ROOTS- Are cylindrical structures which B.

TAP ROOT SYSTEM- Consists of

are usually located beneath the surface one main stem which arises lateral
of the soil through which materials move roots.
from the soil to various part of the plant. derived from radicle (embryonic root)
Types of roots based on origin • Anchorage
• In dicot and gymnosperm
PRIMARY ROOT- The first root formed • Secondary growth
which is the extension of the embryonic • Fleshy taproot – carrots, beets, radish
root or radicle which is the • Lateral roots ( swollen) – sweet potato,
growing tip of the hypocotyl. cassava
A. SECONDARY ROOTS- Roots ROOT ANATOMY
arising from the primary root.
B. TERTIARY ROOTS- Roots A. REGIONS OF THE ROOT
arising from the secondary roots FROM
whose branches are called THE TIP TO THE ROOT HAIR
rootlets. ZONE
C. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS- Roots
which arise from the plant 1. Root Cap Region- a thimble-
structures other than roots. shaped region that protects
a. BRACE ROOT- arise from the the growing tip of the root.
main TRUNK stem. 2. Meristematic or Embryonic
b. PROP ROOT- arise from the Region- contains the apical
LATERAL BRANCHES of the meristem where the cells are
main stem. actively dividing and where
the primary meristems are
Brace roots of corn which arise from the formed: the protoderm, the
main trunk or stem of Zea mays ground meristem and the
procambium.
ROOT SYSTEM
Root Apical Meristem
A. FIBROUS or DIFFUSE ROOT - Procambium
SYSTEM- Consists of several - Ground Meristem
main roots that branch to form a - Protoderm
dense mass of intermeshed
Root Cap
lateral roots.
- Peripheral
Produced After the death of radicle
- Columella
• Source: Root primordia (at base of
3. Region of Elongation or
radicle)
Region of Cell Enlargement-
• Delicate and hair-like
cells increase in length which
• Absorption
results in the growth or
• No prominent enlarged primary
increase in the length of the
root
roots.
• In monocot
 4. Region of Maturation or 2. Cortex or Middle Region- the
Region of Cell region derived from the ground
Differentiation- cells meristem and composed
have already attained their of the following zones:
final structural characteristics. - outer collenchyma
- middle parenchyma
In dicots, this region is subdivided into:
- inner endodermis
a. Root-hair zone
3. Stele or vascular cyclinder-
b. Zone of primary permanent tissue
consists of the following:
– where all the cells are derives from the
a. pericycle – outermost layer
apical meristem.
b. primary xylem – central large
There are no secondary tissues cells.
present because monocots, generally, c. primary phloem- narrow cells
do not have cambia where secondary at tips of arms.
tissues are derived. d. vascular cambium

c. Zone of secondary tissues – where Specialized of the Roots

tissues derives from the cambia either
Modified or Specialized Functions
replace or are added to the primary
tissue. 1. Support
a. Brace roots- aerial roots
arising from main stem which
penetrates the ground.
Example: rubber tree, five
fingers.
b. Prop roots –aerial roots
arising from the branches
which penetrate the ground.
Example: Corn, Pandan
c. Clinging roots –aerial roots
arising from the branches
which penetrate the ground.
Example: creeping ivy
2. Food Storage- enlarged, fleshy,
or succulent roots. Example:
Radish, Sweet potato, Turnips,
Carrot.
B. CROSS SECTIONAL REGIONS 3. Photosynthesis- green aerial
1. Epidermis or Outer roots. Example: Amerorchis
Region/Dermal region- usually a rotundifolia- Round Leaved
single layer of cells derived from Orchid.
4. Protection- Presence of spines.
the protoderm which covers and
protects the inner root.
 5. Nitrogen Fixation- Formation of • Orbicular – disk-like
root nodules containing bacteria • Flabellate – fan-like
in their cells. • Cuneate – wedge-Like
6. Aeration-with – Apex may be:
PNEUMATOPHORES or • Pointed
roots with spongy tissues • Rounded – arch-like
protruding from the surface of • Emarginate – notched
soil. Example: Mangrove, • Caudate – tail-like
Dendobium • Flattened
– Margin may be:
LEAVES- Generally expanded and • Entire
flattened green structure • Dentate – toothed and
growing out at the nodes of serrated
the stem.Main organ for photosynthesis. • Lobed
Parts of Dicot Leaf • Scalloped
• Cleft
• PETIOLE OR LEAF STALK – Base may be:
– Cylindrical or flattened • Sagitate – arrow-shaped
structure which supports • Auriculate – ear lobe-
and holds the leaf upright shaped
– Conducts materials to and • Peltate – petiole attached
from the leaves at undersurface
– May have two small, leaf- • Rounded – arch-like
like outgrowths at its base • Truncate – flattened
called the stipules • Cordate – heart-
– Leaves without petiole are Shaped.
called sessile leaves
Parts of Monocot Leaf
LAMINA OR LEAF
BLADE • LEAF SHEATH– The support of the
– Thin, flattened, usually green leaf which may completely envelope the
stem of a small flap of delicate tissue
expanded part of the leaf
extending upward called the ligule.
– Variable external • LEAF BLADE– Thin expanded portion
features are its overall shape, apex,
margin and base above the sheath
LAMINA OR LEAF BLADE • LIGULES– are membranous or hairy
– Shape may be: tissues located at the junction of the leaf
• Linear – long and slender blade and leaf sheath.
• Cordate – heart-shaped • AURICLES– are slender extensions of
• Ovate – egg-shaped the collar and are located at the junction
• Deltoid – triangular of the leaf blade and leaf sheath.
• Reniform – kidney-shaped Variations in Leaf Structures
 A. Leaf Blade Configuration the veins at acute or right
1. Simple Leaf- the blade angles to the midrib
consists of only one piece.
C. PHYLLOTAXY – system of leaf
2. COMPOUND LEAF – the
arrangement on the stem.
blade is divided into segments
1. Whorled (Verticillate) – three or
called leaflets or pinnae, the
more leaves located around the node.
stalk of each leaflet known as
2. Fasciculate – two or more leaves
petiolule.
located only on one side of the node.
A. Pinnately Compound
Leaf – the leaflets are Position in Leaf Orientation
attached to an extension of
the petiole called rachis. • Dorsiventral or Bifacial Leaves
B. Palmately Compound – Leaves are horizontally oriented
Leaf – the leaflets radiate – The upper or ad-axial surface
from the upper end or tip receiving direct sunlight
of the leafstalk. • Isobilateral or Equifacial Leaves
B. VENATION – arrangement of veins. – Leaves are vertically oriented
– The two surfaces receiving direct
1. Netted or reticulate venation - veins sunlight
branch profusely and form a network Functions of the Leaves
over the blade; found in dicots.
PRINCIPAL OR MAIN FUNCTIONS
A. Pinnately netted – veins and their 1. Photosynthesis
branches spread out in all directions 2. Transpiration
from the midrib, the continuation of
petiole. Modified leaves
Spines- no blade and needle-shaped,
B. Palmately netted – everal midribs no mesophyll, no vascular tissue, has
arise from the tip of the petiole and closely packed fibers in mesophyll. Ex:
spread fan-like through the blades. Cactus- spines are axillary buds of small
C. Radiately netted – several midribs leaves
arise from the tip of the petiole like the Stem cortex – photsynthesis
ribs or spokes of an umbrella and then Colitis- spines are stipules
breaks up into smaller veins; found in Motile leaves – display “thigmonasty”
leaves where petiole is more or less at sensitivity to touch, for protection.
the center of the blade. Thigmotropic response – tropic
2. Parallel Venation – veins do not form response to touch.
a network; found in monocots. • Succulent Leaves-thick and fleshy,
a. Parallel venation with reduced surface-volume-ratio; with
veins parallel to the midrib water storage parenchyma;
b. Parallel venation with Crassulaceae, kataka taka
Example: Senecio – spherical 2. Fiber source like hemp, rami, abaca
succulent leaves 3. Tea leaves are used to make
Dinteranthus – pair of succulent leaves beverages
Lithops – pair of translucent leaves 4. Tobacco leaves are used in cigarette
acting as optical fiber, allows light to industry
enter, even leaves are under ground. 5. Some drugs obtained from leaves
6. Used as flavoring like wintergreen,
Tendrils- sensing contact with other
peppermint, spearmint
objects, no lamina, support; side facing
the object stop growing, otherside STEMS- Are plant organs which are
elongate--- coil. Example: Pea Plant, continuations of the roots usually
Squash Plant. located above the surface of the soil.
Shoot—A young stem (1 year old or
Supporting leaf bases “pseudotrunk”–
less) with leaves. Twig
for support.
—A young stem (1 year old or less) that
Insect traps- digest insects and obtain is in the dormant winter stage (has no
nitrogen for their amino acid. Example: leaves). Branch—
Nepenthes- pitcher plant. Passive A stem that is more than 1 year old,
trapincapable of movement. typically with lateral stems
Sundew- with stalked glands. radiating from it. Trunk
Venus’ flytrap – traps insects. —A woody plant’s main stem. STEMS
• The stem with its leaves is called a
Adventitious buds- produce plantlets.
shoot and all the stems and leaves of a
Example: Kalanchoe- with plantlets
plant constitutes its shoot system.
along the leaf margin.
• Stems originate from the epicotyl and
Sansiviera- reproduce by leaf cutting.
partly from the hypocotyl of the embryo.
ATTRACTION OF POLLINATORS CLASSIFICATION:
Colored leaves – for attraction.
• A. BASED ON TOUGHNESS
Example: Poinsettia, Mussaenda,
• Herbaceous stems – found in both
Bougainvillea, Anthurium- color spathe
monocot and dicot plants
AERATION • Woody stems – found only in dicot
plants
Floats – aerenchymatous leaf base for
• Some stems are woody only at the
buoyancy, support. Example: Water
base,
hyacinth – aerenchymatous enlarged
these are called suffrutescent stems.
leaf base.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Expanded leaf-like petiole or stipule –
added photosynthesis
Economic importance of Leaves
1. Food source like cabbage, lettuce,
spinach, celery, etc.
 stem which may be swollen due to the
presence of stored food. Example:
EXTERNAL STRUCTURES
ginger, bamboo.
• 1. Nodes – swollen areas where
b. Tubers- short, swollen, terminal
leaves, branches and buds arise
portions of an underground stems with
• 2. Internodes – portion between
the stored food. Example: potato.
two nodes.
c. Bulbs- very small piece of the stem
• 3. Leaf scar – mark left on the stem by
tissue surrounded by numerous fleshy
a fallen leaf
leaves. Example: onion, garlic.
• 4. Bundle scars – cut ends of the
d. Corm- globose, underground stem
vascular bundles within each leaf scar.
with thin, papery leaves on its surface.
• 5. Lenticels – raised pores seen on
Example: gladiolus, gabi.
dicot stems
• 6. Buds – undeveloped structures
which may grow into leaves, shoots, or
flowers.
Types of Buds:
A. Based on location and position on
the stem
1. Terminal or apical bud – at the end
of the stem
2. Lateral or axillary bud – at the upper
angle formed by the leaf stalk and the
stem called the leaf axil.
3. Accessory or supernumerary bud
– beside and above the axillary bud.
4. Adventitious bud – on other parts of B. Modified or Specialized Functions:
the plant such as leaves, roots, or 1.Unusual method of support
internodes. a. Tendrils – cadena de amor,
CLASSIFICATION OF STEMS (BASED ampalaya, squash.
ON LOCATION) b. Twiners – balloon vine.
c. Root climbers – creeping ivy
I. Aerial Stems (Epiterranean Stems)
a. Runners (Stolons)- fleshy or 2. Photosynthesis
semiwoody, elongated, horizontal stems a. Green stems – stick plant
that often lie along the soil surface. b. Phylloclades (dadophylls) – cacti.
Example: doob grass, oxalis. 3. Reproduction
b. Tendrils (Scramblers)- are thread a. Development of buds in some
like structure which help the plants in parts of the stem – ginger, potato, gabi.
climbing. 4. Storage a. Fleshy, underground
II. UNDERGROUND stems - ginger, potato, gabi.
STEMS 5. Protection
a. Rhizomes- Underground, horizontal a. Stems are modified into thorns and
spines – bougainvillea, rose, transpiration
pomelo, calamansi 2. Air movements – The more rapid
the air movement, the faster is the rate
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
of transpiration.
OF STEMS
3. Air temperature – The higher the
1. Sources of lumber, wood pulp for
temperature of air surrounding the leaf,
papers, and fibers for linen and rope
the faster is the rate of transpiration.
2. Bark of the cork oak is used for
4. Light intensity – as light intensity
stoppers, insulation, life preservers and
increases, the transpiration rate is also
padding.
increased.
3. Quinine, used for the treatment of
5. Soil conditions – any soil condition
malaria is extracted from Cinchona bark
that influences water absorption by the
4. Source of rubber
roots affects transpiration rate.
5. Food source such as the potato tuber.
Soil conditions
6. Sources of sugar and molasses which
• When soil becomes very cold,
come from sugar cane
absorption of water is retarted and rate
7. Cinnamon from the bark of
of transpiration is decreased.
cinnamonium is used as food flavoring
• An increase in concentration of soil
8. Tars and wood alcohol are distilled
solution occuring in alkali soil, reduces
from hardwood trees like oak and
the rate of water intake and reduces
hickory
transpiration.
9. Resin and turpentine are obtained
• Poor aeration of soil results in
from softwood trees such as yellow pine
decreased water absorption and
10.Cellulose is obtained from plant cell
decreased rate of transpiration.
walls of wood, which is used as a base
• The rate of water absorption by the
in the manufacture of celluloid,
roots is directly proportional to the rate
cellophane and rayon, and lacquers
of transpiration; if water loss exceed
(ethyl alcohol)
water absorption, wilting will occur.
TRANSPIRATION Factors affecting transpiration rate
• It is the loss of water in vapor form in a • STRUCTURAL FACTORS
living plant. PREVENTING WATER LOSS
• The principal transpiring organs are 1. Cuticle – the presence of a wax-like
the leaves. material, cutin in the cell wall and
• Transpiration may occur through the thickening of the outer wall of epidermal
cuticle (cuticular transpiration), but most cells reduces transpiration
of the water loss during the day are 2. Stomatal barrier – When guard cells
through the stomata (stomatal
transpiration). become turgid, the stomatal aperture
widens, thus after a period of rapid
Factors affecting transpiration rate transpiration, the stomata close reducing
• ENVIRONMENT FACTORS water loss.
1. Atmospheric humidity – The drier 3. Sunken Stomata – When stomata
the air above the plant, the greater is the are below the level of the leaf surface,
diffusion of water vapor is decreased. 2. ENERGY
4. Distribution of stomata – Loss of - Source of energy is light energy with
water is decreased if fewer stomata are the red and blue wavelengths being
located at the upper surface of the leaf. most effective; the green and yellow
5. Reduction of transpiring surface – mainly reflected from and transmitted
Any decrease in leaf surface will through the leaves
decrease transpiration rate. - main source of light energy is the sun
(solar energy), but electric light can also
GUTTATION
be used.
• The loss of liquid from the leaves of
- Only those wavelengths that can be
intact plants
absorbed by the chloroplast pigments
• Occurs when water absorption is rapid
are useful in photosynthesis
but transpiration is low
- Therefore, the process may be
• Specialized structures called
considered as one in which the solar
hydathodes are present at the tips,
energy is converted to chemical energy
margins or surfaces of leaves through
and stored in the form of carbohydrates,
which water passes out.
the end products.
• The liquid of guttation is not a pure
3. PIGMENTS – enables the plant to
water but diluted salt solution; therefore
absorb light energy and to use the
guttation may be associated with salt
absorbed energy in the production of
absorption and salt movement into the
sugars.
xylem.
a. Chlorophyll – pigment primarily
PHOTOSYNTHESIS involved in the photosynthesis.
•The process of manufacturing food in - several types of chlorophyll are
plants, mainly sugar, form carbon present in chloroplasts of higher plants
dioxide and water in the presence of while chlorophyll a plus other
chlorophyll, utilizing light energy and chlorophylls are found in some lower
releasing oxygen gas plants.Other pigments are:
ESSENTIAL FACTORS IN • Xanthophylls – yellow pigments
PHOTOSYNTHESIS • Carotenes – yellow orange pigments
•Essential Factor is any factor whose 4. TEMPERATURE – range of
presence is required before a reaction temperature for photosynthesis is from 5
proceeds to 40°C, the rate increases as the
1. RAW MATERIALS temperature rises up to approximately
a. Carbon dioxide – from the 35°C, after which a rapid decline in rate
atmosphere which diffuses into the occurs which may be due to enzyme
intercellular spaces of the leaf through activation.
the stoma 5. CARRIER MOLECULES – important
b. Water – absorbed from the in transferring hydrogen atoms,
environment by the cells; in vascular electrons and energy.
plants, this absorption is by the roots 6. ENZYMES – speed up the chemical
and water is transported to the leaves reaction. Also present in chloroplasts.
through the xylem
MATERIALS PRODUCED DURING by means of which hydrogen is made
PHOTOSYNTHESIS available for the next step.
1. A 6-carbon sugar or Hexose – the 2. DARK REACTION
principal end product in the majority of - involves the incorporation of CO2 into
plants the final production
2. Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) – a 3- - CO2 brought into the system through
carbon compound which is the first reactions called Calvin cycle
product formed
RESPIRATION
- 2 molecules of PGA is readily
•Refers to a series of complex oxidation-
converted to hexose
reduction reactions whereby living cells
3. Oxaloacetic acid – a 4-carbon
obtain energy through the breakdown of
compound which is the first product
organic material.
formed in some plants termed the C4
•In this process, therefore, chemical
plants as differentiated from the C3
energy of food is transferred to thee
plants.
chemical energy of some compounds,
OVERALL PHOTOSYNTHETIC usually ATP.
REACTION
COMMON METHODS USED
6 CO2 + 12 H2O
•Glycolysis – anaerobic conversion of
Chloroplast
glucose to 2 pyruvic acid molecules.
Light energy
•Krebs cycle or Citric acid cycle –
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
breaks down pyruvic acid to CO2 and
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION – light H2.
to chemical energy; release of O2; •Terminal Oxidation – process
product ATP and NAPH; thylakoid wherein the H atoms given off during
membrane the Kreb’s cycle are passed along a
PHOTO ACTIVATION – chlorophyll series of compounds and energy is
becomes active transferred to chemical bonds of
PHOTO IONIZATION – chlorophyll pyrophosphate formed when ADP plus
expels highly energized electron ; pyrophosphate forms ATP, (a method
becomes positively charged called oxidative phosphorylation) and
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION –process finally uniting with oxygen to form, the
in which ATP is formed from ADP water of respiration.
BIOCHEMICAL REACTION – uses ATP
Overall Respiration
Reaction
C6H12O6 + 6O2
TWO STEPS INVOLVED
6 CO2 + 6H2O + energy (38 ATP)
1. LIGHT OR HILL REACTION
- Involves the absorption of light energy COMPARISON BETWEEN
and the production of an energy-rich PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
compound, ATP, a process called RESPIRATION
photophosphorylation
PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATIO
- Essentially a water-splitting operation
 N FLORAL MORPHOLOGY
1. CO2 and H2O O2 and food
are used are used A. Sepals
2. Food and CO2 and H2O - Enclose the outer flower parts in the
oxygen are used are produced bud, outermost whorl of the flower
3. The energy from The energy in - Generally green in color and all the
light is trapped in food may be sepals taken COLLECTIVELY constitute
chlorophyll and in temporarily the CALYX
the food stored in the - Poly-sepalous – all sepals are free
ATP from each other (mustard, radish)
4. The ATP The ATP is - Gamosepalous – sepals are fused with
produced by the produced by
use of light oxidation of each other (cotton, datura, brinjal)
(photophosphoryla food
tion) (oxidative DURATION OF SEPALS:
phosphorylati 1. Caducous – Sepals fall just at the
on) time of opening of flower bud (Poppy).
5. Hydrogen is Hydrogen is 2. Deciduous – Sepals fall after
transferred from transferred pollination (Mustard).
H2O to from food to 3.Persistant – If sepals do not fall and
NADP to form NAD or remain attached to fruit (Tomato,
NADPH NADP to form
Capsicum, Brinjal, Cotton, Datura).
NADH or
NADPH
6. Only All living cells
chlorophyll- carry out B. Petals - Usually the conspicuous,
containing cells respiration colored, attractive part of a flower, when
carry out taken together constitute the COROLLA
photosynthesis - SYMMETRICAL or ASYMMETRICAL
7. It occurs in It occurs in - POLYPETALOUS /GAMOPETALOUS
chloroplasts the C. Stamens - male part of the flower
cytoplasm lying inner to the corolla; grouping of
(glycolysis) stamens (anther, filament and
and in the connective) is called ANDROECIUM.
mitochondria D. Pistil - The female part of the flower
which comprises the central whorl of
FLOWERS- Group of leaves modified or modified floral leaves; collectively called
adapted for reproduction in the the GYNOECIUM
ANGIOSPERMS. -Each consists of:
• Highly condensed and modified 1. OVARY – enlarged basal part, on
reproductive shoot which lies the elongated tube the style
• It functions to facilitate important 2. STYLE – connects the ovary to the
events of stigma
gamete formation and fusion (carry out 3. STIGMA – usually at the tip of the
special reproduction in plants) style and is receptive surface for pollen
grains. Symmetrical Flower - Parts do not
E. Receptacle radiate from the center and only one line
- The enlarged end of the flower stem or divides the flower into 2 similar halves.
stalk. 3. Asymmetrical - When the flower
- The part where the sepals, petals, cannot be divided into two equal halves
stamens, and pistils are attached. from any plane.
E. Based on the position of
Variations in Floral Structure
the ovary
A. Based on flower parts present
1. Hypogenous flower - Ovary situated
1. Complete flower – calyx, corolla,
on the receptacle above the points of
androecium and gynoecium are present
origin of the perianth and the stamens
2. Incomplete flower – flower with one
- petals, sepals and stamens are
of the four whorl missing.
situated below the ovary
B. Based on sexuality of the flower
- ovary is said to be superior.
1. Perfect flower – aka bisexual or
2. Epigynous flower
hermaphroditic flower
- Stamen and perianth are attached
2. Imperfect flower – aka unisexual
above the ovary
flower
- other parts of flower arises above the
a. Androecium (staminate flower)
ovary
b. Gynoecium (Pistillate flower)
- which is said to be an inferior ovary.
PLANT SOURCES:
3. Perigynous condition - Gynoecium
• Monoecious plants – staminate and
is situated in the center and other
pistillate flowers are present on the
parts of flower are located on the rim of
same plant. EX: squash and corn
the thalamus almost at the same level
• Dioecious plants – staminate and
pistillate flowers are born on separate - Ovary is said to be half
plants. EX: papaya. inferior
C. Based on size and shape of floral
F. Based on union of the floral parts
parts
1. Connation
1. Regular flower
a. Synsepalous flower – with fused
2. Irregular flower
sepals
a. Bilabiate – with two lips
b. Sympetalous flower – with fused
b. Papillionaceous – resembles
petals
butterfly
c. Synandrous flower- with fused
c. Caesalpinaceous
stamens
d. Orchidaceous
d. Syncarpous flower – with fused
D. Based on floral symmetry pistils
1. Actinomorphic or radially 2. Adnation
symmetrical flower - Parts radiate from
Based on number of flower parts
the center and any line drawn from
1. Dicotyledonous flower – parts are in
through center of the flower, thus divides
multiples of 4 or 5
the flower into 2 similar halves.
2. Zygomorphic or Bilaterally
2. Monocotyledonous flower – parts scented, with sticky or spiny pollen,
are in multiples of 3 sticky stigmas, produces nectar.
2. Anemophilous flowers
INFLORESCENCE
- Wind pollinated flowers
1. Raceme - Main axis has short
- Modifications: inconspicuous
branches or pedicels, each of which
flower without scent, with small
terminates in a flower. EX: gladiolus.
and dry pollen grains, expanded
2. Panicle -A branched raceme. EX: rice
stigmas, do not produce nectar.
3. Hydrophilous flowers
3.Spike - Similar to raceme but flowers
- Water pollinated flowers
on the axis are sessile (without pedicel)
- Modifications: similar to anemophilous
- EX: bottle brush.
flowers
4. Catkin - Spike which is hanging or
4. Zoophilous flowers
dropping and bearing only staminate or
- animal pollinated flowers
pistillate flowers.
- Modifications: similar to entomophilous
5. Umbel - Short axis and all pedicellate
flowers
flowers radiate from the apex of the axis.
6. Spadix - Fleshy spike bearing both I. THE FRUIT
staminate and pistillate flowers -The ripened ovary of the flower
surrounded by a petalloid bract. -Protects seeds, aid in their
7. Corymb dissemination, and may be factor in
- Pedicel are unequal in length but timing their germination.
the flowers are on the same level PERICARP - Fruit wall
- Younger flowers at the center have - Layers:
short pedicel, while the outer older -  exocarp – outermost layer
flowers are longer. -  mesocarp – fleshy middle layer
8. Cyme - Similar to corymb but the -  endocarp – innermost layer which
inner flowers are older. usually surrounds the seed
9. Fascicle - Pedicelled or sessile TYPES:
flowers are crowded on one side of the A. Based on the origin
stem. 1. Normal – fruit that develops
10. Composite flowers - Group of after fertilization
flowers so arranged to 2. Parthenocarpic – fruit that
give an appearance of a single develops without fertilization.
flower, the characteristic B. Based on the number of ovaries
grouping of flowers is called the involved in its formation
head. 1. Simple fruit – develops from 1 ovary.
Types of Flowers (based on the agent 2. Compound fruit – develops from
of pollination) several ovary
a. Aggregate - Develops from the
1. Entomophilous flowers several ovaries of a single flower
- Insect pollinated flowers - Ex: atis, guyabano.
- Modifications: brightly colored, b. Multiple (Collective) - Develops from
several ovaries of a compact
inflorescence. Ex: langka, durian, rimas, EX: cashew nut, pistachio, wall nut,
pineapple. chestnut.
C. Based on consistency 3. Pericarp Fleshy
1. Pericarp Dry and Dehiscent a. Berry – derived from a compound
a. Legume or Pod – arises from a ovary, usually many seeds are
single carpel which at maturity splits embedded in a fleshy part which is both
along 2 sutures; with the shell, pericarp endocarp and mesocarp.
endorsing the seeds. EX: peanut, sitao, EX: eggplant, tomato, grapes.
batao, patani. b. Hesperidium – type of berry, with a
b. Follicle – develops from a single thick leathery rind with numerous glands
carpel and opens along 1 suture. which constitute the exocarp and
EX: camachille and kalachuchi. mesocarp and a thick juicy portion of
c. Capsule – derives from an ovary with several wedge-shaped locules which are
2 or more united carpels, each carpel outgrowths from the endocarp. EX:
producing few to many seeds and splits orange, pomelo, calamansi, dalandan.
in various ways. EX: castor oil, banaba, c. Pepo – berry-like fruit with a hard rind
okra and cotton.
d Silique – derives from a superior derived from the fusion of the receptacle
ovary consisting of 2 locules which at and the exocarp while the fleshy part of
maturity separates into 3 portions with the fruit is principally mesocarp and
the seeds attached to the central, endocarp.
persistent portion. EX: malunggay. EX: cucumber, squash and watermelon
2. Pericarp Dry and Indehiscent d. Drupe – derived from one carpel and
a. Achene – commonly called “seeds” is usually one-seeded, exocarp is thin,
but when the pericarp is broken, the mesocarp maybe fleshy of fibrous and
seeds within is seen to be attached to the endocarp is hard, consisting of thick-
the ovary wall at one point. EX: walled stone cells.
strawberry, pineapple. EX: pili nut, coconut, mango, avocado.
b. Grain (Caryopsis) – like the achene, e. Pome – derived from an inferior
it is also one seeded, but the pericarp ovary; the fleshy part is the enlarged
and seed coat are firmly united. floral tube and the core comes from the
EX: corn, rice. ovary. Example: apple, pear.
c. Samara – may be one-seeded or two- II. THE SEED
seeded and has a wing like outgrowth of - the structure that develops from
the ovary wall. EX: narra, maple. the ovule after fertilization.
d. Schizocarp – derived from 2 PARTS OF SEED
carpels which splits when mature, along A. Seed coats
the midline into 2 one-seeded - The covering of a seed
indehiscent leaves. - Made up of the testa derived from the
EX: carrot, mustard family. outer integument and the tegmen from
e. Nut – one-seeded fruit with a hard or the inner integument.
stony pericarp commonly called the shell - Associated with the seed
coat are: - Seeds and fruits dispersed by wind are
1. Hilum – scar on the seed coat
2. Micropyle – small opening near the generally light and may have some
hilum structural adaptations like wings and
3. Raphe – ridge located on the testa. plumes
B. Endosperm - Derives from the - Some are simply dispersed by the
primary endosperm cell and contains the violent splitting of the pericarp.
2. ANIMALS
stored food of the seed. - Seeds and fruits dispersed by animals
C. Embryo - The young plant inside the have spines or barbs that adhere to
seed with the following parts: animal fur
1. Cotyledon – one or two seeded - Seeds of many fruits pass through the
leaves digestive tract without being digested
2. Epicotyl – part of the embryo above and are still viable when egested
the point of attachment of thecotyledons; - Seeds may be sticky and carried on
its growing tip, the plumule, constitutes the feet of some birds
the first bud. The young plant inside the 3. WATER - Fruits dispersed by water
seed with the following parts: are buoyant.
3. Hypocotyl – part of the embryo
below the point of attachment of the Conditions affecting
cotyledons; its growing tip, the radicle germination
give rise to the primary root. A. EXTERNAL CONDITIONS
1. Moisture
TYPES OF SEEDS
2. Oxygen
1. Based on the location of the stored
3. Temperature – optimal is bet. 25°C
to 30°C
food
4. Food supply
a. Endospermic seeds (albuminous
5. Others – light, soil, acidity, CO2, etc
seeds) - Endosperm is present for food
B. INTERNAL CONDITIONS
storage
1. Auxins or growth regulators
b. Non-endospermic seeds
2. Stored foods in the seeds
(exalbuminous seeds) - Endosperm is
absent.
2. Based on the number of IV. GERMINATION
cotyledons
- Is the beginning of the growth of the
a. Dicotyledonous seeds
seed, spore, bud,
- With 2 cotyledons
or other structures
b. Monocotyledonous seeds
STEPS:
- With 1 cotyledons
1. Seeds takes up water and swells
III. DISSEMINATION
2. Food is digested
-The transfer of fruits and seeds to
3. Respiration increases
distant places
4. Cell division occurs
AGENTS FOR DISPERSAL:
5. Embryo grows
1. WIND
6. Seed coat ruptures
NOTE: The hypocotyl is usually the
first part of the embryo to emerge
from the seed coat, followed by the
epicotyl. A sprouted embryo is
called a seedling