Saint Columban

College Pagadian City

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION, ARTS AND
SCIENCES
FIRST SEMESTER 2020
PED 104
PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR CONTROL AND LEARNING OF EXERCISE
SPORTS AND DANCE
MODULES 8-12

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At the 2012 London Olympic Games, Ms. Gabby Douglas won an individual all-around Olympic gold
medal, Michael Jordon, a basketball legend, enthralls us with his skills, and Bruce Lee’s lightning-quick
actions knocking down multiple opponents within a second (Picture 1, 2, and 3) have stunned the sports
world. How can these athletes perform such fascinating movements so flawlessly? What kinds of learning
processes brought these athletes to such levels? Is any human being capable of performing such incredible
movements with the proper training?
From a motor learning perspective, the majority of human movements are learned skills (Enoka, 2009; Payne
& Isaacs, 2008). The human body has a total of about 656 skeletal muscles and these muscles must be
coordinated with each other to produce designated movements. All human actions or movements are the
result of a neuromuscular integrated brain and body controlled process (Voight, Hoogenboom & Preventice,
2007). In other words, the nervous and skeletal muscle systems work together to perform the designated
and coordinated human movements. According to Lundy-Ekman (2007) and Bear, Connors, and Paradiso
(1996), there are billions of nerve cells coordinated and working together from various regions of the human
brain. Certainly, it is a tremendous challenge for a novice to learn the fundamental motor skills required to
eventually become an elite athlete who can execute extraordinary coordinated movements precisely and
perfectly.

Motor learning refers to the relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with
practice or experience (Schimidt & Lee, 2005). Motor learning is an essential subject for many different
professions. Especially, students who major in physical education/kinesiology, exercise or sports science,
coaching education, physical therapy or the pedagogy of movement, as well as people in the military, the
police and special forces, etc. should have a concrete understanding of the proper motor learning processes
related to particular motor skills. In sum, motor learning is a multifaceted set of internal processes that effect
relatively permanent change in human performance through practice, provided the change of motor skills
cannot be attributed to a human’s maturation, temporary state, or instinct (Kluka, 1999). In other words, the
main objective of motor learning is to make a permanent change in the neurological functions which happen
in the brain (see Figure 1.1). In our society, people attempt to learn many different motor skills for a variety
of purposes. Some skills are very complex and difficult to perform while others are easily learned. Sport
scientists are always searching for the most effective training approaches to help learners efficiently master
the required motor skills in the minimal time. The following are the five characteristics of the motor learning
process (Figure 1.2; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008).
1) Motor learning is an internal process that cannot be observed from an external perspective. This means
that how much an athlete has learned is an unknown factor from an outsider’s perspective because motor
learning takes place inside the learner’s brain and the muscular movements are only a reflection of brain
activities. Observing motor performance provides only an indirect assessment of the learning progress of a
learner.
2) Motor learning is a set of processes for the purpose of reaching specific learning objectives. Obviously,
different types of learning will produce different results and sports scientists continuously search for the best
motor learning processes for particular motor skills based on individual differences.
3) The goal of motor learning is to form the designated motor behavioral habits through proper training.
4) Once a motor skill is learned, it becomes relatively permanent and will not be easily forgotten. For example,
once an individual has learned how to ride a bike, he/she will never forget how to do it (Schmidt & Wrisberg,
2008). 5) According to Wang & Yang (2012), motor learning is not value free and it can be negative to form
a bad habit that is extremely hard to be changed once it is formed.
Motor behavior can be considered the study of executed human performances and
postures that are the result of integrated internal process that lead to a relatively permanent change in
performance (Figure 1.3; Kluka, 1999).
Motor control is the study of postures and movements and the mechanisms that underlie them (Rose &
Christina, 2006). Also, motor control can be defined as the study of how
an individual can execute designated motor skills through the neuromuscular control process in response to
external environmental demands (Haywood & Getchell, 2009; Latash
& Lestienne, 2006). For example, a race car driver’s brain activities include quickly processing external
information (seeing the opponents’ cars) to find an open space through
which to get ahead of the others and achieve success.

Motor development refers to the continuous, age-related process of change in movement, as well as
the interacting constraints (or factors) in the individual, environment, and task that drive these changes
(Haywood & Getchell, 2009). From a comprehensive perspective, motor development not only deals with
the growth and developmental process of human movements, it also studies how the learning process affects
the developmental process. Specifically, such study addresses both the process of change and the resultant
movement outcome. With a complete understanding of the normal growth and developmental process as it
relates to the motor learning process, teachers and practitioners can teach motor skills effectively to
populations ranging from preschoolers to older adults. Motor performance is an end result or outcome of
executing a motor skill that can be observed from an external perspective. For example, coaches can see
how a tennis player plays a game and how he/she performs during practice or competition. A tennis player’s
motor skills for performing a forehand or backhand stroke or for serving can be purposefully observed or
assessed by instructors.
Motor learning takes place in an internal fashion in a learner’s brain, one of the effective ways for
an instructor to understand how much a student has learned is to observe his/her performance, which
indirectly reflects the student’s learning progress (Table 1.2.). In addition,
other approaches such as asking students to explain the proper motor skill structures or
to distinguish between correct or incorrect motor skill demonstrations can be used to test
the extent of their understanding of motor skill concepts.
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING MOTOR SKILLS

1. PRINCIPLE OF INTEREST

• a student's attitude toward learning a skill determines for the most part the amount and kind of
learning that takes place.

2. Principle of Practice

• practicing the motor skill correctly is essential for learning to take place.

3. Principle of Distributed Practice

• in general short periods of intense practice will result in more learning than longer, massed
practice sessions.

4. Principle of Skill Specificity

• a student's ability to perform one motor skill effectively is independent of his/her ability to perform
other motor skills.

5. Principle of Whole-Part Learning.

• the complexity of the skill to be learned and the leaner's ability determine whether it is more
efficient to teach the whole skil or break the skill into component parts.

6. Principle of Transfer

• the more indentical two tasks are the greater the possibility that positive transfer will occur.
Practice conditions should match the conditions in which the motor skill is going to be used.

7. Principle of Skill Improvement

• the development of motor skills progresses along a continuum from least mature to most mature.
The rate of progression and the amount of progress within an individual depends upon the interaction of
nature and nurture.

8. Principle of Feedback

• internal and external sources of information about motor performance is essential for learning to
take place.

9. Principle of Variable Practice.

• block practice aids in performance while variable practice aids in learning. Variable practice
causes an increase in attention.
Principles of Exercise
The 12 principles of exercise

The exercise principles outline the criteria that guide all training. Each
principle allows us to critique some element of a person’s training. When a person’s training
follows the principles well it is most likely to be successful. Following is a list of the principles
and their definitions (in lay terms as well so we don't get to 'fancy pants scientific'.
Principle Layman’s term

Individuality: Optimal benefits occur when programs meet the People are different and their
individuals needs & capacities of participants exercise needs vary —a
prescription must take this into
account

Trainability: Each person responds differently to the same Don’t expect that the same
training stimulus prescription will get you the same
result with each person — you
have to monitor and adapt
training as you go to suit different
clients

The training stimulus must be specific to the clients Training must be specific to an
desired outcomes individual’s goals

Overload: For adaptation to occur the volume of exercise must You get improvements by doing a
overload the body in some way in line with the bit more
capacity of the individual to cope with that overload
Overload: For adaptation to occur the volume of exercise must You get improvements by doing a
overload the body in some \'.'ay in line with the bit mare
capacity of the individual to cope ’. ith that overload

Progressive For continual adaptation overload must be Get improvements b\ doing a bit
Overload: progressive. that is the dose of exercise must more each time
increase

Variety: Far optimal adaptation and to avoid stagnation, Change is as good as a holiday.
overuse, and injuy the exercise stimulus must be Vanety aIIa '. s recover and can
varied (this does nat simply‘ mean changing reduce injury risk
exercises all the time)

Rest: Optimal adaptation requires rest periods to be Rest to get the best out of your
interspersed st•ith training sessions surcient that the exercise. not too long and not too
adaptations caused by the exercise dose can take little.
place.

Reversibility: All beneficial effects of exercise are reversible if Use it or lose it.
exercise ceases

Maintenance: Cuzent fitness levels can be maintained b\’ It's easier to Keep fitness than to
exercising at the same intensity ’.'hile reducing create it. Train as hard. stay‘
volume (frequency and 'or duration) by 1.”3 to 2 ”3 regular but shorten \vorKorits to
maintain a 4tness component

Ceiling: As fitness increases the relative & absolute Genetics play a part. There is a
improvements in fitness ill decrease, even with last of diminishing returns with
continual overload exercise. Unfit people will
change a lot early on, then less
and less despite continuing to
train hard.

Interference: When training several components at once (e.g You can't have it all at once. As
strength & endurance”› the stimuli ma}’ interfere ith all s; stems are related fatigue in
each other thereb; slo ing adaptation in one or one ’.ill interfere a ith the results
both components of training in another

FITT Each of the fitness components has an ideal training In order to achieve the desired
(FREQUENCY, frequency {ho often). intensity (how hard›. time outcome the training must :FITT”
INTENSITY, (duration. rest intervalsJ and type of exercise to be the component you wish to
TIME, TYPE) used. The 'FITT principle is largely a practical impr
amalgamation’ of all the other exercise principles
 Saint Columban
College Pagadian City
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION, ARTS AND
SCIENCES
FIRST SEMESTER 2020
PED 104
PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR CONTROL AND LEARNING OF EXERCISE
SPORTS AND DANCE

WORKSHEET 8

1. Explain each of the stages of Functional Recovery.

2. What is Neuroplasticity and how does it work?
3. How does Neuroplasticity affect motor control?
4. Give an example of Neuroplasticity and explain it.
 WORKSHEET 9
1. What is non-declarative and declarative motor learning?
2. How important is motor learning in relation to the principles of exercise?
3. Define each of the motor learning theories
4. Explain each of the theories on motor learning stages.
5. Is there a relationship between motor learning theories and motor learning
stages? Why or why not?
 WORKSHEET 10

1. Explain the taxonomy of motor tasks.

2. List each of the Principles of Exercise.
3. Explain each of the principle.
4. How important are the principles of exercise in teaching PE?
 WORKSHEET 11

Give a concrete example situation of each of the Principles of Learning Motor Skills.

1. PRINCIPLE OF INTEREST
2. Principle of Practice
3. Principle of Distributed Practice
4. Principle of Skill Specificity
5. Principle of Whole-Part Learning.
6. Principle of Transfer
7. Principle of Skill Improvement
8. Principle of Feedback
9. Principle of Variable Practice.
 WORKSHEET 12

1. RESEARCH.
Research and explain THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF MOTOR SKILLS
2. RESEARCH UNDERSTAND and EXPLAIN
Research and explain the CLASSIFICATIONS OF MOTOR SKILLS GIVE 5 EXAMPLES
OF EACH.