Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics

 
CAPTER Four
UNIFORM FLOW
Concept of Uniform Flow
 Uniform flow is referring the steady uniform flow
 Steady flow is characterized by no changes in time.
 Uniform flow is characterized by the water cross section and depth remaining constant
over a certain reach of the channel.
 For any channel of given roughness, cross section and slope, there exists one and only one
water depth, called the normal depth , at which the flow will be uniform.
 Uniform equilibrium flow can occur only in a straight channel with a constant channel
slope and cross-sectional shape, and a constant discharge.
 The energy grade line Sf, water surface slope Sw and channel bed slope S0 are all parallel,
i.e. Sf=Sw=So

 For steady uniform channel flow, channel slope, depth and velocity all remain constant
along the channel

Establishment of Uniform Flow

 When flow occurs in an open channel, resistance is encountered by the water as it flows downstream
 A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by the gravity forces.
 If the water enters into a channel slowly, the velocity and the resistance are small, and the
resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the
upstream reach.
 The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance between resistance
and gravity forces is reached. At this moment and afterward the flow becomes uniform.
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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
 The upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is known as the
transitory zone.

The Chezy Formula

Consider the following stretch of channel
1 2

V2/2g 
P1 
V  Wsin
Y0 
Y0  P2
W
Y0
A 
Y0 

L 

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
 By definition there is no acceleration in uniform flow
 By applying the momentum equation to control volume encompassing sections 1 and 2,
distance L apart as shown in the figure.

P1  W sin   F f  P2  M 2  M 1 ------------------- (4.1)

Where: P1 and P2 are the pressure forces and M1 and M2 are the momentum fluxes at
section 1 and 2 respectively
W= weight to fluid in the control volume and
Ff = shear force at the boundary
Since the flow is uniform P1 =P2 and M1=M2 also W=AL and Ff= 0PL
Where 0 = average shear stress on the wetted perimeter of length P
= unit weight of water
Replacing sin by S0 (bottom slope) equation (4.1) become

A
ALS 0   0 PL   0   S 0  RS 0 ------------------ (4.2)
P
Where R= A/P = hydraulic radius , which is a length parameter accounting for the shape
of the channel. And it plays a very important role in developing flow equations which are
common to all shapes of channels.
Expressing the average shear stress 0 = kV2, where k=a coefficient which depends
on the nature of the surface and flow parameters. Equation (4.2) can be written as

kV 2  RS 0  V  C RS 0 ------------------------------ (4.3)

 1
Where C  = a coefficient which depends on the nature of the surface
k
Equation (4.3) is known as Chezy formula and the coefficient C is known as the chezy
coefficient.
We remember that for pipe flow, the Darcy –Weisbach equation is
L V2
hf  f
D 2g
Where hf = head loss due to friction in a pipe of diameter D and length L
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
VD
For smooth pipes, f is found to be a function of the Reynolds number ( Re  ) only.
v
For rough turbulent flows, f is a function of the relative roughness (/D) and types of
roughness, which independent of the Reynolds number.

So for the case of Open Channel, we can be considered to be a conduit cut into two. The
hydraulics radius would then be appropriate length parameter and prediction of friction
factor f. So equation of head loss due to friction is written as

L V2 8g
hf  f V  . R . h f / L -------------------- (4.4)
4R 2g f
Note that for uniform flow in an open channel hf/L = slope of the energy line = Sf = S0, it
may be seen that equation (4.4) is the same as Chezy formula, equation (4.3). with

C  8g / f --------------------------------------------------------------(4.5)

Equation (4.5) be use to develop different charts and empirical formulas that relate C
with Re.

 4 RV   4R 
 Re  and  
 v   s 
1
 1.80 log Re  1.5146 ----------------------------------------------- (4.6)
f

1  21.25 
And  1.14  2.0 log s  0.9  -------------------------------------------- (4.7)
f  4 R Re 
Equation (4.7) is valid for 5000 ≤ Re ≤ 108 and 10-6 < s/4R < 10-2
Generally, the open channels that are encountered in the field are very large in size and
also in the magnitude of roughness elements. Due to scarcity of reliable experimental or
field data on channels covering a wide range of parameters, values of s are not available
to the same degree of confidence as for pipe materials. However, the following table will
give the estimated values of s for some common open channel surfaces.

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Table 4. values of s for some common open channel surfaces
S.No Surface Equivalent Roughness (s) in mm
1 Glass 3x10-4
2 Very smooth concrete surface 0.15 – 0.30
3 Rough concrete 3.0 - 4.5
4 Earth Channels (straight, uniform) 3.0
5 Rubble masonry 6.0
6 Untreated channel 3.0 -10.0

Example 4.1: A 2.0m wide rectangular channel carries water at 20oc at a depth of 0.5m. The
channel is laid on a slope of 0.0004. Find the hydrodynamic nature of the surface if
the channel is made of
A. Very smooth concrete
B. Rough concrete
C. Estimate the discharges in the channel in both case using chezy formula with
Dancy-Weisbach f.
Solution:
B=2.0m R= A/P = (0.5*2)/(2+2*0.5)=0.33m
Y=0.5m o= RSo = (9.81x103)x0.333x0.0004 = 1.308N/m2
S0 = 0.0004 v* = shear velocity = o/ = (1.308/103) = 0.03617m/sec
T= 20oc Kinematic viscosity () @ 20oc = 10-6m2/s
a). For a smooth concrete surface
from the Equivalent roughness table, s = 0.25mm = 0.00025m
s v*/ = (0.00025*0.03617)/(10-6) = 9.04 > 4 but less than 60  Transition
b) for a rough concrete
From the Equivalent roughness table, s = 3.5mm = 0.0035m
s v*/ = (0.0035x0.03617)/(10-6) =126.6 > 60  Rough
c). case (i) = smooth concrete channel
s= 0.25mm and s/4R = (0.25)/(4x0.33x103) = 1.894x 10-4
1  21.25 
 1.14  2.0 log s  0.9

f  4 R Re 
Since Re is known we use the moody chart or iterative trial and error methods, we get
By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 5 of 26 
 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
f= 0.0145
C= (8g/f) = (8x9.81/0.0145) = 73.6
V = C(RS0) = 73.6x(0.333x0.0004) = 0.850m/s
Q= AV= (2x0.5)x0.850 = 0.85m3/se
Case (ii) Rough concrete Channel
s= 3.5mm and s/4R = (3.5)/(4x0.33x103) = 2.625x 10-3
f = 0.025
C = (8g/f) = (8x9.81/0.025) = 56.0
V = C(RS0) = 56x(0.333x0.0004) = 0.647m/s
Q= AV= (2x0.5)x0.647 = 0.647m3/se

The MANNING’S Formula

The simplest resistance formula and the most widely used equation for the mean velocity
calculation is the Manning equation which has been derived by Robert Manning (1890) by
analyzing the experimental data obtained from his own experiments and from those of others. His
equation is,
1
V  R 2 /3
S 1/ 2
o --------------------------------------------------------------- (4.8)
n
Where V = mean velocity
R= Hydraulic Radius
So = channel slope
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
if we equating Equations. (4.3) and (4.8), we get
1
CR 1/ 2
S o1 / 2  R 2 /3
S o1 / 2
n
1 / 6
R
C  ----------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.9)
n
Similarly we can be equating equations (4.5) and (4.9) we get
8 g 1 / 6
 n 2 
 8 g  ----------------------------- (4.10)
R
  f   1 / 3
f n  R 

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 

From equation (4.10) we see f  


n 2

 , it follows that n  1/6
s . If so the both
1 / 3
 R 
 v*
Manning’s formula and Darcy – Weisbach formula represent rough turbulent flow at  60


OTHERS RESISTANCE FORMULAE

Several forms for the chezy coefficient C have been proposed by different investigators in the past.
Some of them are in use for problems in open channel flow.

1. Pavlovsik formula: C 
R x
n
in which x  2 .5 n  0 .13  0 .75 R  
n  0 .10 and
n= manning’s coefficient. This formula appears to be in use in Russia
2. Bazin’s formula C  87.0 , in which M = a coefficient dependent on the surface roughness
1 M / R
1 0 . 00155
3. Ganguillet and Kutter Formula 23 
 , in which n= manning’s
n So
C 
 0 . 00155  n
1   23  
 S o  R
coefficient

MANNING’S Roughness Coefficient (n)

In applying the Manning equation, the greatest difficulty lies in the determination of the roughness
coefficient, n; there is no exact method of selecting the n value. Selecting a value of n actually
means to estimate the resistance to flow in a given channel, which is really a matter of
intangibles.(Chow, 1959) .To experienced engineers, this means the exercise of engineering
judgment and experience; for a new engineer, it can be no more than a guess and different
individuals will obtain different results.
Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
It is not uncommon for engineers to think of a channel as having a single value of n for all
occasions. Actually, the value of n is highly variable and depends on a number of factors. The
factors that exert the greatest influence upon the roughness coefficient in both artificial and natural
channels are described below.
a) Surface Roughness: The surface roughness is represented by the size and shape of the
grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter. This usually considered the only factor
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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
in selecting the roughness coefficient, but it is usually just one of the several factors.
Generally, fine grains result in a relatively low value of n and coarse grains in a high value
of n.
b) Vegetation: Vegetation may be regarded as a kind of surface roughness, but it also reduces
the capacity of the channel. This effect depends mainly on height, density, and type of
vegetation.
c) Channel Irregularity: Channel irregularity comprises irregularities in wetted perimeter
and variations in cross-section, size, and shape along the channel length.
d) Channel Alignment: Smooth curvature with large radius will give a relatively low value of
n, whereas sharp curvature with severe meandering will increase n.
e) Silting and Scouring: Generally speaking, silting may change a very irregular channel into
a comparatively uniform one and decrease n, whereas scouring may do the reverse and
increase n.
f) Obstruction: The presence of logjams, bridge piers, and the like tends to increase n.
g) Size and Shape of the Channel: There is no definite evidence about the size and shape of
the channel as an important factor affecting the value of n.
h) Stage and Discharge: The n value in most streams decreases with increase in stage and
discharge.
i) Seasonal Change: Owing to the seasonal growth of aquatic plants, the value of n may
change from one season to another season.
Determination of Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
a. Cowan Method
Taking into account primary factors affecting the roughness coefficient, Cowan (1956) developed a
method for estimating the value of n. The value of n may be computed by,
n =(n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4)×m ---------------------------------------------------------(4.11)
Where: n0 is a basic value for straight, uniform, smooth channel in the natural materials involved,
n1 is a value added to n0 to correct for the effect of surface irregularities,
n2 is a value for variations in shape and size of the channel cross-section,
n3 is a value of obstructions,
n4 is a value for vegetation and flow conditions, and
m is a correction factor for meandering of channel.

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
These coefficients are given in Table (4.2) depending on the channel characteristics. (French,1994).
Table 4.2: Values of the manning’s coefficients of Cowan Method

b. Empirical Formulae for n

Many empirical formulae have been presented for estimating manning’s coefficient n in natural
streams. These relate n to the bed-particle size. (Subramanya, 1997). The most popular one under
this type is the Strickler formula,
1/ 6
d 50
n ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.12)
21 . 1
Where d50 is in meters and represents the particle size in which 50 per cent of the bed material is
finer. For mixtures of bed materials with considerable coarse-grained sizes,
1/ 6
d 90
n ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.13)
26
Where d90 = size in meters in which 90 per cent of the particles are finer than d90. This equation is
reported to be useful in predicting n in mountain streams paved with coarse gravel and cobbles.

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
c. Equivalent Roughness
In some channels different parts of the channel perimeter may have different roughnesses.
Canals in which only the sides are lined, laboratory flumes with glass walls and rough beds,
rivers with sand bed in deepwater portion and flood plains covered with vegetation, are some
typical examples. For such channels it is necessary to determine an equivalent roughness
coefficient that can be applied to the entire cross-sectional perimeter in using the Manning’s
formula. This equivalent roughness, also called the composite roughness, represents a
weighted average value for the roughness coefficient, n.

A large number of formulae, proposed by various investigators for calculating equivalent

roughness of multi-roughness channel are available in literature. All of them are based on some
assumptions and approximately effective to the same degree. We see the derivation of one of
the common formula called Horton’s Method and present others as table below.

Horton’s method of Equivalent Roughness Estimation:

Consider a channel having its perimeter composed of N types rough nesses. P1, P2,…., PN are the
lengths of these N parts and n1, n2,…….., nN are the respective roughness coefficients as presented
in the above figure.

Let each part Pi be associated with a partial area Ai such that,

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
It is assumed that the mean velocity in each partial area is the mean velocity V for the entire area of
flow,

By the Manning’s equation,

, ---------------------(4.14)
Where n = Equivalent roughness.
From Equ. (4.14),

------------------------------------------------------- (4.15)
This equation gives a means of estimating the equivalent roughness of a channel having multiple
roughness types in its perimeters
Table 4.3. Equations for equivalent Roughness Coefficient (adopt from K. Subramanya 2010)
No Investigators ne Concept
1 Horton (1933); Einstein (1934) 2/3 Mean Velocity is
 n 
1 
 3/2
i Pi  constant in all subareas
P 
2 Pavloskii (1931), Muhlhofer(1933) 1/ 2 Total resistance force F
Einstein and Banks (1950)
1 
   n i2 Pi    is sum of subarea
P 
resistance force, Fi
3 Lotter (1932) 
PR 5 / 3 Total discharge is sum
P i R i5 / 3
of subarea discharge
 ni
4 Yen (1991)

 n P  i i
Total shear velocity is
P weighted sum of subarea
shear velocity

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Table 4.4: values of Manning’s Roughness coefficient (adopt from ERA design manuals 2001)
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
EXCAVATED OR DREDGED
a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense Weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.025 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy sides 0.025 0.035 0.045
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Backhoe-excavated or dredged
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
NATURAL STREAMS
1 Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m)
a. Streams on Plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rims or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
slopes and sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8 Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.100 0.150
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks
usually steep, trees and brush along banks submerged
at high stages
1. Bottom: gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
2 Flood Plains
a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
b. Cultivated area
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy growth of spouts
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little 0.050 0.060 0.080
undergrowth, flood stage below branches
5. Same as above, but with flood stage reaching 0.080 0.100 0.120
branches
3 Major Streams (top width at flood stage > 30 m). The n value is
0.100 0.120 0.160
less than that for minor streams of similar description, because
banks offer less effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush
b. Irregular and rough section
4 Various Open Channel Surfaces
0.025 -- 0.060
a. Concrete
0.035 -- 0.100
b. Gravel bottom with:
Concrete
0.012- 0.020
Mortared stone
Riprap
0.020
c. Natural Stream Channels
0.023
Clean, straight stream
0.033
Clean, winding stream
Winding with weeds and pools
0.030
With heavy brush and timber
0.040
d. Flood Plains
0.050
Pasture
0.100
Field Crops
Light Brush and Weeds
0.035
Dense Brush
0.040
Dense Trees
0.050
0.070
0.100

Example 4.2: An earthen trapezoidal channel (n = 0.025) has a bottom width of 5.0 m, side slopes
of 1.5 horizontal: 1 vertical and a uniform flow depth of 1.10 m. In an economic study
to remedy excessive seepage from the canal two proposals, a) to line the sides only
and, b) to line the bed only are considered. If the lining is of smooth concrete (n =
0.012), calculate the equivalent roughness in the above two cases.

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 13 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Solution :
Earthen (n) = 0.025
B = 5.0m
m= 1.5
y = 1.10m
a). line the sides only
b). line the bed only
lining (n) = 0.012
Case a): Lining on the sides only,
For the bed → n1 = 0.025 and P1 = 5.0 m.
For the sides → n2 = 0.012 and

Case b): Lining on the bottom only

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTATION
The basic equations involved in the computation of uniform flow are the manning’s and the
continuity equation. From continuity equation Q = AV, if we substitute the velocity from the
manning’s formula we get the equation for discharge as
1
Q AR 2 / 3 S o1 / 2 ------------------------------------------------ (4.16)
n
Q  K S o --------------------------------------------------------- (4.17)

1
Where K  AR 2 / 3 is called the conveyance of the channel and express the discharge capacity of
n
the channel per unit longitudinal slope. The term nK = AR2/3 is also called the section factor for
uniform flow computations.
The basic variables in uniform flow problems can be the discharge Q, velocity of flow V, normal
depth y0, roughness coefficient n, channel slope S0 and the geometric elements (e.g. B and side
slope m for a trapezoidal channel). There can be many other derived variables accompanied by
corresponding relationships. From among the above, the following five types of basic problems are
recognized.
Table 4.5 Problem Types and the given and required variables in uniform flow

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius plays a prominent role in the equations of open-channel flow and therefore, the
variation of hydraulic radius with depth and width of the channel becomes an important
consideration. This is mainly a problem of section geometry.

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 

Figure on the relation of Hydraulic Radius with depth and width

Consider first the variation of hydraulic radius Consider the variation of hydraulic radius
with depth in a rectangular channel of width with width in a rectangular channel of with a
B constant water depth y

From this it may be concluded that for wide

Therefore the variation of R with y is as
shallow rectangular cross-sections R≈y; for
shown in Fig (a) above. From this comes a
useful engineering approximation: rectangular sections the approximation is also
for narrow deep cross-sections R≈ B/2. valid if the section is wide and shallow, here
Since any (nonrectangular) section when deep the hydraulic radius approaches the mean
and narrow approaches a rectangle, when a
channel is deep and narrow, the hydraulic depth.
radius may be taken to be half of mean width
for practical applications.

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 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Normal Depth

Rectangular Channel
Area A = Byo
Wetted Perimeter P = B + 2yo
Y0 
Hydraulic Radius R= A/P
y ---------- (4.18)
R  o
B  y o
1  2
B
a). wide Rectangular Channel
As yo/B, the aspect ratio of the channel decrease, R yo. Such channels with large bed-widths as
compared to their respective depths are known as wide rectangular channels. In these channels, the
hydraulics radius approximates to the depth of flow.
Considering a unit width of a wide rectangular channel, A= yo, R = yo and B = 1.0
3/5
1 5 / 3 1/ 2  qn 
Discharge per unit width Q/B = q  yo S o  yo    --------------------------- (4.19)
n  S o 
This approximation of a wide rectangular channel is found applicable to rectangular channels
yo/B < 0.02.
b). Rectangular Channels with yo/B ≥ 0.02

Qn
 AR 2 / 3 , and 2/3

 By o 
5/3


 yo / B 
5/3

B8/ 3
For these channels AR
So B  2 y o  2/3
1  2 y o / B 2/3

Qn AR 2 / 3
 8/3 
 o  5/3

   o  ------------------------------------------------------ (4.20)
So B8 / 3 B 1  2 o 2 / 3
y0
Where  0  , Tables of (o) Vs o will provide a non-dimensional graphical aid for general
B
Qn
application. Since   , one can easily find yo/B from this table for any combination of Q,
So B8/ 3
n, So, and B in a rectangular channel.

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 17 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Trapezoidal Channel
Following a procedure similar to the above, for a trapezoidal section of side slope m:1.

1 Area = A = (B + myo)yo
Wetted Perimeter = P= (B +2yom2+1)
m
Hydraulic Radius
yo  
A B  my o  y o
B 
R 
P 
B  2 m 2  1y o 
Qn B  myo 5 / 3 y o5 / 3
 AR 2/3
 , Non-dimensionalising the variables,
So B  2 m 2  1yo  2/3

AR 2 / 3 Qn 1  m o 5 / 3 o5 / 3
    ( o , m) ----------------------------------------- (4.21)
B8/ 3 So B8/ 3 1  2 m  1y o
2
2/3

Where o = yo/B.
Equation (4.21) represent as curves or tables of  vs o with m as the third parameter to provide a
general normal depth solution aid. It may be noted m=0 is the case of rectangular.

Lined canal Section

Most lined channels and built-up channels can withstand erosion and reduce seepage. Exposed hard
surface lining using materials, such as cement concrete, brick tiles, asphaltic concrete and stone
masonry are the members of lined canal category and also carry large canal. Indian Standards (IS:
4745 -1968) consists of two standardized lined canal section (i.e., Trapezoidal and triangular with
corners rounded off for discharge > 55m3/sec and < 55m3/sec). Actually the triangular section is
the limiting case of the standard lined trapezoidal section with bottom width (B) = 0.

   
1      r 
m  r yo m=cot 
r =yo r =yo

B
By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 18 of 26 
 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Referring the above figure the full supply depth = normal depth at design discharge = yo at normal
depth
For standard trapezoidal case
 1
Area = A = Byo +myo2 + yo2 = (B +yo)yo , where   m     m  tan 1 
 m
Wetted perimeter =P = B +2myo +2yo = B +2yo
( B  y0 ) y o
Hydraulics radius =R= A/P =
B  2 yo

1  ( B  y o  ) 5 / 3 y o5 / 3  1 / 2
By manning’s formula Q    S o ---------------------------------------- (4.22)
n  ( B  2 yo ) 2 / 3 

Non-dimensionalising the variables,

Qn 5 / 3 (1   o ) 5 / 3 o5 / 3
  ( o )  ------------------------------------------------------ (4.23)
S o1 / 2 B 8 / 3 (1  2 o ) 2 / 3
For standard triangular case similarly we can drive
1
Q (y o2 )( y o / 2) 2 / 3 S o1 / 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.24)
n

Example 4.3 A standard lined trapezoidal cannel section is to be designed to convey 100m3/sec of
flow. The side slope is to be 1.5H:1V and the manning’s coefficient n= 0.016. The longitudinal
slope of the bed is 1 in 5000m. If a bed width of 10m is preferred what would be the normal depth?
Solution  = m+ tan-1(1/m)= 1.5 +tan-1(1/1.5) yo
Then  0  , which imply that
Q= 100m3/sec = 2.088 B
m= 1.5 Qn  5 / 3 100 X 0.016 X ( 2.088) 5 / 3  o B 0.74 X 10.0
1    0.8314 y0  
n= 0.016 S o1 / 2 B 8 / 3 (0.0002 )1 / 2 (10 .0) 8 / 3  2.088
y 0  3.554
So = 0.0002
(1   o ) 5 / 3  o5 / 3
B= 10m 1   0 . 8314
(1  2 o ) 2 / 3
yo =?
By solving trial and error
o = 0.74

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 19 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
The Hydraulic Efficient Channel Section
The best hydraulic (the most efficient) cross-section for a given Q, n, and S0 is the one with a
minimum excavation and minimum lining cross-section. A = Amin and P = Pmin. The minimum cross-
sectional area and the minimum lining area will reduce construction expenses and therefore that
cross-section is economically the most efficient one. In other case the best hydraulic cross-section for
a given A, n, and S0 is the cross-section that conveys maximum discharge. Thus the cross-section
with the minimum wetted perimeter is the best hydraulic cross-section within the cross-sections with
the same area since lining and maintenance expenses will reduce substantially.

Rectangular channel section

Since P=Pmin for the
best hydraulic section,
taking the derivative of P
with respect to y

The best rectangular hydraulic cross-section for a constant

area is the one with B = 2y. The hydraulic radius of this cross-
section is,

For all best hydraulic cross-sections, the hydraulic radius

should always be R = y/2 regardless of their shapes.

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 20 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Trapezoidal Channel Section

my  my 

a). For a given side slope m, what will be the water depth y for best hydraulic trapezoidal cross-
section?
For a given A , P = Pmin

The hydraulic radius R, channel bottom width B, and

free surface width L may be found as,

 
 

 
 

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 21 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
b). For a given water depth y, what will be the side slope m for best hydraulic trapezoidal cross-
section?

 
 

The channel bottom width is equal one third of the

wetted perimeter and therefore sides and channel width
B are equal to each other at the best trapezoidal
hydraulic cross-section. Since α = 600, the cross-section
is half of the hexagon.

Table 4.6 values of parameters in Efficient (best) hydraulic section

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 22 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Compound Sections
Some channel sections may be formed as a combination of elementary sections. Typically natural
channels, such as rivers, have flood plains which are wide and shallow compared to the main channel.
The figure below represents a simplified section of a stream with flood banks. Consider the
compound section to be divided into subsections by arbitrary lines. These can be extensions of the
deep channel boundaries as in figure. Assuming the longitudinal slope to be same for all subsections,
it is easy to see that the subsections will have different mean velocities depending upon the depth and
roughness of the boundaries. Generally, overbanks have larger size roughness than the deeper main
channel. If the mean velocities Vi in the various subsections are known then the total discharge is
ΣViAi.

If the depth of flow is confined to the deep channel only (y < h), calculation of discharge by using
Manning’s equation is very simple. However, when the flow spills over the flood plain (y > h), the
problem of discharge calculation is complicated as the calculation may give a smaller hydraulic
radius for the whole stream section and hence the discharge may be underestimated. The following
method of discharge estimation can be used. In this method, while calculating the wetted perimeter
for the sub-areas, the imaginary divisions (FJ and CK in the Figure) are considered as boundaries for
the deeper portion only and neglected completely in the calculation relating to the shallower portion.
1. The discharge is calculated as the sum of the partial discharges in the sub-areas; for e.g. units 1,
2 and 3 in Figuer

2. The discharge is also calculated by considering the whole section as one unit, (ABCDEFGH
area in Figure), say Qw.

3. The larger of the above discharges, Qp and Qw, is adopted as the discharge at the depth y.

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 23 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Design of Irrigation Channels
For a uniform flow in a canal,

Where A and R are in general, functions of the geometric elements of the canal. If the canal is of
trapezoidal cross-section,

-------------------------------------- (4.25)

Equ. (4.25) has six variables out of which one is a dependent variable and the rest five are
independent ones. Similarly, for other channel shapes, the number of variables depends upon the
channel geometry. In a channel design problem, the independent variables are known either explicitly
or implicitly, or as inequalities, mostly in terms of empirical relationships. The canal-design practice
given below is meant only for rigid-boundary channels, i.e. for lined and unlined non-erodible
channels.

Canal Section
Normally a trapezoidal section is adopted. Rectangular cross-sections are also used in special
situations, such as in rock cuts; steep chutes and in cross-drainage works. The side slope, expressed as
m horizontal: 1 vertical, depends on the type of canal, (i.e. lined or unlined, nature and type of soil
through which the canal is laid). The slopes are designed to withstand seepage forces under critical
conditions, such as;
1. A canal running full with banks saturated due to rainfall,
2. The sudden drawdown of canal supply.
Usually the slopes are steeper in cutting than in filling. For lined canals, the slopes roughly
correspond to the angle of repose of the natural soil and the values of m range from 1.0 to 1.5 and
rarely up to 2.0. The slopes recommended for unlined canals in cutting are given in Table (4.7).

Table 4.7: Side slopes for unlined canals in cutting

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 24 of 26 

 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Longitudinal Slope
The longitudinal slope is fixed on the basis of topography to command as much area as possible with
the limiting velocities acting as constraints. Usually the slopes are of the order of 0.0001. For lined
canals a velocity of about 2 m/sec is usually recommended.
Roughness coefficient n
Procedures for selecting n are discussed and values of n can be taken from Table (4.4).
Permissible Velocities
Since the cost for a given length of canal depends upon its size, if the available slope permits, it is
economical to use highest safe velocities. High velocities may cause scour and erosion of the
boundaries. As such, in unlined channels the maximum permissible velocities refer to the velocities
that can be safely allowed in the channel without causing scour or erosion of the channel material. In
lined canals, where the material of lining can withstand very high velocities, the maximum
permissible velocity is determined by the stability and durability of the lining and also on the erosive
action of any abrasive material that may be carried in the stream. The permissible maximum
velocities normally adopted for a few soil types and lining materials are given in Table (4.8).
Table 4.8 Permissible Maximum velocities

In addition to the maximum velocities, a minimum velocity in the channel is also an important
constraint in the canal design. Too low velocity would cause deposition of suspended material, like
silt, which cannot only impair the carrying capacity but also increase the maintenance costs. Also, in
unlined canals, too low a velocity may encourage weed growth. The minimum velocity in irrigation
channels is of the order of 0.30 m/sec.
By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 25 of 26 
 
 
 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
 
Free Board
Free board for lined canals is the vertical distance between the full supply levels to the top of lining
(Fig. 4.17). For unlined canals, it is the vertical distance from the full supply level to the top of the
bank.

This distance should be sufficient to prevent overtopping of the canal lining or banks due to waves.
The amount of free board provided depends on the canal size, location, velocity and depth of flow.

Width to Depth Ratio

The relationship between width and depth varies widely depending upon the design practice. If the
hydraulically most-efficient channel cross-section is adopted,

If any other value of m is use, the corresponding value of B/y0 for the efficient section would be

In large channels it is necessary to limit the depth to avoid dangers of bank failure. Usually depths
higher than about 4.0 m are applied only when it is absolutely necessary. For selection of width and
depth, the usual procedure is to adopt a recommended value.
Example 4.4.

By Belete B.  AAiT Department of Civil Engineering     October 2010     Page 26 of 26