre and radius of a circle 2x2 + 2y 2 − 28x + 12y + 114 = 0.

(3) Find an equation for the circle through the points (0,0) and (6,0) that
is tangent to the line y = 1.

(4) If the tangents to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at the points (at2 , 2at) and
(as2 , 2as) meet at the point (p, q), show that a2 (t − s)2 = q 2 − 4ap.

(5) Find the points of intersection of the parabola y 2 = 4ax and the circle
x2 + y 2 = 64a2 .

(6) Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (4,1),
(5,4) and (0,1). Check whether the point (3,5) lies on the circle.

(7) Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4ax which is
parallel to the line y + 2x = 0.
3.16 Solution to Pre-Test 3
(i) Slope, CD = 1.
Let P (x, y) be arbitrary point in the plane, then, line equation,
y − y 1 = x − x1
⇒ y = x − x1 + y 1
y = x−1
and y−x+1 = 0

(ii) Equation of line M N ,

Gradient of M N = −1
Equation, y + 1 = −x − 2
... y+x+3=0

34
Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. R.O. Ayeni et.al.: Introductory University Mathematics.

35
Lecture 4
Coordinate Geometry of Conic
Sections II

4.0 Introduction
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distance from two fixed points
in the plane have a constant sum. A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane
whose distances from two fixed points in the plane have a constant difference

Ellipse
Figure 4.0

36
where:
F1 , F2 := Foci
V1 , V2 := Vertices
KK 0 , LL0 := Directrices
H1 , H2 := Feet of the perpendiculars from arbitrary point P (x, y) to the di-
rectrices.

4.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) State properties of ellipse

(ii) Write equation of an ellipse

(iii) Write equation for tangent at a point on the ellipse

(iv) Write equation for normals at a point on the ellipse

(v) State properties of hyperbola

(vi) Write equation of a hyperbola

(vii) Write equation for tangent at a point on the hyperbola

(viii) Write equation for normal at a point on the hyperbola.

(ix) Write a general equation for quadratic curve, and use it to classify conic
section.

4.2 Pre-Test 4
An ellipse has and axis.

4.3 Equation of an ellipse

Applying definition of ellipse on figure 4.0, we have
F2 V2 F2 V1 P F2
e= = = <1 (4.3a)
V2 M2 V1 M2 P H2
F2 V2 = eV2 M2 , F2 V1 = eV1 M2 (4.3b)

37
and
F2 V2 + F2 V1 = e(V1 M2 + V2 M2 ) (4.3c)
F2 V1 − F2 V2 = e(V1 M2 − V2 M2 ) (4.3d)
But

F2 V2 + F2 V1 = V1 V2 = e[(CM2 − CV2 ) + (CV1 + CM2 )] (using 4.3c)

2a = e[2CM2 − a + a]
2a = 2eCM2
a
... CM2 =
e
a
and co-ordinate
 a ofpoint M2 = ( e , 0)
... CM1 = − , 0 .
e
From (4.3d),

CF2 + CV1 − (CV2 − CF2 ) = eV1 V2

2CF2 = 2ea
... CF2 = ae

Hence, co-ordinate of F2 are (ae, 0) and F1 is (−ae, 0).

Also,

P F2 = eP H2
P F22 = e2 P H22

But
P F22 = (x − ae)2 + y 2
and a 2 a 2
P H22 = −x + (y − y) = 2
−x
e e
a 2
2 2 2
... (x − ae) + y = e −x
e
x2 (1 − e2 ) + y 2 = a2 (1 − e2 )

38
 x2 y2
+ =1 (4.3e)
a2 a2 (1 − e2 )
and
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (4.3f )
a2 b
where b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ).
Equation (4.3f) is the simplest form of equation for an ellipse.

4.4 Tangent Equation at point (x1 , y1 ) on the Ellipse

Differentiating equation (4.3f) with respect to x gives

2x 2y dy
+ 2 =0
a2 b dx
and, the gradient at (x1 , y1 ),

dy b 2 x1
=− 2
dx a y1

Hence, tangent equation at (x1 , y1 ) is

−b2 x1
y − y1 = 2 (x − x1 )
a y1

y1 y x1 x y12 x21 (4.4a)

b2
+ a2
= b2
+ a2
= 1 (Why?)
y1 y x1 x
... b2
+ a2
=1

is the required tangent equation.

4.5 Normal equation at (x1 , y1 ) on the Ellipse

a2 y 1
The normal at (x1 , y1 ) has the gradient 2 (Why?)
b x1
Thus, the required normal equation is

a2 y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 ) (4.5)
b2 x 1

39
4.6 Example
Find the eccentricity of the ellipse 2x2 + 3y 2 = 1, and the tangent, normal
to the ellipse at the point x = 41 in the positive quadrant.

Solution
2x2 + 3y 2 = 1 in canonical form is

x2 y2
+ =1
1/2 1/3
1 1
...a= , b= .
2 3
From b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ), we have
√ √
a2 − b2 5
e= =
a 3
√
... eccentricity is
5/3q
At x = 41 , y = ± 42 76 . using the given equation. The point (x1 , y1 ) =
r !
1 7
, and, the tangent equation is
4 24
r
− 19 · 14
 
7 1
y− = r x−
24 1 7 4
·
4 24
y − 0.54 = −0.20(x − 0.25)
y = −0.20x + 0.59

is the required tangent equation, and the normal equation is

r
7
y− = 5(x − 0.25)
24
y − 0.54 = 5x − 1.25
y = 5x − 0.71

is the required normal equation. 4.7 Remarks

40
 x2 y2 x2
(i) If 2 > 1 in 2 = 1 − 2 , the value of y will be imaginary. Thus, we
a b a
have −a ≤ x ≤ a and −b ≤ y ≤ b, and the ellipse is a closed curve.

(ii) The ellipse is symmetrical about the x and y axes.

(iii) Line V1 V2 and B1 B2 are the major and minor axis respectively.

(iv) When x = 0, y = ±b and B1 B2 = 2b. Similarly, when y = 0, x = ±a

and V1 V2 = 2a.

(v) The latus rectum (a chord through F parallel to the directrix), x = ae.

x2 b4
 
y = b 1 − 2 = b2 (1 − e2 ) = 2 (since b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ))
2 2
a a

b2 b2
... y = ± on the latus rectum, and length of the latus rectum is 2 .
a2 a
(vi) If points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) lie on the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (4.7a)
a2 b
Then,
x21 y12
+ 2 =1 (4.7b)
a2 b
x22 y22
+ 2 =1 (4.7c)
a2 b
and equation of the line joining the points is obtained by
x − x1 y − y1
= (4.7d)
x1 − x2 y1 − y2

Substituting (4.7c) from (4.7b) gives

(x1 − x2 )(x1 + x2 ) (y1 − y2 )(y1 + y2 )

+ =0 (4.7e)
a2 b2
Verify.

41
Combining (4.7d) and (4.7e) gives
x(x1 + x2 ) y(y1 + y2 ) x1 x2 y 1 y 2
2
+ 2
=1+ 2 + 2 (4.7f )
a b a b
Verify.
But if the points coincide, the line becomes the tangent, and equation (4.7f)
becomes
xx1 yy1
+ 2 =1 (4.7g)
a2 b
and in slope intercept form,
xx1 b2
y=− + (4.7h)
a2 y 1 y 1
Normal equation is obtained by
a2 y1
y= (x − x1 ) (4.7i)
x1
a2 y 1
where is the gradient of the normal at (x1 , y1 ) (Why?).
x
4.8 Equation of a Hyperbola
Let F1 , F2 := Foci
V1 , V2 := Vertices
KK 0 , LL0 = Directrices
H1 , H2 := Feet of the perpendicular from arbitrary point p(x, y)

Figure 4.8

42
Applying definition of hyperbola on figure (4.8), we have
F2 V2 F2 V1 P F2
e= = = >1 (4.8a)
V2 R2 V2 R2 P H2

F2 V2 = eV2 R2 
(4.8b)
F2 V1 = eV1 R2


Let N V2 = N V1 = a, then the coordinate of V2 are (a, 0) and V1 are (−a, 0).
Then,
F2 V2 + F2 V1 = e(V2 R2 + V1 R2 ) (4.8c)
F2 V1 − F2 V2 = e(V1 R2 − V2 R2 ) (4.8d)
Using (4.8c), we obtain

F2 V2 + F1 V1 = V1 V2 = e[(N V2 − N R2 ) + (N V1 + N R2 )]

which gives 2a = 2eN R2 .

... N R2 = ae and the coordinate of point R2 are ( ae , 0) and R1 are (−a/e, 0).
Using equation (4.8d), we can obtain coordinate of F . Thus,

F2 V1 − F2 V2 = (N V1 + N F2 ) − (N V2 − N F2 ) = eV1 V2

and N F2 = ae so that the coordinates of F2 are (ae, 0) and F1 are (−ae, 0).
Furthermore, we have
P F2 = eP H2
But
P F2 = (x − ae)2 + y 2
and
a
P H2 = (x − )2
e
Hence,
P F22 = e2 P H22
and substituting gives,
a
(x − ae)2 + y 2 = e2 (x − )2
e
43
Solving, we obtain
x2 (e2 − 1) − y 2 = a2 (e2 − 1)
x2 y2
− =1 (4.8e)
a2 a2 (e2 − 1)
Let b2 = a2 (e2 − 1) and substituting in (4.8e), you have

x2 y 2
− 2 =1 (4.8f )
a2 b
is the canonical form of the equation of a hyperbola with centre, foci (±ae, 0)
and directrices, x = ± ae .

4.9 Equation for tangent at a point (x1 , y1 ) on the

x2 y 2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1
a b
Differentiating the equation

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
with respect to x, we obtain

dy b2 x
Slope, = 2 (4.9a)
dx ay
and the tangent equation at )x1 , y1 ) is

y − y1 b2 x 1
= 2
x − x1 a y1

b 2 x1
... y= (x − x1 ) + y1 (4.9b)
a2 y 1
4.10 Equation for normal at a point (x1 , y1 ) on the hyperbola
x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
From (4.9a), slope for normal is

a2 y
m2 = − (Why?)
b2 x

44
... the normal equation at (x1 , y1 ) to the hyperbola is

y − y1 −a2 y
= 2
x − x1 bx
(4.10)
2
−a y1
... y = (x − x1 ) + y1
b2 x 1
4.11 Remark
An asymptotic to a hyperbola is a tangent at infinity, and it is obtained
a
by y = ± .
b
4.12 Example
Find the eccentricity, foci, vertices, directrices and the asymptotes, tangent
and normal at (3,4) of the hyperbola

x2 y 2
− =1
9 16
Solution
a = 3, b = 4
From b2 = a2 (e2 − 1), we have
5
e=±
3
5
... eccentricity = ±
3
Foci = (±ae, 0) = (±3, 0)
b 4
Directrices, x = ± = ±
a 3
By equation (4.9a) and (4.9b) respectively,
Tangent equation at (3,4) is
4
y = x (Verify)
2
Normal equation at (3,4) is
 
3 13 1 13
y =− x+ = −3x +
4 16 4 4

45
 16y + 12x − 13 = 0 (Verify)
b 4
Asymptotes ± = ± .
a 3
4.13 The Graphs of Quadratic Equations
The Cartesian graph of any quadratic equation is of the form

A1 x2 + A2 xy + A3 y 2 + A4 x + A5 y + A6 = 0 (4.13)

in which A2 6= 0, ∀ i = 1, 2, 3 is approximately always a conic section.

4.13.1 Examples of quadratic curves

A1 x2 + A2 xy + A3 y 2 + A4 x + A5 y + A6 = 0.

Conic
Section A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 Equation
Remarks
Circle 1 1 -16 -9 x2 + y 2 = 9
A1 = A3
Parabola 1 -16 y 2 = 16x
Quadratic in y
linear in x
2 2
Ellipse 9 16 -144 9x + 16y A1 , A2 have same
=144 sign A1 6= A3
2 2
Hyperbola 1 -1 -1 x − y = 1 A1 , A3 have
opposite sign

46
4.14 Summary

In this lecture:
(a) We derive equation for:
x2 y 2
(i) An ellipse as 2 + 2 = 1
a b
(ii) Tangent equation at a point (x1 , y1 ) on the Ellipse as
x1 x y1 y
+ 2 =1
a2 b
(iii) Normal equation at (x1 , y1 ) on the Ellipse as
a2 y 1
y = 2 (x − x1 ) + y1
b x1
(iv) A hyperbola as
x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
(v) Tangent at a point (x1 , y1 ) on the hyperbola as
b2 x 1
y = 2 (x − x1 ) + y1
a y1
(vi) Normal at a point (x1 , y1 ) on the hyperbola as
a2 y 1
y = 2 (x − x1 ) + y1
b x1
b
(vii) Asymptote to a hyperbola as y = ±
a
(b) We derive the directrices of
a
(i) Ellipse as d = ±
e p
(ii) Hyperbola as e = a2 + b2 /a
(c) We described the directices of
a
(i) Ellipse as d = ±
e a
(ii) Hyperbola as, d = ±
e
(d) We described a conic section using quadratic curve,
A1 x2 + A2 xy + A3 y 2 + A4 x + A5 y + A6 = 0
where A1 , A2 , A3 are not all equal to zero.
4.15 Post-Test 4

1(a) Find the points of contact of the line y + 2a − 3 = 0 with the ellipse
4x2 + y 2 = 5.

47
 (b) Find the equations of the tangent and normal at these points.

2. Sketch the hyperbola

9x2 − 9y 2 = 16

3. Find the center, vertices, foci, eccentricity and asymptote of the hyper-
bola, 4y 2 = x2 − 4x.

4.16 Solution to Pre-Test 4

Major and Minor.

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. Godwin Alo. Odili: Calculus with Co-ordinate Geometry and Trigonom-

etry.

48
Lecture 5
I 3 (I)
Vectors in R

5.0 Introduction
A vector is a straight line of a given length or size (magnitude) in a specified
direction. Suppose you walk 10km due north and 8km due east. Then, your
displacement is as follows:

Figure 5.0
−→ −→ −→
From the figure, the vectors are: (i) SG, (ii) GP , (iii) SP .
We begin this lecture by showing how to perform algebraic expressive on vec-
tors, define unit vectors, directional cosine of vectors, state and identify con-
ditions necessary for three collinear points, write vector equation of a straight
line and write vector equation of a plane.

49
5.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

I 2, R
(i) Define vectors, in R I 3.

I 3.
(ii) Perform algebraic expression on vectors in R

I3
(iii) Define unit vectors in R

I 3.
(iv) Define directional cosines of vectors in R

(v) State and identity conditions necessary for three collinear points

(vi) Write vector equation of a straight line.

(vii) Write vector equation of a plane.

5.2 Pre-Test 5
Using the figure 5.0, what is the magnitude of:
(a) SG, (b) GP and (c) SP .

5.3 Definitions
5.3.1: A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
For example,
Force = Distance in the direction of force.
Other examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, acceleration, momen-
tum, electric and magnetic field.

5.3.2: A scalar quantity has only size but no direction. Examples of scalar
quantity are mass, length, time, temperature, volume, density, work, quantity
of heat.

5.4 Note Notations

Let A, B, C, D, . . . denote points in space with P representing an arbitrary
point, and 0 an arbitrary origin. Then:

50
 −→
5.4.1: The vectors, OA = a
−→
5.4.2: The arbitrary vector OP = I

5.4.3: Scalar values shall be denoted by a, b, . . . , or α, β.

5.5 Vectors in R I2
A vector in RI 2 is a 2-dimensional coordinate system in the direction of
x, y-axes respectively.

Figure 5.5

5.6 Vector in R I3
I 3 is a 3-dimensional coordinate system in the direction x, y, z-
A vector in R
axes respectively.

Figure 5.6

51
5.7 Vector Algebra

(i) A vector say (a) and another vector say ‘b’ are equal if they both have
the same magnitude and direction, and we write a = b.

(ii) The vector −b has the same magnitude as the vector b but opposite
direction.

(iii) The vector c = a + b is obtained using the parallelogram law by placing

the initial point of b on the terminating point of a and then joining the
initial point of a to the terminal point of b as shown below.

Figure 5.7

(iv) a + b = b + a (Commutative law of addition)

(v) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (associativity law of addition)

(vi) ψa = aψ (commutative law of scalar multiplication)

(vii) (ψ + β)a = ψa + βa (Distributive law)

(viii) ψ(βa) = (ψβ)a = (associative law of scalar multiplication)

(ix) ψ(a + b) = ψa + ψb (Distributive law)

52
5.8 Definitions (Unit vector)

(i) A unit vector is any vector whose length is equal to the unit of length
along the coordinate axes.
Let a = xi + yj , then, the magnitude of a, is
p
|a| = |xi + yj | = x2 + y 2

(ii) The direction of a unit vector, a is obtained by

a xi + y j x y
=p =p i+ p j
|a| x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

(iii) Suppose P (x, y, z) is an arbitrary point in space, its position vector, is

−→
OP = r = xi + yj + zk and its magnitude is
−→ p
|OP | = |r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2
−→
Similarly, if OA = a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k is the position vector of a point
A. Then, its magnitude,
−→
q
|OA| = |a| = a21 + a22 + a23

5.8.1 Example
Given that a = 3i − 4j, find the direction of a.

Solution √
Magnitude of a is |a| = 32 + 42 = 5.
3 4
Direction = i − j
5 5
5.8.2 Example
Given that a = i − 2j + 4k. Find the length of a.

Solution
Length of a is |a| = 21 units (verify).

53
5.8.3 Remark
The vectors i, j and k are units vectors because:
√
|i| = 1i + 0j + 0k = 12 + 02 + 02 = 1
√
|j| = 0i + 1j + 0k = 02 + 12 + 02 = 1
√
|k| = 0i + 0j + 1k = 02 + 02 + 12 = 1

5.9 Direction Cosines

If the line OP makes angle α1 , α2 and α3 respectively with x, y and z axes.
Then, we define cosines of these angles as:
x
(i) l = r
= cos α1
y
(ii) m = r
= cos α2

(iii) n = zr = cos α3
where l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line OP .

(iv) l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 (Verify).

5.10 Point Dividing a Line in a Given Ratio

Figure 5.10

54
Suppose P divides the line AC in the ratio m : n then,
AP m
=
PC n
−−→ −→
and nAP = mP C
n(r − a) = m(b − r)
mb + na
... r =
m+n
5.10.1 Remarks

(i) If m : n is positive, then the point P lies in-between the points A and
B.

(ii) If P is the mid-point of A and B, then m = n = 1 and

1
r = (a + b)
2

(iii) If m : n is negative and lies between 0 and -1, then P is outside AC and
is closer to A than C.

(iv) If m : n is negative and lies between -1 and −∞, then P is outside AC

and is closer to C than A.

5.11 Three collinear points

If the three points A, B, C are collinear and distinct, then there exist l, m, n
such that la + mb + nc = 0, and l + m + n = 0. Conversely, if the equations
hold then the points are collinear.

5.12 Example
Let L, M, N be the mid-point of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a
triangle ABC. show that
−−→ 1 −−→
(i) N M = BC
2
−→ −−→ −−→
(ii) AL + BM + CN = 0

55
(iii) The median AL, BM and CN have a common point of trisection.

Solution

Figure 5.12

From figure 5.12,

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(i) N M = BM − BN (because N M + BN = BM )
−→ 1 −→ 1 −→ 1
= (BA + AC) − BA (since BN = BA)
2 2 2
1 −→ −→
= (BA + AC)
2
−−→ 1 −−→
... N M = BC
2
−→ −→ −→ 1 −−→ −→ 1 −→ −→ −→
(ii) AL = BL − BA = BC − BA = (BA + AC) − BA
2 2
−−→ −−→ −−→ 1 −→ −−→ 1 −→ −−→ −−→
BM = M C − BC = AC − BC = (BA + BC) − BC
2 2
−−→ −−→ −→ 1 −→ −→ 1 −→ −−→ −→
CN = BN − AC = BA − AC = (AC + BC) − AC
2 2
−→ −
−→ −−→ 1 − → −→ −→ 1 −→ −−→ −−→
... AL + BB + CN = (BA + AC) − BA + (BA + BC) − BC
2 2
1 −→ −−→ −→
+ (AC + BC) − AC = 0 (Verify)
2

56
 1 −→ −→ −−→ 1 −→ −→ −→
(iii) From (BA + AC) and M C = (BA + AC). Eliminate AC to obtain:
2 2
−→ −→ −−→ −→
2BL + AC 2M C + BA
=
3 3
Thus, the common point of intersection of the median AL, BM is a point of
trisection to each of the lines.

5.13 Vector Equation of Straight Line

5.13.1 Remark
Equation of a line is uniquely determined of either:

(i) A point on the line and a vector parallel to the line are given.
Or

(ii) Two points on the line are given.

Let assume case (i).
Suppose point P lies on a straight line, L which is parallel to a vector
V.

Figure 5.13.1

57
 −−→
Then, P0 P = ψV for some ψ (Why?).
For any arbitrary point, P (x, y, z) on the line L

(x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j + (z − z0 )k = ψ(ai + bj + ck )

and we have,
P (x, y, z) = P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ψ(a, b, c) (5.13.1a)
or
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = (5.13.1b)
a b c
Now assuming case (ii).
Suppose A1 and A2 are points on a straight line, then the vector b − a is
parallel to the line and its equation is

(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ψ(b1 − a1 , b2 − a2 , b3 − a3 )

or
x − a1 y − a2 z − a3
ψ= = =
b 1 − a1 b 2 − a2 b 3 − a3
5.13.2 Example

(i) Write a vector equation for a line through (−2, 0, 4) parallel to the
vector V = 2i + 4j − 2k.
(ii) Find its parametric equations.

Solution
Using equation (5.13.1a)

P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (−2, 0, 4)

Thus,
(x, y, z) = (−2, 0, 4) + ψ(2, 4, −2)

(ii) x = −2 + 2ψ
y = 4ψ
z = 4 − 2ψ
where ψ is the parameter.

58
5.14 Vector Equation of a Plane
−→
Suppose the points A, B, C lie on a plane, then the vectors AB = b − a,
−→
AC = c − a lie on the plane. Therefore, the position vector of an arbitrary
point on the plane is obtained by

r = a + ψ(b − a) + β(c − a) (5.14.1)

If the point A is the origin, the equation (5.14.1‘) becomes

r = αb + βc

But (1 − α − β)a + αb + βc − r = 0.
From (5.14.1) and the sum of the coefficients is zero.
Hence, if the points A, B, C, D are coplanar, then there exist scalar numbers
ψ1 , ψ2 , ψ3 , ψ4 such that

ψ1 a + ψ2 b + ψ3 c + ψ4 d = 0

and
ψ1 + ψ2 + ψ3 + ψ4 = 0
5.14.2 Example
Find an equation for the plane through P0 (−3, 0, 7) perpendicular to N =
5i + 2j − k.

Solution
Let P (x, y, z) be arbitrary point on the plane, then, we have:

5x + 2y − z = −22

and
5x + 2y − z + 22 = 0
is the required equation.

59
5.15 Summary

(a) Define:
(i) A vector as any quantity having magnitude and specified direction
(ii) Vector in 2, 3 coordinate points as v = xi + yj and v = xi + yj + zk
v
(iii) Unit vector as .
|v|
(b) Wrote
(i) Vector equation of a straight line as
(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ψ(v1 , v2 , v3 )
where ψ is the parameter of the equation.
(ii) Vector equation of a plane through
P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) perpendicular to v = ai + bj + ck as
ax + by + cz = ax0 + by0 + cz0

5.16 Post-Test 5
(1) If r = 3i + 4j + 3k; u = 6j + 7k; t = 2i − 5j
Evaluate:

(a) 2r − 3u − 5t
(b) r + u − 2t
(c) r − 3u + t
(d) Find the magnitude of 4r
(e) Find the direction of t

(2) Find the cosine of the angles ψ1 , ψ2 , ψ3 which the vector b = 4i − 5j + 3k

makes with the x, y and z axis respectively.

(3) If the vectors v, v, r form the sides of a triangle, prove that r2 = u2 +

v 2 − 2uv cosR.
I

(4) If a = 2i − 4k; b = 3i − 4j + k, find a unit vector perpendicular to the

plane a and b.

(5) Find an equation for the line through A0 (3, 5, 1) perpendicular to v =

4i + 3j + k.

60
 (6) Find the parametric equation for the line segment through M (−3, 2, 4)
and N (2, −2, 5).

(7) Find the point in which the line x = 4 + 2t; y = 4t; z = 2 + t meets the
plane 3x + 4y + 8z = 8.

Solution to Pre-Test 5
√
(a) 10km, (b) 8km (c) 2 41km

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambi: Advanced Level Mathematics.

61
Lecture 6
I 3 (II)
Vectors in R

6.0 Introduction
In this lecture, you will learn how to perform dot and cross vectors prod-
uct, discover how you can use this knowledge to classify vectors as parallel or
perpendicular. Moreover, you will learn how dot and vectors product leads to
calculation of areas and volume of some shapes.

6.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) Perform scalar (DOT) multiplication on vectors

(ii) Calculate angle of inclination between vectors

(iii) Perform cross multiplication on vectors

(iv) Perform triple scalar product on vectors

(v) Perform triple vector product

(vi) Write vector equation of a plane

(vii) Write equation for perpendicular distance from a point to a line.

62
6.2 Pre-Test 6
(1) Find the area of the triangle ABC

(2)

Find the volume of the figure.

6.3 Dot (Scalar) Product
The scalar product of two vectors, a and b
inclined at an angle ψ as display on figure
6.3 is the number.

Figure 6.3
a · b = |a||b| cos ψ (6.3)

63
6.4 Properties of scalar product
Let a, b, c be vectors and α be a scalar. Then:

(i) i · i = j · j = k · k = 1

(ii) i · j = j · k = i · k = 0

(iii) a · a = a21 + a22 + a23 (Verify)

(iv) a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (Verify)

(v) a · b = a · a (Verify)

(vi) a · (b + c) = a · b + a + c

(vii) α(a · b) = (αa) · b = a · (αb)

a·b a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3
(viii) cos ψ = =
|a||a| |a||b|
π
(ix) If a · b = 0 and a 6= 0 6= b, then ψ = 2
and a and b are perpendicular.

6.5 Example
Given that the vectors a = i − 2j + 3k and b = 6i + 3j + 2k:

(i) evaluate a · b

(ii) Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors a and b.

Solution

(i) a · b = i · 6i + (−2j)(3j) + (3k) · (2k)

(ii) Let the angle between the vectors a, b be β, then,

a·b
cos β =
|a||b|

But |a| = 14, |b| = 49

3
... cos β = .
343
and cos β = 0.0087.

64
6.6 Cross Products

The vector product of two vectors a and b

inclined at an angle ψ is obtained by
a × b = nab sin ψ

where n is the perpendicular unit vector to the plane of the vector a and
π
b, and 0 ≤ ψ ≤ .
2
6.7 Properties of vector product
Let

a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k

and β be a scalar.
Then,

(i) i × i = j × j = k × k = 0

(ii) i × j = −(j × i) = k, j × k = −(k × j) = i, k × i = −(i × k) = j

(iii) a × b = −b × a

(iv) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c

(v) β(a × b) = (βa) × b = a × (βb)

65
6.8 Area of a parallelogram

Area of a parallelogram = base × perpendicular height

|a × b| = |na × h| = |n||a|| sin ψ|

... |a × b| = |n||a|| sin ψ| (6.8)

is the required formular to calculate the area of a parallelogram whose sides

are vectors.

6.9 The determinant formula for |a × b|

Let

a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k

Then,

a × b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) × (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
= a1 i × b 1 i + a2 i × b 2 j + a1 i × b 3 k
+a2 j × b1 i + a2 j × b2 j + a2 j × b3 k
+a3 k × b1 i + a3 k × b2 j + a3 k × b3 k
= (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k
 
 i j k 
 
... a × b| =  a1 a2 a3 
 b1 b2 b3 

66
6.10 Example
If the vectors a = 3i − 2j + 3k, b = 4i + j + 2k, find the area of the paral-
lelogram enclosed by a and b.

Solution
 
 i j k 
 
a × b| =  a1 a2 a3 
 b1 b2 b3 
= −7i + 6j + 11k
... area = |a × b| = 206 sq. units
6.11 Tripe Scalar Product
The product a · b × c is called the triple scalar product of a, b, c. It gives
the volume of a parallelepiped (a parallelogram pipe) whose sides are a, b, c

Figure 6.11
The product,
a·b×c=c·a×b=b·c×a
Suppose a, b, c 6= 0 and a × b × c = 0, then, the vectors a, b, c lie on a common
plane (i.e. the three vectors are coplanar).
Let
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k

67
then,  
 a1 a2 a3 
 
a · b × c =  b1 b2 b3 
 c1 c2 c3 
6.12 Example
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a = i + 2j + k,
b = 3i + 3k, and c = 7j + 4k.

Solution
 
 1 2 1 
 
a · b × c =  2 0 3 

 0 7 4 
= −31
6.13 Triple Vector Product
The product (a × b) × c is defined by:
(a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)b (6.13)
and it lies in the plane of b and c.

Remark
The products, a × (b × c) and (a × b) × c are not always equal.

6.13.1 Example
Given that a = i − j + 2k; b = 2i + j + k; c = i + 2j − k, show that
(a × (b) × c) = (a · c)b − (b · c)a
Solution
From the L.H.S. of the equation, we have
a × b = −3i + 3j + 3k
so that (a×b)×c = −9i−9k and from the R.H.S. of the equation, (a·c) = −3,
b − c = 3 so that
(a · c)b − (b − c)a = 3b − 3a = −9i − 9k
... (a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)a

68
Remark
a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c
6.14 Perpendicular distance from a point to a line

Figure 6.14

Consider the straight AP passing through point A with position vector a.

Suppose P is an arbitrary point on the line with position vector r, and e is
the unit vector parallel to the straight line AP . Then, the vectors r − a and
e are parallel vectors, and
(r − a) × e = 0 (6.14a)
which is equation of the straight line AP .
Let the perpendicular distance from a point M with position vector m to
the line AP be M N , N is the foot of the perpendicular line from M to AP .
Hence, we have
M N = AM sin ψ = |(r − a) × e|
where ψ is the angle line AM makes with line AP . The position vector of the
point N is given by
n = a + e · (m − a)e
−−→
The vector M N is given by
−−→ −−→ −−→
M N = M A + AN
= a − m + e · (m − a)e (6.14b)

69
 −−→
and perpendicular distance is |M N |.

6.14.1 Example
Find the perpendicular distance from the point 4i − 2j + 3k to the straight
line which passes through the points 2i + 3j − 4k and 8i + 6j − 8k.

Solution
Let a = 2i + 3j − 4k, r = 8i + 6j − 8k, m = 4i − 2j + 3k.
Then,
r−a 6i + 3j − 4k
e= = √
r − a| 61
Using equation (6.14b), we have

m − a = 2i − 5j + 7k
31
e(m − a) = − √
61
186i − 93j + 124k
e · (m − a)e = −
61
But a − m = −(m − a) = −2i + 5j = 7k.
... the perpendicular distance from point 4i − 2j + 3k is

|a − m + e · (m − a)e| = 7.9 units

6.15 Vector equation of a plane

Let a be a vector on a plane perpendicular to a vector n. Suppose r is the
position vector of an arbitrary point P on the plane. Then, r − a and n are
perpendicular. Thus,
(r − a) · n = 0 (6.15a)
which is the vector equation of the plane.
If n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane. The perpendicular distance
from the origin to the plane is

r =a·n (6.15b)

which can be written as

r−a·n=0 (6.15c)

70
If the unit vectors u1 and u2 are the unit normal to two planes; the angle of
inclination ψ of the two planes is obtained by

cos ψ = u1 · u2 (6.15d)

6.15.1 Example
Find the perpendicular vector to the vectors a = 2i−j+k and b = i+2j+3k.

Solution
 
 i j k 
 
v = a × b =  2 −1 1 
 1 2 3 
= −5i + 5j + 5k.

6.16 Summary

In this lecture, we:

(a) Performed:
(1) dot multiplication on the vectors as n · a · b
(2) cross multiplication on vector as a × b
(3) triple scalar multiplication as a · b × c
(b) Defined:
a·b
(1) angle between two vectors say a and b as cos ψ =
  |a||b|
 i j k 
 
(2) cross product of two vectors as  a1 a2 a3 
 
 b1 b2 b3 
where a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k; b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k.
(3) dot product of two vectors as
a · b = a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3
(4) triple scalar product as
a·b×c=c·a×b= b·c×a
(5) triple vector product as
(a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)a
(c) Wrote:
(1) Equation for perpendicular distance from a point to a line.
(2) Vector equation of a plane.

71
6.17 Post-Test 6

(1) Find the cosine of the angle between 3x−2y−6z = 5 and 6x+2y−9z = 4.

(2) Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are A(−1, −1), B(3, 3), C(2, 1)

(3) Given vectors a, b, c, use dot product and cross product to describe a
vector in the plane of b and c perpendicular to a.

(4) Find a vector that is perpendicular to both a = 2i+2j+2k and b = 4i+4j

(5) Given that a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k

(a) Evaluate:
(i) a × b (ii) b × a
(b) Is a × b = b × a

(6) Find the area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are the vectors a =
i − 3j + 4k and b = 3i + j − 2k.

(7) Find the volume of a parallelepiped a = 6i − 7k; b = 3i + 4j + 2k;

c = 3i + 8k.

(8) Let a, b, c be vectors and are collinear. Show that x, y, z which are not
all zero exist such that
x+y+z =0
and
xa + yb + zc = 0

(9) Find the volume of a tetrahedron a = 3i + 2j + 6k; b = 4i − 2j + 7k and

c = 2i + 4j + 3k  
1 
(Hint: Volume =  (a × b · c))

6

72
6.18 Solution to Pre-Test 6
1
(1) Area = × 8 × sin 300
2
= 2 sq. units
(2) Volume = 5cm × 7cm × 30cm
= 105cm3

Contemporary Reading

O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

73
Lecture 7
Dynamic I - (Velocity and
Acceleration)

7.0 Introduction
In this lecture, we combine calculus and vectors to describe the motion
of a body in space. You will learn how position of a body in space is use to
describe its velocity, acceleration, relative velocity, energy, power, work, speed
and direction.

7.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) Define the velocity of a position vector.

(ii) Define the acceleration of a position vector.

(iii) Define speed of moving body.

(iv) Define the force acting on a body.

(v) Define momentum of a body.

(vi) Define kinetic energy of a given body.

(vii) Define potential energy of a given body.

(viii) Define work done on a given body.

74
(ix) Define power of a given system

(x) Define relative velocity.

(xi) Define relative acceleration.

(xii) Express direction of a moving body.

7.2 Pre-Test 7

(a) Given that:

(1) y(x) = 2x3 + 6x2 + 3

x4 √
(2) y(x) = − x
4
dy(x)
Find of questions (1) and (2)
dx
(b) Evaluate
Z 2 2 
3x 3
(1) + 6x dx
0 12
Z 3
(2) (2x + 4)dx
−1

7.3 Velocity, Acceleration, Speed of a position vector

Figure 7.3

75
 −→
Let OP = r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k be the position vector of a body moving
in space at time t. Then, the velocity of P is obtained by the derivative.

7.3.1 Example
The vector r(t) = (2 cos t)i + (2 sin t)j + t2 k gives the position of a moving
body at time t. Find the body:
(i) Velocity

(ii) Acceleration

(iii) Speed at t = 3 minutes.

Solution
(i) Velocity,v(t) = −2 sin ti + 2 cos tj + 2tk
= 2(cos tj − sin ti + tk)
(ii) Acceleration, a(t) = −2
√ cos tj − 2 sin tj + 2k
(iii) Speed, s = |v| = 2 2 units/minutes
dr(t) dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)
v(t) = = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
and the acceleration of P is
     
dv(t) d dx(t) d dy(t) d dz(t)
a(t) = = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
d2 x(t) d2 y(t) d2 z(t)
= i + j + k
dt2 dt2 dt2
The speed of the body is the magnitude of the velocity. Thus, speed,
s = |v| = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2
7.4 Direction of a moving body
Let r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k be the vector position of a body in space.
Then, the direction of the body in space is obtained by
v(t) x(t) y(t) z(t)
d(t) = =p i+ p j+p k
|v(t)| x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
7.4.1 Example
A body is located at r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + t2 k at time t.

76
 (i) Find the direction of the body at time t = 2

(ii) At what time, if any, are the body’s velocity and acceleration orthogonal?
Solution
(i) v(t) = − sin ti + cos tj + 3t2 k.
0.03 0.999 12
Direction, d(t) = − √ i + √ j + √ k
10 10 10
(ii) a(t) = − cos2 ti + sin2 tj + 6tk.
But for orthogonality,
v(t) · a(t) = sin t cos2 t + cos t sin2 t + 18t3 = 0
= 18t3 = 0
... the only value is t = 0.
7.5 Relative Velocity and Acceleration
Suppose a boy and a girl position vectors from the origin are rb and rg
respectively. Then, the relative positive vector denoted by rbg of the girl
relative to the boy at time t is
rbg (t) = rg (t) − rb (t)
Thus, the relative velocity, v bg (t) of the girl relative to the boy at time t,
drbg (t) d(rg (t) − rb (t))
rbg (t) = =
dt dt
and the relative acceleration, abg (t) of the girl relative to the boy at time t is
dv bg (t) d2 rbg (t)
abg (t) = =
dt dt2
7.5.1 Example
Two bodies A and B have position vectors:
h1 (t) = 3x2 i + y 3 j − 2z 2 k
h2 (t) = x2 i + 2y 3 j + 3z 2 k
respectively relative to the origin.
Find:

77
 (a) The position vector of the relative vector of A to vector B at time t.

(b) The relative velocity of A to B at time t.

(c) The relative acceleration of A to B at time t.

Solution

(a) The position vector,

r(t) = rA (t) − rB (t)

= 2x2i − yj3 − 5z 2 k

(b) Relative velocity

dr(t)
v(t) = = 4xi − 3y 2 j− = 10zk
dt

(c) Relative acceleration,

dv(t)
a(t) = = 4i − 6yj − 10k
dt

7.6 Definitions

(i) Mass is the measure of a body inertia. This is the measure of a quantity
of matter a body is made of.

(ii) Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of motion of a
body.

(iii) The Newton’s first law of motion states that, “Every body continues in
its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line except it is made to
change that state by external forces.
Suppose m is the mass of a body in kg, a force F Newtons is applied to
the body, and the rate of change of the body velocity is ‘a’
Thus,
F = ma

78
 (iv) Weight, W of a body is a force acting on a body of mass m at a point
in space
W = mg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

(v) Momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.

Hence,
P = mv
where v is the vector velocity of the body, m is the body mass.

(vi) Rate of change of momentum

dP dv
= = m = ma = F
dt dt
... rate of change of momentum of a body is equivalent to the force acting
on the body.

(vii) A force is said to do work when its point of application moves through
a displacement r.
Hence,
Work done = F · r Joules

(viii) Power is the rate at which work is done. It is measured in Joules per
seconds.

(ix) Energy is the capacity for doing work. It is measured in Joules.

(x) Kinetic Energy is the energy a body has by virtue of its motion.
A body of mass m traveling with a velocity v has kinetic energy,
1
K.E. = mv 2
2

(xi) Potential Energy is the energy a body has by virtue of its position.
A body of mass m at a height h from the surface of the earth has potential
energy,
P · E = mgh

79
(xi) Principle of conservation of Energy states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but can be transferred from one form to another.
Thus,
K.E. + P.E = constant

7.7 Example
A body of mass m moving with velocity a1 xi+a2 yj +a3 zk m/s is subjected
to a force. Find:

(i) Force on the body

(ii) Momentum of the body

(iii) The body kinetic energy

(iv) The resistance force of an obstacle that brought the body to rest, after
moving a distance of km.

Solution

(i) Force on the body,

dv
f = ma = m
dt
= m(a1 i + a2 j + a3 k)N

(ii) Momentum

P = mv
= m(a1 xi + a2 yj + a3 zk)

(iii) Kinetic energy of the body is

1 2
K.E. = mv
2
1
= m(a1 xi + a2 yj + a3 zk )2 joules
2
1
= m(a21 x2 + a22 y 2 + a23 z 2 )
2

80
(iv) Note that work changes the kinetic energy from its initial value to zero.
Therefore, work done against the obstacle is the kinetic energy of the
body.
1
F × K = m(a21 x2 + a22 y 2 + a23 z 2 )N
2
where F is the required resistance force, and
1
F = m(a21 x2 + a22 y 2 + a23 z 2 ) − K
2
7.8 Summary

In this lecture, we learnt that given a position vector,

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, its:
dr(t) dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)
(i) Velocity, v(t) = = i+ j+ k
dt dt 2 dt dt
dv(t) d r(t)
(ii) Acceleration, a(t) = =
dt 2 dt2
d2 x(t) d2 y(t) d z(t)
= i + j + k
dt2 dt2 dt2
(iii) Speed, s = |v| = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2
v(t)
(iv) Direction, d(t) =
|v(t)|
x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k
= p
x2 + y 2 + z 2
(v) Relative velocity,
d(r1 (t) − r2 (t))
v 1,2 (t) =
dt
dv1,2 (t)
(vi) Relative acceleration, a1,2 (t) =
dt
(vii) Force = ma
(viii) Weight W = mg
(ix) Momentum, P = mv
(x) Rate of change of momentum,
dp
= ma = F
dt
(xi) Work done, W.D. = F · r Joules
1
(xii) Kinetic Energy, K.E. = mv 2
2
(xiii) Potential Energy, P.E. = mgh

81
7.9 Post-Test 7

(1) The position vector of an object in space is

x2 y 3 (t) √
r(t) = (t)i + j − 2 zkm.
2 3
Find its

(a) Velocity at t = 0.5sec.

(b) Acceleration at t = 1.5sec.
(c) Speed at t = 2sec.
(d) Direction at (2, 1, 0) when t = 1sec.

(2) The position vector of a bird and a plane is x2 i + y 3 j + 2z 2 k and 2x2 i +

y 3 j − z 2 k respectively. Find the relative velocity and acceleration of the
bird to the plane.

(3) The position vector of a moving train of mass 10kg is 4t2 i+cos tj +sin tk.
Find:

(a) Force acting on the moving train

(b) Weight of the train (g = 9.8N )
(c) Momentum of the train
(d) Rate of change of momentum at t = 5sec.
(e) Kinetic energy of the train

7.10 Solution to Pre-Test 7

(a) (1) y 0 (x) = 6x(x + 2)

1
(2) y 0 (x) = x3 − √
2 x
2
x3 3 4  2
(b) (1) + x  = 24
12 2 0 3
2
2
(2) x + 4x −1 = 15


82
Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe: Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th Edi-
tion.

83
Lecture 8
Dynamics II

8.0 Introduction
This lecture is divided into two sections. Section A describes the behaviour
of object in circular motion in terms of angular velocity, angular acceleration,
speed, tangential and normal acceleration.
When an object is thrown, its travel in space to reach a maximum height.
Then return to a point on the earth at a distance from its initial point. This
is refer to as the projectile.
Section B describes the motion of a projectile.

8.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to calculate:

a(i) the angular velocity of a moving object is space.

(ii) angular acceleration of a moving object in space.

(iii) speed in a circular motion

(iv) the tangential acceleration of object in circular motion.

(v) the normal acceleration of object in circular motion.

b(i) Describe and calculate the position of a projectile ‘t’ seconds after firing.

(ii) calculate height of a projectile in space.

(iii) calculate the orbit of a projectile in space.

84
 (iv) calculate the flight time of a projective.

8.2 Pre-Test 8

Find the length of the arc s1 s2 .

Section A:
8.3 Circular Motion
Suppose an object H moves in the plane containing OX such that hHOX =
ψ radian at time t. Then, the angular velocity of the object is the time rate of change of ψ.
Thus,
dψ
w= = ψ̇ (8.3)
dt

Figure 8.3

85
8.4 Angular acceleration
The angular acceleration is time rate of change of angular velocity. Thus,
Angular acceleration
dw d2 w
β= = ẇ = 2 = ψ̇
dt dt
Note that
d2 ψ
 
d 1 2
β= 2 = ψ̇
dt dt 2
8.5 Speed in a circular motion
Suppose an object moves in a circular motion described by the circle center
0 of Figure 8.3

Figure 8.5

Let’s assume at time t, the distance P1 P2 is arcP1 P2 = l and hP1 OP2 = ψ.

Then,
l = rψ (8.5)
Differentiating with respect to (w.r.t.) t given the speed of the object as:

dl dψ
v= =r = rψ̇
dt dt

... Speed, v = rψ̇ = rw

86
8.6 Tangential acceleration in circular motion
The tangential acceleration of an object in circular motion at time t is the
time rate of change of speed v.
Thus,
dv
Tangential acceleration, = rψ̈ = rẇ = rβ.
dt
8.7 Normal acceleration in circular motion
Normal acceleration in circular motion is the centripetal acceleration to-
wards the centre of the circle.
Thus,
Normal acceleration,

v2
vw = = rw2 = rψ̇ 2 (8.7)
r
where

• ψ is the angle subtended by the position object from time t to t+n, n > 0

• w is the angular velocity.

8.8 Effective normal force

Effective force = mass × acceleration.
Thus, suppose an object of mass ‘m’ with acceleration ‘a’ maintain a cen-
tripetal movement about an origin. Then, the effective normal force without
friction is,
v2
F = ma = m (8.8)
r
v2
where a = from (8.7).
r
8.9 Example
An object attached to the end of a string moves in angular path at a con-
stant speed on a frictionless horizontal table.
The other end of the string is fixed at the centre of the circle. If the mass of
the object is 2.5kg, the radius of the circle is 7.5m, and the speed of the object
is 8m/s. Find the tension in the string.

87
Solution
Given that:

m = 2.5kg
r = 7.5m
v = 8m/s

Using equation (8.8), we have

mv 2
Tension, T =
r
= 21N

Section B: The Projectile

8.10 Projectile

Figure 8.10

88
Suppose a particle H is projected from the origin at an angle ψ to the horizontal
range OX with an initial velocity u. Assume Y OX is the plane of the motion
and OHP is the orbit of the particle. Then, at time t = 0, x = 0 and y = 0
with x and y horizontal and vertical distance covered respectively at time t.
Furthermore, at time t > 0

dx
= ẋ = U cos ψ 

dt


(8.10.1)
dy 

= U sin ψ = ẏ 
dt
Neglecting air resistance, the force acting on the projectile is its weight, mg.
Resolving this vertically and horizontally gives:

F = mẍ = 0 (horizontal motion) 
(8.10.2)
F = mÿ = −mg (vertical motion)


Integrating (8.8.2), we have


ẋ = c1 
(verify) (8.10.3)
ẏ = −gt + c2


Comparing (8.8.1) and (8.8.3) at time t = 0 yields


c1 = u cos ψ 
(8.10.4)
c2 = u sin ψ


and at time t, we have 

ẋ = u cos ψ 
(8.10.5)
ẏ = u sin ψ − gt


Using (8.8.3).
Integrating (8.8.5) yields

x = ut cos ψ 
(8.10.6)
y = ut sin ψ − 21 gt2


89
Eliminating t from equation in (8.10.6) yields
 
2 g
y = x tan ψ − x (8.10.7)
2u2 cos2 ψ
Remarks
• Equation (8.10.6) defines the position of a projectile at time t seconds
after firing.

• Equation (8.10.7) defines the orbit of the projectile at time t.

8.11 Maximum height of a projectile
When the projectile reached the maximum height say, H̄,
dy
= 0 and using equation (8.9.5), we have
dt
u sin ψ
t= (8.11.1)
g
which is the time required to attain the height. Then, substituting for t as
given by (8.11.1) in (8.10.6) yields
u2 sin2 ψ
ymax = (Verify) (8.11.2)
2g
8.12 Maximum horizontal distance travelled by the projectile
The projectile reached the maximum horizontal distance when y(t) = 0 for
t 6= 0.
Then, with equation (8.10.6),
 
1
y = t u sin ψ − gt = 0
2
and
2u sin ψ
t=
g
Hence, the horizontal range is
R = ut cos ψ
u2 sin 2ψ
= (Verify) (8.12.1)
g

90
8.13 Example

(1) A projectile is fired at an angle of elevation 300 with an initial speed

5m/s.

(a) When does the projectile reach its highest point?

(b) How high does the projectile rise?

(2) A projectile is fired over horizontal ground at an initial speed of 60m/s

at an angle of elevation of 450 . Where will the projectile be in 5 seconds
later? (Take g = 10ms−2 )

Solution

(1) ψ = 300
u = 5m/s
u sin 300
(a) t = = 0.25s
g
... it reached the maximum height in 0.25 seconds
u2 sin2 300
(b) ymax =
2g
0.125m
... maximum height = 0.125m

(2) Position at t = 5sec is (x, y) where

x = ut cos ψ
1
y = ut sin ψ − gt2
√ 2
... x = 25 3
... y = 25m

91
8.14 Summary

In this lecture, we have equation for:

dψ
(i) Angular velocity, w =
dt
(ii) Angular acceleration, 
d2 ψ

dw d 1 2
β= = 2 = ψ̇
dt dt dt 2
(iii) Speed in a circular motion,
dl dψ
v= =r
dt dt
(iv) Tangential acceleration in circular motion,
dv d2 ψ
=r 2
dt dt
(v) Normal acceleration in circular motion,
 2
v2 2 dψ
vw = = rw = r
r dt
(vi) Effective normal force in circular motion,
mv 2
F =
r
(vii) Maximum height of a projectile,
u2 sin2 ψ
ymax =
2g
(viii) Required time to get to the height,
u sin ψ
ty =
g
(ix) Projectile horizontal range,
u2 sin 2ψ
R=
g
(x) Required time to attain the range,
2u sin ψ
tx =
g
8.15 Post-Test 8

(1) Find the equation for the motion of a projectile fired into the first quad-
rant from an arbitrary point (x0 , y0 ).

(2) A ball is thrown from a stand 32m above the ground at an angle of 300 .
When and how far away will the ball strike the ground if its speed is

92
 32ms−1 ?

(3) A particle attached to the end of a string moves in angular path at a

constant speed on a fixed frictionless horizontal table. The other end of
the string is fixed at the centre of the circle. If the mass of the object is
1.25kg, the radius of the circle is 0.75m and the speed of the object is
12m/s. Find the tension in the string.

8.16 Solution to Pre-Test 8

Arc length,

s1 s2 = 2r(3600 − 2600 )π/3600

s1 s2 = 20πm

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe: Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th Edi-
tion.

93
Lecture 9
Dynamics III

9.0 Introduction
Vibration or oscillatory motion occur in many practical situations. In this
lecture, we shall study the motion of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM), Elastic
String, Simple Pendulum, and Conical Pendulum.

9.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to:
(i) Describe the motion of object in a straight line towards or from a fixed
point.

(ii) Describe the otion induced by Elastic string.

(iii) Deduce mathematical expression to describe the motion of a simple pen-

dulum.

(iv) Describe the motion of a conical pendulum.

9.2 Pre-Test 9
Show that y(t) = a sin ψt + b cos ψt is a solution of y 00 (t) + ψ 2 y = 0.

9.3 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Suppose a particle H moves in a straight line such that:
(i) its acceleration is always towards a fixed point on the line.

(ii) Acceleration is proportional to the distance of the particle from the point.

94
Then, the motion of the particle is described as Simple Harmonic

Figure 9.3

Let OP = x then, the acceleration is

d2 x
a= = ẍ = −ψ 2 x (9.3.1)
dt2
where
x is the distance of the object from point O at time t
ψ is a positive constant.
From equation (9.2.1), we have
d2 x
+ ψ2x = 0 (9.3.2)
dt2
whose solution is
x(t) = a sin ψt + b cos ψt (9.3.3)
where a and b are arbitrary constants.

9.4 Example
Suppose a particle moves with SHM from rest at a distance kcm from a
fixed point 0. Find the position of the body at any time t > 0.

Solution
dx
At time t = 0, x = k and = 0.
dt
But at time t
x(t) = a sin ψt + b cos ψt

95
and
dx(t)
= a cos ψt − bψ sin ψt
dt
Thus, at t = 0

x(0) = b = k
dx(t)
= aψ = 0 ⇒a=0
dt
Hence, x(t) = k cos ψt is the position of the particle at any time t.

9.5 Elastic String

Suppose a light vertical perfectly elastic string of natural length OB = b
and modulus of elasticity N is attached to a fixed point O. A particle P of
mass m is attached to the other free end. The forces acting on the particle are
its weight, mg and the tension T on the string acting in upward direction.
But
Nx
T =
b
and the equation of motion is

d2 x Nx
F = ma = m = mg −
dt2 b
Thus,
d2 x
 
N mgb
2
=− x− (9.5.1)
dt mb N
Let
mgb
y = x−
N
N
n2 =
mb
and equation (9.5.1) becomes

d2 y
= −n2 y
dt2

96
Hence, the motion is SHM with period
2π
=r
mb
N

Figure 9.5

9.6 Example
A light elastic string of natural length 2a is fastened at one end to a fixed
point. It hangs vertically and carries at its other end a particle of mass m. At
equilibrium position, its length is 9a/4.
(a) Find the period of small vertical oscillations of the particle.
1
(b) If the greatest acceleration during the oscillation is g, find the ampli-
2
tude.
Solution
(a) The extension at equilibrium is 41 α.
Thus,
N 14 a
= mg
2a
97
 r
8mg
2 g
⇒ N = 8mg and n = ⇒ n=2 .
r m2a a
2π g
Period = =π .
n a
(b) Let m̄ denote the amplitude. Then, the greatest acceleration occurs
1 8g m̄
when x = m̄ and g =
2 2a
1
... m̄ = a.
8

9.7 The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a light inelastic string of length l fixed at
one end 0, with an object P of mass m attached to the free end. This is
allowed to move under gravity in a vertical circle.

Figure 9.7

The tangential component of the forces is:

d2 ψ
ml + mg sin ψ = 0 (9.7.1)
dt2
98
and the normal component is
dψ
ml = mg cos ψ (9.7.2)
dt
From (9.6.1),
d2 ψ g 
=− sin ψ
dt2 l
If ψ is small enough, then,

d2 ψ g 
= − ψ (9.7.3)
dt2 l
Equation (9.7.3) describes a SHM with period,
p
T = 2π l/g

Note:

(1) If the period T = 2 seconds, the pendulum is said to beat seconds.

1
(2) The frequency of SHM is the inverse of its period, (f = ). This is the
T
number of complete oscillations in one seconds.

(3) For the simple pendulum,

r
1 g
f=
2π l

9.8 Example
A pendulum clock gains 60 seconds per day. Find the adjustment necessary
in the length of the pendulum which should beat seconds.

Solution s
1 l
= T = 2π
f g

99
then
s !
l
−logf = log T = log 2π
g
1 1
= log 2π + log l − log g.
2 2
Differentiating,
df dT 1 dl 1 dg
− = = − (Why?)
f T 2 l 2 g
If δ represents a small increment, then,
δf δT 1 δl 1 δg
− = = −
f T 2 l 2 g
δf 60
⇒ = −
f 24 × 60 × 60
δg = 0, thus
2lδf 2 × 60l l
δl = − = =
f 24 × 60 × 60 720
When T = 2.
From
s
l
T = 2π
g
l = g/π 2
g
and δl = ∗ 720π 2

9.9 Conical Pendulum

An arrangement by which a particle attached by a string to a fixed point
describe a horizontal circle is called conical pendulum

100
 .

Figure 9.9

Let:
w denotes the angular velocity
l denotes the length of the string
F denotes the tensions on the string
ψ denotes the angle of inclination to the vertical.
OR = h
then, the acceleration of the particle is given by

a = w2 l sin ψ

and it is directed towards the centre 0.

The forces acting on the particles

ma = F̄

mw2 (sin ψ = F sin ψ)

mg = F cos ψ

101
Thus,

w2 l 1
=
g cos ψ
g g
⇒ w2 = =
l cos ψ h

... The time for one revolution (period) is

s
2π h
T = = 2π
w g

9.10 Example
A conical pendulum consists of a particle of mass m attached to one end
H of a light elastic string of natural length l. The modulus of elasticity is mg.
The other end of the string is fired to a fixed point M . The particle describes
a horizontal circle with constant angular velocity w.

(a) If the string makes an angle ψ with the downward vertical, show that
2lw2 = g secs 12 ψ.

(b) If ψ = 600 , find the time of revolution of the particle.

Solution

102
 Figure 9.10

(a) Let HM = x, then  

x−l
T = mg (9.10.1)
l
Radius of the circle,
r = x sin ψ (9.10.2)
The velocity,
v = rw (9.10.3)
The effective normal force,
= mrw2 (9.10.4)
Balancing the forces and the reversed effective normal force, we have

T cos ψ = mg (9.10.5)

T sin ψ = mrw2 (9.10.6)

From (9.10.1) and (9.10.5), we have

l
cos ψ = (9.10.7)
x−l
and
x = l(1 + sec ψ) (9.10.8)
But rw2 = g tan ψ so that
s tan ψ
w2 =
l(1 + sec ψ) sin ψ
g g 1
= = sec2 ψ
l(1 + cos ψ) 2l 2

Using trig. identities

1
... 2lw2 = g sec2 ψ
2

103
 (b) When ψ = 600 ,
1 4
sec2 ψ =
2 3
2 4g
w =
6l
Thus, the time of a revolution is
s
2π 6l
=π
w g

9.11 Summary

In this lecture, we have:

(i) x(t) = a sin ψt
r+ b cos ψt to describe the position of an object influenced by SHM
mb
(ii) Period = 2π which is the period of motion under SHM.
g  N q
(iii) ψ̈ = − ψ to describe SHM of a simple pendulum with period, T = 2π gl .
sl
h
(iv) T = 2π describes time required for one revolution.
g
9.12 Post-Test 9

(1) A particle of mass 4kg is whirled round at the end of a string 50cm long
so as to describe a horizontal circle, making 60 revolutions per minute.
Calculate the tension in the string.

(2) A particle describing SHM is 8m from the central position when its speed
is 12ms−1 , and 6m from the centre when its speed is 8ms−1 . Find the
amplitude and period of the motion.

(3) A particle moving with SHM has a speed of 1ms−1 when passing through
the centre 0 of its path with a period π seconds. Find its speed and
acceleration when it is 0.75m from 0.

(4) A second pendulum is found to lose 20 beats per day when taken to the
top of a mountain.
Calculate the change in the value of the acceleration due to gravity, g.

104
9.13 Solution to Pre-Test 9

y 0 = aψ cos ψt − bψ sin ψt

y 00 = −aψ 2 sin ψt − bψ 2 cos ψt

y 00 + ψ 2 y = −aψ 2 sin ψt − bψ 2 cos ψt + ψ 2 (a sin ψt + b cos ψt) = 0
Hence,
y(t) = a sin ψt + b cos ψt
is a solution of
y 00 + ψ 2 y = 0.

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe: Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th Edi-
tion.

105
Lecture 10
Dynamic IV

10.0 Introduction
Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion
of a body in a certain direction.
A force acting on a body can be described completely by its:

(i) Magnitude

(ii) Line of action

(iii) Direction

Newton’s First law states that everybody continues in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
Newton’s Second law states that rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the external force applied and is in the direction of the force.
Thus,
dp d(mv) dv
= = m = ma = F
dt dt dt
Newton’s Third law states that to every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

10.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to write equation to describe:

(i) Motion on smooth and rough inclined plane.

106
 (ii) Motion of connected particles.

(iii) Momentum and Impulse

(iv) Conservation of momentum.

10.2 Pre-Test 10
Given that

Find: (i) h1 , (ii) h2 (iii) h1 /h2

10.3 Motion on Smooth Inclined Plane

Consider figure (10.3)

Figure 10.3

107
Then, the forces acting on an object of mass m that is placed on an inclined
frictionless (smooth) plane are:

(i) Weight of the object denoted by W = mg.

(ii) Reaction of the plane on the particle, R = mg cos ψ

(iii) Parallel force acting along the plane, f = mg sin ψ.

Suppose the object is moving up the plane with acceleration a. Then, the
equation of motion are:
ma = mg sin ψ − (motion upward along the plane) (10.3.1)
R = mg cos ψ (10.3.2)

10.4 Motion on Rough Inclined Plane

Consider an object of mass m on rough plane inclined at an angle ψ to the
horizontal.

Figure 10.4

108
There is frictional force which oppose motion along the plane. Thus, if the
object moves up along the plane at angle ψ to the horizontal, the equations of
motion:
ma = mg sin ψ − N mg cos ψ (10.4.1)
R − mg cos ψ = 0 (10.4.2)
Hence, acceleration of motion is obtained by:

a = g(sin ψ − N cos ψ) (10.4.3)

Remarks

(1) If there is no motion (i.e., a = 0), the frictional force is sufficient to keep
the object stationary.
Hence,
sin ψ = N cos ψ (10.4.4)
and the co-efficient of frictional,

N = tan ψ (10.4.5)

(2) For the object to slide down the plane,

sin ψ > N cos ψ (10.4.6)

and
N < tan ψ (10.4.7)

10.5 Example
An engine exerts a force of 37N on a train of mass 24kg and draws it up
a slope of one in 120 against track resistance of 0.07N/kg.

(i) Find the acceleration of the train.

(ii) Find the breaking force required on the return journey with steam shut
off to prevent the acceleration exceeding 2m/s2 .

109
Solution
1
Slope resistance = 24 × × 10 = 2N
120
Track resistance = 0.07 × 24 × 10 = 16.8N
Total resistance = 18.8N
Engine pull = 37N
Net accelerating force = 37N − 18.8N
18.2N
... acceleration = ≈ 0.76ms−2
24kg
... the acceleration is 0.76ms−2
(ii) Let BN be the required breaking force to keep the acceleration to 0.002m/s2
on the return journey.
Then, we have

−B + 2 − 16.8 = 24 × 0.002
= −14.848N

... the required breaking force is −14.85N .

10.6 Motion of connected Objects

Let’s consider the motion of two objects of mass M and m respectively
over a light inextensible string. Suppose their displacement, velocity and ac-
celeration are equal. The equation of motion are:

T − mg = ma (10.6.1)

Mg − T = Ma (10.6.2)
Thus, the tension, ‘T ’ and acceleration, ’a’, can be calculated using equations
(10.6.1) and (10.6.2).

110
 Figure 10.6

10.7 Example
A light inelastic string passes over a smooth peg. At each end of the string
is attached masses of 3g and 5g respectively as shown below.

111
.

Figure 10.7

Calculate the:

(i) Acceleration of the system

(ii) Tension in the string.

Solution
From the system, the motion equations are:

5g − T = 5a
⇒ T = 5g − 5a (10.7.1)
and T = 3a + 3g (10.7.2)

where g is the force of gravity.

Thus,

(i) a = 2.5ms−2 (Verify)

(ii) Using equation (10.7.1),

T = 37.5N (Verify)

112
10.8 Momentum and Impulse
Suppose a constant force F acts on an object of mass m for time t. Also,
the velocity increases from u to v along the line of action of force. Thus,

F = ma (10.8.1)

V = u + at (10.8.2)
and
v−u
a= (10.8.3)
t
mv − mu
⇒ Ft = ≡ change in momentum
t
10.9 Remarks

(1) If the force F is of variable magnitude,

dv
F =m
dt
then
Z t Z t
dv
F dt = m dt
0 0 dt
= mv − mu ≡ change of momentum
Z
(2) A quantity F dt or F t is called the INPULSE acting on the body if F
is constant.

10.10 Example
A body of mass m moving with velocity ai + bj m/s is subjected to a force
xi − yj N for t seconds. Find the velocity with which the body moves after the
force ceased.

Solution

F t = mv − mu
(xi − yj )t = mv − m(ai + bj )
v = (tx + ma)i + (mb − ty)j

113
10.11 Conservation of Momentum-Impact
When two bodies moving in a straight line collide, there is a brief period
of contact. During this period each body exerts a certain force on the other
which vary in magnitude. At any instant, the forces exerted by each body on
the other are equal and opposite. Hence, the total momentum gained by the
two bodies is zero.

Figure 10.11

Let:
Velocity before impact = u1 , u2
Velocity after impact = v1 , v2
For M1 ; the impulse is
F t = M1 V1 − Mi U1
For M2 , the impulse is
F t = M2 V2 − M2 V2
Hence,
M1 V2 − M1 U1 + M2 V2 − M2 U2 = 0
and
M1 V1 + M2 V2 = M1 U1 + M2 U2
... the total momentum before and after impact are equal. This is the
principle of conservation of linear momentum

114
10.12 Example
A railway truck of mass 800kg running at 6km/h is over taken by a truck
of mass 1200kg running at 10km/h. After impact, the trucks begin to separate
at 1km/h. Find the

(i) Speed of the trucks after impact

(ii) Loss of kinetic energy in the impact.

Solution

(i) Let’s the speed of the heavier truck after impact be v km/h. Thus, speed
of the lighter truck is (v + 1) km/h.
Hence,

Total momentum after impact = Total momentum before impact.

1.2v + 0.8(v + 1) = 1.2 + 4.8

v = 0.8km/h (Verify)
and v + 1 = 0.9km/h

(ii) Loss of kinetic energy is

"     3 2 #
1 1 10
= × 1.2(102 − (0.8)2 ) + × 0.8(62 − 0.92 )
2 2 3600
≈ 5.69 Joules (Verify)

115
10.13 Summary

In this lecture, we have:

(a) Equation for motion on smooth inclined plane for:
(i) reaction of the plane on the body,
R = mg cos ψ
(ii) parallel force acting along the plane,
f = mg sin ψ
(iii) upward motion along the plane,
F = ma = mg sin ψ
(b) Equation for motion on rough inclined plane,
F = ma = mg sin ψ − N mg cos ψ
and acceleration of the motion,
a = g(sin ψ − N cos ψ)
where N = tan ψ.
(c) Equation for motion of connected objects as,
T − mg = ma
M g − T = ma
where
T is Tension on the inelastic string
M, m are masses of the objects.
a is the acceleration in the string.
(d) Momentum of moving body,
F t = mv − mu
where
u is initial velocity,
v is final velocity in the direction of force at time t.
(e) Conversation of linear momentum as
Total momentum before impact = Total momentum after impact.
Thus, M1 U1 + M2 U2 = M1 V1 + M2 V2 .
10.14 Post-Test 10

(1) If a particle moving with SHM is at a distance α from a fixed point O,

and is moving towards O with velocity P . Write an equation to find the
distance of the particle at any time t.

(2) A ball of mass 200g moving at 15m/s hits a wall perpendicular and

116
 rebounds with speed 6m/s. Find the impulse given to the ball by the
wall and the force between them if the contact lasts 0.01 seconds.

(3) Two bodies A and B of masses 3kg and 4kg collide when moving with
velocities 4i + 3j and −5i + j respectively. After their impact, they move
in directions parallel to the vectors j and 4i + j respectively. Find the
speed of the bodies after impact and vector representing the impulse of
A.

(4) An engine exerts a force of 35, 000N on a train of mass 240 tonnes and
draws it up a slope 1 in 120 against a resistance of 60N /tonne. Find
the:

(a) Acceleration of the train

(b) Breaking force that will be required on the return journey which
will keep the acceleration (g = 9.81m/s2 ).

(5) Find the acceleration when a force F acts on the body of mass m as
given:

(a) F = 20N , m = 2kg

(b) F = 5N , m = 750g
(c) F = 4KN , m = 2.2t

(6) What force will produce a velocity 6.4m/s in 4 seconds to a body of

mass 5kg which was initially at rest?

10.15 Solution to Pre-Test 10

(i) h1 = 5 sin 300 = 2.5

√
(ii) h2 = 5 cos 300 = 5 3/2
√
(iii) h1 /h2 = 1/ 3

117
Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe: Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th Edi-
tion.

118
Lecture 11
Statistics I

11.0 Introduction (Moment of a force)

A single force on a body causes it to accelerate. If the body is at rest while
several forces are acting on it, the forces are in Equilibrium. A force may have
many different origins. This includes gravity, electrical and magnetic effects
or wind, friction. This lecture consider effect of forces on rigid body.

11.1 Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to understand:

(i) The Principle of Moment

(ii) Like Parallel Coplanar Forces

(iii) Unlike Parallel Coplanar Forces

(iv) Couple

(v) Two Non-Parallel Coplanar Forces.

11.2 Pre-Test 11
What is the weight of a body of mass 1.5kg at a point in space?
(g = 10ms−2 ).

119
11.3 The Moment of a Force
Suppose a beam of uniform length XY of mass m is placed on a pivot at
its center of gravity G. Let’s assume that weights W1 and W2 are placed at
points P and Q respectively.

Then, the moment of the force, W1 about the axis at G is

W1 × P G − Anti clockwise

and the moment of the force, W2 about the axis at G is

W2 × QG − Clockwise

For the beam to be in equilibrium,

W1 × P G = W2 × QG
(11.3.1)
... W1 × P G − W2 × QG = 0

11.4 Remark
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, then the sum of the
moments of the forces about any arbitrary point is zero.

11.5 Example
A thin uniform rod AB of length 2m and mass 15kg is supported horizon-
tally at its center of gravity G, and masses 6kg and 10kg are attached to the
rod at point P, Q respectively, where AP = 0.5m, AQ = 1.2m. A third mass
of 5kg is attached to the rod at a point R so that the rod is in equilibrium.

(a) Draw a sketch indicating all the forces

120
 (b) Find the length AR

Solution

(a)

The force at:

P = 6 × 10 = 60N
R = 5 × 10 = 50N
Q = 10 × 10 = 100N

(b) The moment of the force;

60N about the axis at G is 60 × 0.5
50N about the axis at G is 50 × x̄ where RG = x̄
100N about the axis at G is 100 × 0.7
Thus,

60 × 0.5 + 50 × x̄ = 100 × 0.7

... x̄ = 0.8m

But AR = AG − RG.
... AR = 0.2m (Verify).

11.6 Like Parallel Coplanar Forces

Two parallel forces in the same direction are called “Like parallel forces”.
Let’s assume the forces F1 and F2 are like parallel forces

121
.

Figure 11.6

Then, their resultant is obtained by R = F1 + F2 .

Taking moment about B gives

F1 · A1 B = F2 · A2 B

and
F1 A2 B
=
F2 A1 B
This is the point at B at which the line of action of R divides the distance
between the two like parallel forces.

11.7 Unlike Parallel Coplanar Forces

Two parallel forces acting in opposite directions are called “Unlike parallel
forces”.

Figure 11.7

122
Taking moments about B, we have

F1 · A1 B = F1 · A2 B

Assume F2 + F2 > F1 , then R = F2 − F and if F1 > F2 , R = F1 − F2 .

11.8 Couple
A couple is a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces acting on a body.
An example is the force exerted at the end of a spanner to turn a nut together
with the equal and opposite force exerted by the nut on the spanner. If the
unlike forces are equal in magnitude, then, their resultant, R 6= 0. Thus, the
body will not be in equilibrium, but rather will experience a rotation.

11.9 Remarks

(a) The vector sum of the forces constituting a couple is zero.

(b) If line ABC is perpendicular to the lines of actions of the couple F1 − F1 ,

the sum of the moment about the line ABC is

Figure 11.9

H = F · AC − F · AB = F · BC (11.9.1)
H = F · AB − F · AC = −F · BC (11.9.2)

123
 Equations (11.9.1) and (11.9.2) depends on the sense of rotation taken
about A.

11.10 Two Non-Parallel Coplanar Forces

Suppose two coplanar forces acting on a body are not parallel. Then, their
lines of action intersect at a point.

Figure 11.10

The parallelogram law gives the resultant R. This acts at the common point of
intersection, thus, the two forces, F1 and F2 is represented by side OA and OC
respectively of the parallelogram. The diagonal OB represent their resultant.

11.11 Example
A uniform beam AB, 20m long and of mass 20kg rest in a horizontal po-
sition on supports at A and B. An anti-clockwise couple of movement 250gN
is applied at A, and a clockwise couple of 750gN at B. Find the reactions at
the supports.

Figure 11.11

124
Let’s assume that R and S are the reactions at the supports.
Then,
R + S = 200N
The couples are applied at the ends of the beam. But their total anti-clockwise
moment about any point is 500N
Hence,
20 × S − 2000 − 500 = 0
... S = 125N and R = 75N .

11.12 Summary

In this lecture, we have that:

(i) The principle of moment as
F1 x1 − F2 x2 = 0
where, Fi ’s are the forces, and xi ’s are the distances form the
pivot point, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, n ∈ ZZ +
(ii) Like parallel forces as
Resultant = Sum of forces
R = F1 + F2 + · · · + Fn
pivoting point as
F1 x2
=
F2 x1
(iii) Unlike Parallel forces as
F1 · x1 = F2 · x2
and Resultant
R = F2 − F1 when F2 > F1
R = F1 − F2 whenever F1 > F2
(iv) Sum of moments about a straight line say ABC, H = F · b
or H = −F · b and F · b − F · b = 0
where F is the force.
(v) The resultant of two non-parallel coplanar forces is
1
R = (F12 + F22 − 2F1 F2 cos θ) 2
where θ is the angle between F1 and F2
or
F1 sin θ
R=
sin ψ

125
11.13 Post-Test 11

(1) A uniform beam AB of mass 20kg has weight 30N , 25N attached to
the end-points A and B respectively. A weight 40N is attached to a
point half-way between the centre of gravity and the end-point B. If the
beam is suspended on a pivot at its centre of gravity what weight will be
required at a point of distance 1/8 of the length from point A to ensure
equilibrium?

(2)

Find:

(a) R
(b) the angle between R and 50N .

(3) A non-uniform beam XY of length 10m and mass M kg, rests horizon-
tally on supports X and Y . The forces exerted on the supports at X
and Y are 30g N and Rg N respectively. If the centre of gravity of the
beam is 6m from X:

(a) Draw a sketch indicating all the forces.

(b) Find the numerical value of M .
(c) Find the value of R

126
 (4) Consider

Is the system in equilibrium?

(5) Forces of 7N and 5N act on a body and the angle between them is 550 .
Find:

(a) Their resultant

(b) The angles its subtended by the two forces.

11.14 Solution to Pre-Test 11

Weight = 1.5 × 10 N
= 15 N

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe: Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th Edi-
tion.

127
Lecture 12
Statistics II

12.0 Introduction
Suppose three or more forces act at a point, and are in equilibrium. The
forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of a
triangle or the sides of a polygon taken in order.

12.1 Objective
After this lecture, you should be able to derive equation expressing the
behaviour of three or more forces acting at a point.

12.2 Pre-Test 12
Write the equivalent expression for:

(i) tan 2220 = tan?

(ii) cos(−1200 ) = − cos?

(iii) cos 3000 = sin?

(iv) sec 420 = cosec

(v) tan 370 = cot?

12.3 The Triangle of Forces

Consider three strings fasten to a small ring so that they are all in tension.
Thus, the strings experience three forces denoted by the tensions in the strings

128
acting on the small ring and in equilibrium.

Figure 12.3.1

Figure 12.3.2 Figure 12.3.3

(Space Diagram) (Force Diagram)

The lengths of the sides of the triangle ABC are proportional to the magni-
tudes of the forces which they represent. Therefore,
F1 F2 F3
= =
AB BC AC
129
12.4 Theorem (Lami’s Theorem)
If three coplanar forces, acting at a point are in equilibrium, and straight
lines be drawn parallel to the directions of the forces. The lengths of the sides
of the triangle so formed are proportional to the magnitudes of the forces which
they represent.

12.5 Remarks
Note that the directions in which the forces act indicated by the arrow-
heads on the triangle are either in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
If the direction of one of the forces is reversed, the force is regarded as the
resultant.

Figure 12.5 (F3 as resultant)

2.6 Lami’s Theorem

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each is proportional to
the sine of the angle included between the other two.
That is,
F1 F2 F3
= =
sin C sin B sin A
(Using figure 12.5).

12.7 Example
A mass of 20kg is supported by two strings of length x1 cm, x2 cm knotted
at O and attached at A and B to a horizontal beam. The angle between the

130
strings is 1200 . The angle between the length x1 cm and the vertical string
holding the weight is 1350 , and that between x2 and the vertical string is 1050

(a) Sketch the space diagram

(b) Sketch the force diagram

(c) Find the tensions on the strings x1 and x2 .

Solution
Let T1 , T2 denote the tensions in x1 and x2 .

(a)

Space diagram

(b)

Force diagram

131
 (c) Using Lami’s Theorem,
T1 T2 20
= =
sin 1050 sin 1350 sin 1200
Hence,
20 sin 1350
T2 =
sin 1200
= 16.33kgf (Verify)
T1 = 22.32 kgf (Verify)

12.8 The Polygon of Forces

You saw in this lecture that when three forces acting at a point are in
equilibrium, they can be represented by the sides of a triangle. This principle
can be extended to any number of forces.
Let F1 , F2 , F3 , F4 , F5 be forces whose magnitude and directions are known,
and which act at a point say O. Then, the space and force diagram are sketch
below

Figure 12.8.1
(Space diagram)

132
 .

Figure 12.8.2
(Force diagram)

12.8 Theorem (Polygon of Force)

If a number of forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be rep-
resented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order.

12.9 Example
Find by means of a polygon of force the resultant of four forces of 4N, 3N, 3N
and 4N acting a shown below.

Figure 12.9.1

133
Solution
The force diagram is

Figure 12.9.2

where R is the resultant force. Resolving the forces along the Y axes, we have

F1 =0N
F2 = 2.12 N
(Verify)
F3 = 2.12 N
F4 = −4 N

and along the X-axis, we have

F1 =4N
F2 = 2.12 N
(Verify)
F3 = −2.12 N
F4 = −40 N

... total net forces along the axes are:

Y -axes, R1 = 0.24 N
X-axes, R2 = 4.01 N

Thus,

134
 .

Figure 12.9.3

R = 4.01 N (Verify)
The angle which the resultant force makes with the X-axes is

tan ψ = 0.05985 (Verify)

0
... ψ = 3.43

12.10 System of Forces

Given a system of coplanar forces which are not in equilibrium, their re-
sultant can be obtained using either of the following principles.

(i) The components of the resultant in two perpendicular directions will

equal the sum of the components of the forces in the same direction or

(ii) The moment of the resultant about any point will equal the sum of the
moments of the forces about the same point.

12.12 Post-Test 12

(1) Forces of 2 N and 6 N act along two strings respectively. The angle
between them is 1200 . A third force acts along the third string all knotted
at a point, and makes angle 1200 with both string. If the direction of
the resultant is perpendicular to one of the two strings, what is the
magnitude of the force along the third string?

135
 (2) Find the resultant in magnitude and direction of forces 10 N, 20 N, 30 N
and 40 N acting respectively in the directions 0600 , 1200 , 1800 ; 2700

(3) Five strings are attached to a point mass. The tensions and directions
of four of the five rings are 50 N , 0600 , 40 N , 0900 ; 100 N , 2700 ; 20 N ,
3300

(a) Sketch the space diagram

(b) Sketch the force diagram
(c) Find the tension and direction of the fifth string assuming that all
the five strings are coplanar.

(4) Three forces acting at the origin can be represented by the vectors,
OA, OB, OC with the coordinate, of A, B, C given respectively
by (5, 2)0 ; (−3, 8)0 , (−2, −10)0 . Show that the forces are in equilibrium.

(5) Two parallel forces 50 N and 30 N act in lines which are 40 units apart.
Find their resultant and where it acts if the forces are:

(a) Like forces

(b) Unlike forces

12.11 Summary

In this lecture, we have:

(a) Equations, expressing three forces acting at a point in equilibrium by:
F1 F2 F3
(i) = =
AB BC AC
where F1 , F2 , F3 are the forces and AB, BC, AC are the sides
of the triangle.
F1 F2 F3
(ii) = =
sin C sin B sin A
where A, B, C are the angles subtended by the triangle.
(iii) Resultant of two forces in the clockwise direction is
R = F1 + F2 .
(b) that forces more than three can be represented by sides of
a polygon taken in order.

136
12.13 Solution to Pre-Test 12

(i) tan 400

(ii) − cos 600

(iii) sin 300

(iv) cosec480

(v) cot 530

Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe: Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th Edi-
tion.

137
Lecture 13
Centre of Mass and Moment
Inertia I

13.0 Introduction
When we balance a flat plate on the tip of a finger, the finger tip is at the
plate’s centre of mass. A point at which the entire mass concentrated is called
centre of mass. It is important to locate a centre of mass.

13.1 Objective
After this lecture, you should be able to write equation to find the center
of mass of a body.

13.2 Pre-Test
Z 4  13 2 
x
Solve 2x + dx.
0 4
13.3 Definition (Center of Mass)
Consider at any time t the particles of a system of masses m1 , m2 , . . . at
the points whose position vectors are I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . respectively with reference
to an origin O. Then, the position of the centre of mass is
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m2 r3 + · · ·
I =
m + m2 + m3 + · · ·
X 1
(mr)
= X (13.3.1)
m

138
The velocity of the centre of mass is
X
(mv)
v̄ = X (13.3.2)
m

The acceleration of the centre of mass is

X
(ma)
â = X (13.3.3)
m

13.4 Cartesian Formulae

Suppose the points r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . are given by Cartesian components (x1 , y1 , z1 ),
(x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ), . . . . Then, the components for the centre of mass are:
X 
(mx) 

x̄ = X 


m  




X 


(my) 

ȳ = X (13.4.1)
m  





X 

(mz) 


z̄ = X 


m 

In particular, on the plane, we have the following:

m1 x1 + m2 x2 

x̄ = 
m1 + m2 





ȳ = m1 y1 + m2 y2 (13.4.2)



m1 z1 + m2 z2 


z̄ = 

m1 + m2
Thus, the centre of mass of any two points on the plane divides the line joining
them in the inverse of the ratio of their masses.

139
13.5 Continuously Distributed Mass System
Let v be the volume of a region containing a system of particles. Let δM be
δM
the mass of the particle in a region of volume of element δV . Assume lim
δV →0 δV
exist. Then, we say that V is occupied by a continuously distributed mass system.
The density of the system
dM
ρ= (13.5.1)
dV
This is the mass per unit volume. Similarly, for plane lamina, the density σ is
the mass per unit area obtained by
dM
σ= (13.5.2)
dS
where S in the surface area.
For rods or strings the density λ is the mass per unit length obtained by
dM
λ= (13.5.3)
dS
where S is the arc-length.

13.5.1 Example
A thin strip of uniform density stretches along the x-axis from x = a to
x = b. Show that the centre of mass is located halfway between the two ends.

Centre of mass, Z b
xρdx
a
r̂ = Z b
ρdx
a
where ρ is the density of the rod.

140
Since ρ is constant, we have
Z b
xdx
r̂ = Za
dx
a+b
=
2
... The centre of mass is located halfway between the rod.

13.6 Three-dimensional continuous body, centre of mass

For a 3-dimensional continuous body, the coordinate of the centre of mass
is obtained by
X X
(xδM ) (ρxδx)
x̄ lim X = lim X
δM ρδx
Z
(ρxdx)
= Z (13.6.1)
ρdx
Z
ρyyx)
ȳ = Z (13.6.2)
ρdy
Z
ρzyz)
z̄ = Z (13.6.3)
ρdz

13.7 Example
A mental rod with one end at the origin and the other end at x = 10
thickness from left to right so that its density, instead of being a constant
mass per unit length is
x
ρ(x) = 1 + kg/m.
10

141
Find the rod’s centre of mass.

Solution
Z 10 Z 10  x
xρdx x 1+ dx
0Z 0Z 10
x̄ = =  x
ρdx 1+ dx
10
 2 10
x x3 
+
2 30 0
= 10
x2 

x+
20  0
= 5.56m (2d.p.)

... the mass is located at the point 5.56m.

13.8 Definition
The centre of mass of a region of volume V is called its CENTROID.

13.9 Remarks

(i) The center of mass of uniform symmetrical body is at the centre of

symmetry. For instance, uniformly circular or elliptical ring or disc,
uniform rectangular plate or prism, uniform sphere or ellipsoid.

(ii) For a uniform triangular lamina, the centre of mass is along the median.
It is the point where the median meet. This is 32 along the median from
any vertex.

142
13.10 Summary

In this lecture, we have that: X

(mI)
(i) the centre of mass of a body as X , m is the body mass and I
m
is the position vector. X
(mv)
(ii) the velocity of the centre of mass as v̄ = X , m is the velocity.
m
X
(ma)
(iii) ā = X , a is the acceleration.
m
(iv) the Cartesian
X equationXfor centre of mass
X in term of: the coordinate
(mx) (mx) (mz)
x̄ = X , ȳ = X , z̄ = X
x m m
(v) the density of a system as
dM
ρ= , mass per unit volume
dV
dM
σ= , mass per unit area, S is the surface area
dS
dM
λ= , mass per unit length, S̄ = arc-length.
dS̄
(vi) Centre Zof mass for 3-dimensional body as
(ρxdx)
x̄ = Z
ρdx
Z
(ρydy)
ȳ = Z
ρdy
Z
(ρzdz)
z̄ = Z
ρdz

143
13.11 Post-Test 13

(1) The distance of the centre of mass of a rod AB from the end B is 81
of the length of the rod. If the line density is proportional to a certain
power of the distance from A. Find the index of the power. (Hint: Let
λ = axn where n is the required index, and ‘a’ is a constant).

(2) The ends of two thin uniform rods of equal length are welded together
x
to make right-angled frame. The density of the rod, λ(x) = 1 + ,
L
0 ≤ x ≤ L. Find the centre of mass of the rod.

13.12 Solution to Pre-Test 13

Z 4
x2

2x + dx = 21.33 (Verify)
0 4

Contemporary Reading

O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

C.J. Tranter and C.G. Lambe. Advanced Level Mathematics, 4th edi-
tion.

144
Lecture 14
Centre of Mass and Moment of
Inertia II

14.0 Introduction
In this lecture, we will discuss the moment of inertial of a particle relative
to the line of action.

14.1 Objective
After this lecture, you should be able to define and write an expression to
calculate moment of inertia of a rectangular and circular body.

14.2 Pre-Test 14

(1) If a cone has height ‘h’ and base radius b, find:

(a) the volume of the cone

(b) the mass of the cone if its density is 3/π hr.

(2) Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 1, the ordi-
nates, x = 1, x = 2 and the x-axis.

14.3 Definitions
14.3.1 Moment of Inertia
Let r be the perpendicular distance of a particle of mass m from a given
line. The moment of inertia, I of the particle relative to the line is obtained

145
by

I = m1 r2 + m2 r2 + · · · + mk r2
X
= (mr2 ) (14.3.1a)
P
Let M = m, the radius of gyration, K of the system is defined by

T
K2 = (14.2.1b)
M
But for continuously distributed system, equation (14.3.1) and (14.3.2) be-
comes Z
I = r2 dM (14.3.1c)
Z
r2 dM
K2 = Z (14.3.1d)
dM

respectively.
Let:

(i) dM = ρdV for volume

(ii) dM = σdS for surface area

(iii) dM = λdS̄ for lines in equation (14.3.1d).

Then, we have
Z
r2 ρdV
(i) K 2 = Z
ρdV
Z
r2 σdS
(ii) K 2 = Z
σdS

146
 Z
r2 λdS
(iii) K 2 = Z
λdS

14.4.2 Parallel Axes Theorem

Let

• I denotes the moment of inertia of a system of particles about any axis.

• Im denotes the moment of inertia about the parallel axis through the
centre of mass of the system.

• M denotes the total mass.

• d denote the distance between the axes.

Then,
I = Im + M d2 


(14.4.2)
2 2 2
K = Km +d


14.4.3 Perpendicular Axes Theorem

The moment of inertia about the z-axis for a system of particles in the
OXY plane is
Iz = Ix + Iy (14.4.3)
where Ix , Iy , Iz are the moment of inertia about the rectangular OX, OY and
OZ

147
14.4.4 Uniform Rod of Length 2a

Figure 14.4.4

14.4.4a
Moment of inertial about the axis perpendicular to the rod through the center
OA = OB = d is Z d
I= λx2 dx
−d
where λ is mass per unit length. It is a constant. Thus,
2
I = λd3
3
Let the total mass, M = 2dλ, then
1
I = M d2
3
and
1
K 2 = d2
3
14.4.4b
Moment of inertial about the axis through one of the end-point perpendicular
to the rod is
1 4
I = M d2 + M d2 = M d2
3 3
and
4
K 2 = d2
3
148
Using equation (14.4.3).

14.4.5 Uniform Rectangular Lamina sides 2a by 2b

Figure 14.4.5

14.4.5a
Moment of inertia about an axis through the centre parallel to a side:
1
Ix = M a2
3
1
Iy = M b2
3
14.4.5b
Moment of inertia about an axis through the centre perpendicular to the Lam-
ina,
1
Iz = Ix + Iy = M (a2 + b2 )
3

149
14.4.6 Thin Uniform Ring with radius, r

Figure 14.4.6

14.4.6a
Moment of inertia about an axis through the centre perpendicular to the plane
of the ring, Z
I= r2 dM = M r2 .

14.4.6b
Moment of inertia about a diameter: (X, Y -axes)

Iz = Ix + Iy = M r2
1
Ix = Iy = M r2
2
14.4.7 Uniform Disc radius ‘a’

Figure 14.4.7

150
14.4.7a
Moment of inertia about an axis through the centre perpendicular to the plane
of a disc is Z a
1
I= 2πrdr, dr2 = πa4 σ
0 2
But M = πa2 σ.
1
... I = M a2 .
2
14.4.7b
1
Moment of inertia about a diameter is I = M a2 .
4
14.4.8 Other spherical shapes with radius ‘a’
For uniform spherical shell with radius ‘a’ moment of inertia about any
diameter is
2
I = M a2
3
14.4.8b
For uniform solid spherical of radius ‘a’, the moment of inertia about any
diameter is:
2
I = M a2
5
14.4.8c
The moment of inertia about the cylinder’s axis for uniform circular cylinder
ring of radius ‘a’, length 2l is
1
I = M a2
2
14.4.8d
The moment of inertia about the line through the centre of cylinder perpen-
dicular to its axis for uniform circular cylindrical ring radius, ‘a’, length 2l
is  
1 2
I=M a
4

151
 14.5 Example

(1) Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid hemisphere of mass M

and radius ‘a’ about a diameter of the circular boundary

Figure 14.5

(2)(a) Find the moment of inertia of a uniform square lamina of mass M and
side 2a about a diagonal.

(b) Find the radius of gyration.

Solution

(1) The whole body of mass say M is halved. Thus, the inertial I is also
halved.
1 2M 2
... I = a
2 5 2
2
= M a2
5
2
Since the moment of inertia about any diameter, I = M a2
5

152
Moment of inertia about x
1
Ix = M a2
3
Moment of inertia about y
1
Iy = M b2
3
Therefore, moment of inertia about z,
Iz = Ix + Iy
1
= M (a2 + b2 )
3
Since the plane is a square, we have
b=a
and
1
Iz = M (2a2 )
3

Let AC and BD be x and y axis respectively. By the diagram above,

Iz = Ix + Iy
and Ix = Iy  
1 1 2 2
... Ix = Iy = Iz = Ma
2 2 3
1
... I = M a2
3

153
 T
(2) K 2 = M
1 2
a (Verify); ... the radius of gyration is 31 a2 .
3
14.6 Summary

In this lecture, we have that the:

(i) MomentX of inertia of a particle
I= (mr2 ) (a)
(ii) Radium of gyration
 1/2
I
K= where M is the particle mass (b)
M
(iii) MomentZ of inertia for continuously distributed particle,
I = r2 dM (c)
(iv) Radius of gyration for continuously distributed particle,
Z 1/2
2
 r dM 
K=  Z

 (d)
dM
(v) Radius of gyration for particle in terms of volume, surface area
and arc length as:
Z 1/2
2
 r ρdV 
K= 
Z  where S is density of the particle

ρdS
Z 1/2
2
 r σdV 
K= 
Z  where S is surface area of the particle

σdS
Z 1/2
2
 r λdS 
K=  Z
 where λ is arc length respectively.

λdS̄
(vi) Parallelogram Axes law as:
I = Im + M d2 and K = (Km2
+ d2 )1/2
(vii) Perpendicular Axes theorem as Iz = Ix + Iy

154
14.8 Post-Test 14
A rod of uniform thickness has half of its length composed of one metal
and the other half of another metal. The centre of mass is distance 71 of the
whole length from the centre of the rod. Find the ratio of the densities of the
metals.

14.9 Solution to Pre-Test 14

1
(1) Volume = πr2 h
3
1 2 3
Mass = πr h · = r units.
3 π hr
dy
(2) = x2 + 1
dx Z
2
1
y= (x2 + 1)dx = 3 units.
1 3
Contemporary Reading

1. O.O. Ugbebor and N.I. Akinwande: Analytical Geometry and Mechan-

ics.

2. Bostock, L. and Clandler, S.: Pure Mathematics 2, 1979, U.K. Stanley

Thomas (Publishers) Ltd.

155