General Science

CHAPTER I
THE ENVIRONMENT
Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of
the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on
evidence.

Science is a systematic study of the nature and manners of an object and the
natural universe that is established around measurement, experiment, observation and
formulation of laws. There are four major branches of science; each branch is
categorized in different type of subjects that covers different areas of studies such us
chemistry, physics, math, astronomy etc. The four major branches of science are,
Mathematics and logic, biological science, physical science and social science.

The first branch is mathematics & logic. Mathematics and logic deals with abstract
concepts. It goes hand in hand as both are needed in relation to finding out how social
sciences and natural sciences work. They are also both needed in forming laws, theories
and hypothesis. Even scientist needs this branch of science, as they would not come to a
conclusion without any formulation.

Another branch of science is Biological science. This on the other hand deals with
the study of living things. Biological science is divided into different sub topics. One of
them is Zoology. It is a category under biology that focuses on the study of animal life.
The study includes, and are not limited to, evolution, classification of both extinct and the
living, structure and habits. Zoology also deals with embryology, which is the study of
the animals' development of the embryo, from fertilization to fetus.

Another category is Botany. This category is the scientific study of plants and its
life cycle. Including in this study are the plants diseases, reproduction, growth, chemical
properties, structure and relationship. Ecology on the other hand deals with the study of
the environment and its relationship to living organisms. The last category of biological
science is Paleontology. This category of biology deals with the study of prehistoric era.
Fossils are not just the main concern in paleontology, it can include any subject that is
related with the past, and in other words it can be a study of the whole history of mankind
and its life on earth.

Social science is one of the four major branches of science. This on the other
hand is the study of the society and man's relationship to it. This study includes
Anthropology, which is the study of human behavior and human development that
considers cultural, social and physical aspects. Economics is another category under
social science; this science studies goods and services, how they are being
manufactured, distributed and consumed. Sociology meanwhile is the study of human
society; it is more concerned in group activities and urban studies. This study is part of
the social science branch, although synonymous when it comes to the name, sociology is
more compound since it uses different methods of critical analysis and investigation to
come up with a conclusion.

The study of earth's phenomena, its land and features is what Geology is all
about. Another category of social science, it can be divided into two parts, which are the
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physical geography that deals with the land and human geography that deals with the
land's inhabitants. Philosophy on the other hand is the pursuit of knowledge by means of
moral, intellectual and self-discipline. Studying human behavior according to its principles
is what psychology is all about.

Physical science, the last in four major branches of science, has geology,
physics, chemistry and astronomy as its categories. Astronomy is the study of the
heavenly bodies, like the stars, galaxies, comets and planets, while chemistry is the
study of different substances, the changes they undergo and their compositions. It can be
divided as well into two, which are the organic and inorganic chemistry. Physics is the
study of matter and geology is the study of the physical property and composition of the
earth.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates

physical, biological and information sciences (including ecology, biology, physics,
chemistry, plant science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science,
geology and physical geography, and atmospheric science) to the study of the
environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science
emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment.

Everything that we see around us makes up our environment. The landforms and
bodies of water that make up the landscape, the mountains and valleys, rivers and seas;
the climate, the rains brought by the monsoons, the warm, humid weather that we
frequently experience; the natural resources that we make use of; every plant and animal
that live around us. Truly, the environment is made up of a lot of things.

All these things that we find in our surroundings and all the natural phenomena
that we observe are not due to some random luck or accident. What makes up our
environment is very much related to where our country is on the globe. Or, to say it in a
different way, the characteristics of our environment are determined by the location of the
Philippines on the planet.

Planet Earth is made up of different things - air, water, plants, animals, soil, rocks,
minerals, crude oil, and other fossil fuels. These things are called natural resources
because they are not made by people; rather they are gathered from nature. Sunlight and
wind are also natural resources. We use all these things to survive or satisfy our needs.

The Philippines is considered rich in natural resources. We have fertile, arable

lands, high diversity of plant and animals, extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits.
We have natural gas, coal, and geothermal energy. Wind and water are also harnessed
for electricity generation.

Biodiversity is the foundation of ecosystem services to which human well-being is

intimately linked. No feature of Earth is more complex, dynamic, and varied than the layer
of living organisms that occupy its surfaces and its seas, and no feature is experiencing
more dramatic change at the hands of humans than this extraordinary, singularly unique
feature of Earth. This layer of living organisms—the biosphere—through the collective
metabolic activities of its innumerable plants, animals, and microbes physically and
chemically unites the atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere into one environmental
system within which millions of species, including humans, have thrived. Breathable air,
potable water, fertile soils, productive lands, bountiful seas, the equitable climate of
Earth’s recent history, and other ecosystem services are manifestations of the workings

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of life. It follows that large-scale human influences over this biota have tremendous
impacts on human well-being. It also follows that the nature of these impacts, good or
bad, is within the power of humans to influence

Water, a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen

and existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. It is one of the most plentiful and
essential of compounds. A tasteless and odourless liquid at room temperature, it has the
important ability to dissolve many other substances. Indeed, the versatility of water as a
solvent is essential to living organisms. Life is believed to have originated in the aqueous
solutions of the world’s oceans, and living organisms depend on aqueous solutions, such
as blood and digestive juices, for biological processes. In small quantities water appears
colourless, but water actually has an intrinsic blue colour caused by slight absorption of
light at red wavelengths.

The Philippines boasts of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as
bays, rivers, lakes, falls, gulfs, straits, and swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the
country's coastline (seashore) if laid end-to-end, would measure around 17.5 thousand
kilometers. And you know how we are proud of our coastlines! The bodies of water and
its surrounding environment not only support the survival of diverse organisms for food
but are also used for other economic activities. The Pacific Ocean in the east and south
China Sea in the west (sometimes referred to as the West Philippine Sea). These bodies
of water are the origin of typhoons which on the average, according to Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), is about
20 a year. Typhoons and the monsoons (amihan and habagat) bring lots of rain to the
Philippines.

Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric
water vapor and then become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major
component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on
the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water
for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation.

For some, rain and typhoons result in flooding, landslides, and health related-problems.
But water is one of nature’s gifts to us. People need fresh water for many purposes. We
use water for domestic purposes, for irrigation, and for industries. We need water to
generate electricity. We use water for recreation or its aesthetic value. Many resorts are
located near springs, waterfalls or lakes.

You collect them when the rain falls or get them from the river, deep well, or spring.

Watershed is defined as any surface area from which runoff resulting from rainfall
is collected and drained through a common point. It is synonymous with a drainage basin
or catchment area. A watershed may be only a few hectares as in small ponds or
hundreds of square kilometres as in rivers. All watersheds can be divided into smaller
sub-watersheds. It includes the surface of the land and the underground rock formation
drained by the stream. From an aerial view, drainage patterns in a watershed resemble
a network similar to the branching pattern of a tree. Tributaries, similar to twigs and small
branches, flow into streams, the main branch of the tree. Streams eventually empty into a
large river comparable to the trunk.

Watersheds come in all shapes and sizes. They cross towns and provinces. In
other parts of the world, they may cross national boundaries. There are many

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watersheds in the Philippines basically because we have abundant rainfall. Do you know
that Mt. Apo in Davao-Cotabato, Makiling, Banahaw in Laguna and Quezon, and Tiwi in
Albay are watersheds? You must have heard about La Mesa Dam in Metro Manila,
Pantabangan Dam in Pampanga, and Angat Dam in Bulacan. These watersheds are
sources of water of many communities in the area. The Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City
is in a watershed; it is used to generate electricity.

Watersheds are not just about water. A single watershed may include combination
of forest, grassland, marshes, and other habitats. Diverse organisms in the Philippines
are found in these areas! Being a tropical country, the Philippines has abundant rainfall,
many bodies of water, and lots of sunshine. The right temperature and abundant rainfall
explain partly why our country is considered to be a mega-diverse country. This means
that we have high diversity of plants and animals, both on land and in water. Reports
show that in many islands of the Philippine archipelago, there is a high number of
endemic plants and animals (endemic means found only in the Philippines). The country
hosts more than 52,177 described species of which more than half is found nowhere else
in the world. They say that on a per unit area basis, the Philippines shelters more
diversity of life than any other country on the planet. For now remember that the main
function of a watershed is the production of a continuous water supply that would
maintain the life forms within it and in the area fed by its stream. Later you will learn that
besides supporting the survival of varied life forms, abundant water in the country is
important in moderating temperature.

Food production, as the name suggests, is all about preparing food, in which raw
materials are converted into ready-made food products for human use either in the home
or in the food processing industries. Its process comprises of scientific approaches. Food
production has many sections and it starts with basic things like cleaning, packing,
segregating, sorting, preparing, adding ingredients in correct proportions, presenting, etc.

Climate (temperature and rainfall) is a significant factor not only in soil formation
but also in sustaining diversity of plants and animals in the country. On the other hand,
water also directly affects the movement of soluble soil nutrients from the top soil to deep
under the ground (leaching). These nutrients may no longer be available to shallow
rooted plants. Acidic rainwater may also contribute to the loss of minerals in soil resulting
in low yield. So rainfall determines the kind of vegetation in an area. In turn, the degree of
vegetation cover, especially in sloping areas, determines how much soil is removed.

Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from
the weathering of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air,
water and living organisms—all of which interact slowly yet constantly.

Most plants get their nutrients from the soil and they are the main source of food for
humans, animals and birds. Therefore, most living things on land depend on soil for their
existence.

Soil is a valuable resource that needs to be carefully managed as it is easily

damaged, washed or blown away. If we understand soil and manage it properly, we will
avoid destroying one of the essential building blocks of our environment and our food
security.

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 Soil covers the entire Earth. Temperature, rainfall, chemical changes, and
biological action act together to continuously form soil. Climate, expressed as both
temperature and rainfall effects, is often considered the most powerful soil-forming factor.

Temperature controls how fast chemical reactions occur. Many reactions proceed
more quickly as temperature increases. Warm-region soils are normally more developed
or more mature than cold-region soils. Mature soils have more silt and clay on or near the
surface. Thus, soils in the tropical areas are observed to sustain various farming activities
and account for why the primary source of livelihood in the Philippines and other
countries in the tropical region is their fertile land.

A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or

mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition
and the way in which it is formed. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups:
igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks. Rocks form the Earth's outer
solid layer, the crust.

Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on
the ground surface or the seabed. The metamorphic rocks are formed when existing
rocks are subjected to such large pressures and temperatures that they are transformed
—something that occurs, for example, when continental plates collide. The sedimentary
rocks are formed by diagenesis or lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by
the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks.

History tells us that rocks have been used by humans for more than two million
years. Our ancestors lived in caves; they carved rocks and stones to make tools for
hunting animals, cultivating crops, or weapons for protection. Rocks, stones, gravel, and
sand were and are still used to make roads, buildings, monuments, and art objects.

The mining of rocks for their metal content has been considered one of the most
important factors of human progress. The mining industry has raised levels of economy
in some regions, in part because of the kind of metals available from the rocks in those
areas.

Minerals are naturally occurring, solid, inorganic substances. They have a regular,
repeating arrangement of atoms and molecules The study of minerals is known as
mineralogy. People who study minerals are called mineralogists. Minerals can be
described and classified according to their physical properties, such as their:

Crystal structure and shape (called their habit)

Hardness (measured using the Mohs scale of mineral hardness)

Lustre (the way light reflects off them)

Colour

Translucency (how see-through they are)

Cleavage (how they break)

Density (mass to volume ratio)

as well as how they react to substances such as acids or magnets. It is the properties of
minerals that make them useful for important things such as manufacturing.
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Mineral deposits can be classified into two types: metallic and non-metallic.

The important metallic minerals found in various parts of the Philippines include
gold, copper, iron, chromite (made up of chromium, iron, and other metals), nickel,
cobalt, and platinum. The most productive copper and gold producers in the Philippines
are found in Baguio, the province of Benguet, and in Surigao-Davao areas. Major
producers of nickel are in Palawan and Surigao.

Metals are important. The properties of metals make them useful for specific
purposes. Iron is the main material for steel bars used in buildings and road construction.
Copper is used in making electrical wires. Tin is the material for milk cans and other
preserved food products. Nickel is mixed with copper or other metals to form stainless
cooking wares. Gold is important in making jewelry.

Geologists (scientists who study the Earth and the processes that occur in and on
it) explain that there is a continuous source of heat deep under the Earth; this melts rocks
and other materials. The mixture of molten or semi-molten materials is called magma.
Because magma is hotter and lighter than the surrounding rocks, it rises, melting some of
the rocks it passes on the way. If the magma finds a way to the surface, it will erupt as
lava. Lava flow is observed in erupting volcanoes.

But the rising magma does not always reach the surface to erupt. Instead, it may
slowly cool and harden beneath the volcano and form different kinds of igneous rocks.
Under favourable temperature and pressure conditions, the metal-containing rocks
continuously melt and redeposit, eventually forming rich-mineral veins.

Though originally scattered in very small amounts in magma, the metals are
concentrated when magma convectively moves and circulates ore-bearing liquids and
gases. This is the reason why metallic minerals deposits such as copper, gold, silver,
lead, and zinc are associated with magmas found deep within the roots of extinct
volcanoes. And as you saw in the maps, volcanoes are always near trenches and faults!

For now you must have realized that the presence of mineral deposits in the
Philippines is not by accident. It is nature’s gift. If before, your association with volcanoes
and trenches is danger and risk to life and property, now you know that the presence of
volcanoes, trenches and other geological structures is the reason for the rich mineral
deposits in the country.

The existence of volcanoes also explains why the Philippines is rich in geothermal
energy (heat from the Earth).

The Philippines has also varied non-metallic resources including sand and gravel,
limestone, marble, clay, and other quarry materials.

The richness of the Philippines in terms of mineral resources is being attributed to

its location in the so called Pacific Ring of Fire.

Energy is stored and is available in different forms and sources. The 24,330 times
more solar energy that is available than we need is not in a readily usable form. It needs
to be concentrated.

For example, when oil (a concentrated fuel) is burned with air, the resulting gases
can reach high temperatures. Solar energy, as it is, is not concentrated and cannot reach

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those high temperatures. Therefore, we use more concentrated energy sources. These
sources are divided into two groups—renewable and nonrenewable.

Energy sources that can be replenished over and over again; they are never
depleted. Some examples include hydropower, solar, wind, tidal, geothermal energy from
inside the earth, biomass from plants, and nuclear fusion.

These types of energy sources are usually converted into electricity or thermal (heat)
energy.

Energy sources that we are using up and cannot produce in a short period of time.
Some examples include fossil fuels (Petroleum Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal), Tar Sands,
and Nuclear Fission.

Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split
(through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat, and ultimately, electricity.

These types of energy sources are usually converted into electricity and mechanical
energy.

We get most of our energy from these nonrenewable energy sources.

The energy we use to power everything from our homes to schools and workplaces
comes from a variety of different sources. These can be broken down into renewable and
non-renewable energy sources.

A renewable energy source is any natural resources that can replace itself quickly
and dependably. A non-renewable energy source is a source with a finite supply (in other
words, it’ll eventually run out).

The abundance of some metal resources in the Philippines is related to geologic

structures, specifically the presence of volcanoes and trenches in the country. The year-
round warm temperature and availability of water are effects of our geographic location.

The tropical climate and the geological conditions also provide several possibilities to get
clean and cheap energy.

Solar energy is free and inexhaustible.

Geothermal energy was briefly introduced in the lesson on mineral resources and
their location. The Philippines ranked second to the United States in terms of geothermal
energy deposits. Geothermal power plants are located in Banahaw-Makiling, Laguna,
Tiwi in Albay, Bacman in Sorsogon, Palimpinon in Negros Occidental, Tongonan in
Leyte, and Mt. Apo side of Cotabato.

Hydrothermal or hydroelectric power plants use water to generate electricity.

They provide for 27% of total electricity production in the country. Ambuklao in Benguet,
Mt Province, Agus in Lanao del Sur and Agus in Lanao del Norte are large hydrothermal
power plants. Small hydroelectric power plants are in Caliraya, Laguna, Magat in Isabela,
Loboc in Bohol, and other places. Used water from hydropower plants flows through
irrigation systems. Many of the reservoir areas are used for sport activities.

Natural gas is a form of fossil fuel, so are coal and crude oil (sometimes called
petroleum). Fossil fuels were formed from plants and animals that lived on Earth millions
of years ago. They are buried deep in the Earth. Natural gas and oil are taken from the
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deep through oil rigs while coal is extracted through mining. Fossil fuels are used to
produce electricity and run vehicles and factory machines.

In the Philippines, we have coal and natural gas deposits. Coal is a black or
brownish black, solid rock that can be burned. It contains about 40% non-combustible
components, thus a source of air pollution when used as fuel. Coal deposits are
scattered over the Philippines but the largest deposit is located in Semirara Island,
Antique. Coal mines are also located in Cebu, Zamboanga Sibuguey, Albay, Surigao,
and Negros Provinces.

The Malampaya Deep water Gas-to-Power Project employs ‘state-of-the-art deep

water technology’ to draw natural gas from deep beneath Philippine waters. The gas
fuels three natural gas-fired power stations to provide 40-45% of Luzon's power
generation requirements. The Department of Energy reports that since October 2001, the
Philippines has been importing less petroleum for electricity generation, providing the
country foreign exchange savings and energy security from this clean fuel.

Natural gas is considered clean fuel because when burned, it produces the least
carbon dioxide, among fossil fuels. CO2 is naturally present in air in small amounts.
However, studies show that increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere results in
increase in atmospheric temperature, globally.

All resources used by humans, including fuels, metals, and building materials,
come from the Earth. Many of these resources are not in endless supply. It has taken
many thousands and millions of years to develop and accumulate these resources.

To conserve natural resources is to protect or use them wisely without wasting them or
using them up completely. Conserving natural resources can make them last and be
available for future generations. This is what sustainability of natural resources means.
Each one of us should think about how to make things sustainable. Remember: The lives
of future generations depend on how we use natural resources today.

HOW NATURAL RESOURCES CAN BE CONSERVED?

The conservation of natural resources is a crucial element of protecting important

foundations of our planet, and ensuring that they will be available in future without
serious depletion. Some of these natural resources, like water, sunshine or wind are
available in a plentiful and easily renewable supply – but others, like fossil fuels, which
we’ve come to rely on for heating and transportation, are not, and so we need to be more
responsible about how we use them. Here’s a few helpful tips on how natural resources
can be conserved, and how your consumption habits can have a direct impact on them.
 
Water
 Water is a naturally renewable resource, and tidal power has long been recognised as
an alternative source of energy to harness, instead of fossil fuels but that doesn’t mean it
should be wasted. The energy required to turn undrinkable water into water safe to
consume means that we need to be mindful about how we use, and waste, water. Try

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and conserve the amount of water you use by taking showers instead of baths, using the
washing machine with a full load, and collecting rainwater run off to reuse in the garden
for watering the plants.
 
Plants and trees
 Deforestation is a huge global concern, as we are destroying this resource faster than
we can replenish it, so finding ways to conserve it is absolutely crucial. Clearing forests to
make way for building space is ruining our natural environment and destroying habitats
for wildlife, so try and conserve this natural resource by using recycled paper materials
wherever you can.

Fossil fuels
 Coal, oil, gas and petrol are part of our everyday lives, but it’s this over reliance on them
that is causing their rapid depletion and an increase in pollution, but it’s also prompting
the quest to find cleaner, more renewable sources of energy to harness instead, such as
wind and solar energy. Conserving these resources can be done through more conscious
lifestyle choices – take public transport or walk when you can to avoid using the car, and
if you insulate your home and follow advice from your heating engineer to cut down on
the amount of gas and oil you use, you could also save money on your heating bills. Use
the natural source of wind to dry your clothing instead of relying on expensive tumble
driers too.
 
Growing your own food
The cost of transporting foods from other countries to your front door isn’t measured just
in terms of money – there’s the added pollution of transportation too. Combat this by
reducing your reliance on supermarkets for fresh produce, and try your hand at growing
your own fruit and veg. Not only is this benefiting your wallet, but it could be a fantastic
new hobby too.

Important Terms to Remember

Alien species
A species occurring in an area outside of its historically known natural range as a result
of intentional or accidental dispersal by human activities (also known as an exotic or
introduced species).
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Atmosphere
An atmosphere is the layers of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial body. Earth's
atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent other
gases.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity—short for biological diversity—means the diversity of life in all its forms—the
diversity of species, of genetic variations within one species, and of ecosystems

Biodiversity loss
From the time when humans first occupied Earth and began to hunt animals, gather food
and chop wood, they have had an impact on biodiversity. Over the last two centuries,
human population growth, overexploitation of natural resources and environmental
degradation have resulted in an ever accelerating decline in global biodiversity. Species
are diminishing in numbers and becoming extinct, and ecosystems are suffering damage
and disappearing.

Biome
A major portion of the living environment of a particular region (such as a fir forest or
grassland), characterised by its distinctive vegetation and maintained largely by local
climatic conditions.

Biosphere
The biosphere, (from Greek bios = life, sphaira, sphere) is the layer of the planet Earth
where life exists.

Biotechnology
Any technology that is applied to living organisms to make them more valuable to
people.

Conservation
The management of human use of nature so that it may yield the greatest sustainable
benefit to current generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of future generations.

Ecology

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A branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their
environment; the study of ecosystems.

Ecosystem
An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and
the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment.
There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland.
The boundaries are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem
obvious, as with the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an
ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons having to do with the goals of the
particular study.

Eco Tourism
Travel undertaken to witness sites or regions of unique natural or ecologic quality, or the
provision of services to facilitate such travel that have the least impact on biological
diversity and the natural environment.

Extinction
The evolutionary termination of a species caused by the failure to reproduce and the
death of all remaining members of the species; the natural failure to adapt to
environmental change.

Fauna
All of the animals found in a given area. Flora All of the plants found in a given area.

Gene
The functional unit of heredity; the part of the DNA molecule that encodes a single
enzyme or structural protein unit.

Gene bank
A facility established for the ex situ conservation of individuals (seeds), tissues, or
reproductive cells of plants or animals.
Genetic diversity
The variety of genes within a particular populaton, species, variety, or breed.

Geosphere
The geosphere includes the rocks and minerals on Earth – from the molten rock and
heavy metals in the deep interior of the planet to the sand on beaches and peaks of

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mountains. The geosphere also includes the abiotic (non-living) parts of soils, and the
skeletons of animals that may become fossilized over geologic time.

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water and/or
steam carry the geothermal energy to the Earth's surface. Depending on its
characteristics, geothermal energy can be used for heating and cooling purposes or be
harnessed to generate clean electricity.

Grassroots (organizations or movements)

People or society at a local level, rather than at the center of major political activity.
Habitat A place or type of site where an organism or population naturally occurs

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere, including all the waters on the Earth’s surface, is interconnected with
the other ‘spheres’ in the Earth system.

Metallic minerals
Minerals with a high specific gravity and metallic luster, such as titanium, rutile, tungsten,
uranium, tin, lead, iron, etc. In general, the metallic minerals are good conductors of heat
and electricity.

Non-metallic minerals
Minerals are conveniently divided into metallic and nonmetallic groups, and then
arranged in subdivisions according to the elements which form their main constituents.
The nonmetallic minerals (carbon, diamond, coals, bitumen, asphalt, boron, sulfur, rock
salt, etc.) lack the properties of the metallic minerals such as a bright metallic luster,
hardness, density, and good conduction of heat and electricity.

Mohs scale of mineral hardness

One of the most important tests for identifying mineral specimens is the Mohs Hardness
Test. This test compares the resistance of a mineral to being scratched by ten reference
minerals known as the Mohs Hardness Scale (see table at left). The test is useful
because most specimens of a given mineral are very close to the same hardness. This
makes hardness a reliable diagnostic property for most minerals.

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Native species
Flora and fauna species that occur naturally in a given area or region. Also referred to as
indigenous
species.

Natural environment
The natural environment comprises all living and non-living things that occur naturally on
Earth. Inits purest sense, it is thus an environment that is not the result of human activity
or intervention. The
natural environment may be contrasted to “the built environment”, and is also in contrast
to the concept of cultural landscape.

Patent
A government grant of temporary monopoly rights on innovative processes or products.

Protected Areas
An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of
biological diversity,
and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other
effective means. A protected area can be under either public or private ownership.

Rehabilitation
The recovery of specific ecosystem services in a degraded ecosystem or habitat.

Restoration
The return of an ecosystem or habitat to its original community structure, natural
complement of species,and natural functions.

Seedbank
A facility designed for the ex situ conservation of individual plant varieties through seed
preservation and storage.

Species
A group of organisms capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with
members of otherspecies.

Species diversity

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The number and variety of species found in a given area in a region.

Succession
The more or less predictable changes in the composition of communities following a
natural or human disturbance.

Trenches
Trenches define one of the most important natural boundaries on the Earth’s solid
surface, that between two lithospheric plates. Trenches are the spectacular and
distinctive morphological features of convergent plate boundaries. A trench marks the
position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend beneath another
lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to a volcanic island arc, and trenches
about 200 km from a volcanic arc.

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Why do we have rich natural resources?

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_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What geologic structures in the country account for these bounty?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Is our location near the equator related to the presence of these natural
resources?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. How does our latitude position affect the water, soil resources, and biodiversity
in the country?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. What mineral deposits do we have in the country? Where are they located and
why only in those places?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Given our location, what energy resources are available?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7. Which of our practices in using natural resources are sustainable?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

8. Which are not sustainable?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. How can we help conserve natural resources so that future generations can also
enjoy them?

15
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
10. If we have abundant rainfall to feed watersheds, why do we experience drought
some parts of the year?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

11. What factors affect the health of a watershed?

_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________12
. Is there a way of regulating the flow of water in watershed so that there will be
enough for all throughout the year?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________13.
What can people do to keep watersheds ‘healthy’?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

14. What are the uses of aluminum?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

15. What metal is used to make GI sheets for roofing?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

16. What metals are used to make artificial arms or legs?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

17. Are metals used in chairs and other furniture?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

18. What do you think are the environmental conditions in Ilocos Sur and Ilocos
Norte that allow them to use wind power for electricity?

16
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

19. Do you think there are places that have these conditions? Support your
answers.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

20. Explain the role that the community has to play in environmental health.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

21. Discuss the impact of tourism on the environment.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

22. Explain how a housing estate affects the environment we live in.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

23. Explain the impact that water reservoirs have on the environment.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER II
VOLCANOES
The Ring of Fire is a Pacific region home to over 450 volcanoes, including three
of the world’s four most active volcanoes - Mount St. Helens in the USA, Mount Fuji in

17
Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. It is also sometimes called the circum-
Pacific belt.

Around 90% of the world's earthquakes occur in the Ring of Fire, and 80% of the world’s
largest earthquakes.

The 40,0000 kilometre horse-shoe-shaped ring loops from New Zealand to Chile,
passing through the coasts of Asia and the Americas on the way.

The Philippines is located along the Ring of Fire. As a result, it is a home to many
volcanoes. The most famous among our volcanoes is the Mayon Volcano that has
erupted last May 7, 2013 while a group of hikers were exploring its beauty. Who could
forget the terrible eruption of Pinatubo Volcano in 1992 after 600 years of inactivity?
Based on statistics, in the first five years following the eruption, lahars destroyed the
homes of more than 100,000 people. Lahars also covered about 120,000 hectares with
sediment to an average depth of about one meter, and floods spread rock debris over a
larger area. The eruption also affected other countries as its emissions in the atmosphere
lowered the air temperature. According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS), our country is an ideal site for any volcanic activity. It is
therefore, important for us to know how this natural phenomenon happens to reduce the
risks and effects it may cause.

A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust that allows molten rock, gases, and
debris to escape to the surface.

When studying the volcanoes in the world it is important to understand what the
classification of volcanoes is and how it works. There are several factors that go into
account when attempting to classify a volcano into a group and that includes things like
recent activity, periodicity of eruptions, size, potential impact and others. Though it is not
common to hear it volcano eruptions are actually not that rare. More often than not the
classification of volcanoes refers to the life cycle and that could define them as active,
extinct or dormant. However, a volcano can also be classified by the composition of the
structure and that would mean that it can be a shield, conical or stratovolcano. Finally
they can also be classified because of its eruption which could be quiet or explosive.

Active Volcanoes

A volcano will be classified as an active volcano if at the present time it is

expected to erupt or is erupting already. One of the best examples of this classification of
volcanoes would be Kilauea which has been erupting since 1983. There are a total of
close to 1,500 of such volcanoes on the planet. Every year somewhere between 50 and
70 volcanoes will erupt.

PHIVOLCS have adapted a system where the Philippine volcanoes as active or inactive.
Active volcanoes are those that have a record of eruption within the last 600 years or
those that erupted 10, 000 years ago based on analyses of their materials.

Dormant Volcanoes

The classification of volcanoes which is called dormant would be a volcano that is

not erupting or predicted to erupt in the near future. However, it has done so in
recordable history. A dormant volcano is also expected to have an eruption sometime in
the future. Sometimes the difference between a dormant volcano and an active volcano

18
can be pretty small. That is because even though a volcano can be dormant for hundreds
of years it is still expected to have an eruption in the future.

Inactive volcanoes, on the other hand, are those that have not erupted for the last 10,
000 years and their physical form is being changed by agents of weathering and erosion
through formation of deep and long gullies.

Volcanic landforms and eruptive styles

Igneous Landforms: result from both constructive and erosional processes

Eruptions at the surface produce volcanic landforms primarily controlled by the type of
magma (basaltic, andesitic, rhyolitic) Subsurface injection and differential erosion
produce secondary landforms (dikes, sills, batholiths etc.) Viscosity influences the style of
eruption, flow characteristics of lava and resulting landforms (temperature, composition,
gas content)
Volcanoes come in different shapes and sizes, and each structure has a unique history
of eruption. However, volcanologists have been able to classify them according to their
landforms and eruptive patterns. We have considered the three general volcanic types
according to the shape of their cones: namely: shield volcanoes, cinder cones, and
composite cones.

A volcano usually has a summit, slope, and base. At the summit, there is an
opening which may either be a crater or a caldera. A crater is a funnel-shaped opening at
the top of a volcano while a caldera is formed when a part of the wall collapses following
an explosive eruption.

Volcanic activity can be very fascinating. After an explosive eruption, a scenic

cone-shaped structure may be produced or changes on its slope can be observed. The
emissions of a volcano provide us with clues on what materials are found inside the
Earth. Some eruptions are very explosive, while many others are not.

There are primary factors affecting the volcanoes’ eruptive style, namely: the
magma’s temperature, its chemical composition, and the amount of dissolved gases it
contains. These factors can affect the magma’s viscosity in different ways. Viscosity is
the property of the material’s resistance to flow. It is also described as the liquid’s
thickness and stickiness. The more viscous and thicker the material is, the greater is its
resistance to flow. For instance, syrup is more viscous than water.

Types of volcanic eruptions

Volcanoes erupt differently. They are generally classified as wet or dry depending on the
magma’s water content. Volcanoes are described according to the style of eruption as
follows:

a. Phreatic or hydrothermal – is a stream-driven eruption as the hot rocks come in

contact with water. It is short lived, characterized by ash columns but may be an onset of
a larger eruption. Shown on the right is our Taal Volcano in Batangas.

b. Phreatomagmatic – is a violent eruption due to the contact between water and

magma. As a result, a large column of very fine ash and high-speed and sideway
emission of pyroclastics called base surges are observed.

c. Strombolian - a periodic weak to violent eruption characterized by fountain lava, just

like the Irazu Volcano in Costa Rica.
19
d. Vulcanian – characterized by tall eruption columns that reach up to 20 km high with
pyroclastic flow and ashfall tephra like that of Paricutin Volcano in Mexico.

e. Plinian – excessively explosive type of eruption of gas and pyroclastics, just like our
Pinatubo Volcano in Zambales.

Although volcanologists have different basis for classifying volcanoes, one way to classify
volcanoes is by their cones. Now that you have learned about the relationship between
volcanic emission and the shape of its slope, let’s discuss the three volcanic cones,
namely: shield, cinder, and composite cones.

Shield volcanoes are formed by the accumulation of lava that oozes out from the
volcano. Since non-viscous lava can flow freely, a broad, slightly domed structure that
resembles a warrior’s shield is formed as shown in Figure 13. An example of this type is
the Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Cinder cones, on the other hand, are built from ejected lava
fragments. They have a steep slope, wide crater and are the most abundant of the three
major volcano types. One example of this type is the Paricutin in Mexico.

Composite cones or stratovolcanoes are large, nearly perfect sloped structure

formed from alternate solidification of both lava and pyroclastic deposits. One perfect
example of this type of cone is our Mayon Volcano.

Energy from the volcano

The Earth is believed to be extremely hot from within. This heat from the Earth’s
interior is a source of energy called geothermal energy. The heat of the Earth warms up
water which is trapped in rock formations beneath its surface.

Geothermal energy is generated in two ways: geothermal power plants and

geothermal heat pumps. They differ in the depth of heat source to produce energy.

In geothermal power plants, the heat from deep inside the Earth is used to
produce steam to generate electricity compared with geothermal heat pumps that use the
heat coming from close to the Earth’s surface to heat water or provide heat for buildings.

Volcanic eruption is often associated with negative effects. It can cause loss of
lives and properties. As the lava flows or pyroclastic materials are ejected in the air, they
can destroy anything in their way. Actually, it has a good and a bad side. For example,
the eruption of Pinatubo in 1991, one of the longest volcanic eruptions, has caused the
decrease in the Earth’s surface temperature for almost two years. The strong winds
during its eruption spread the aerosol particles from the plume around the globe. The
result was a measurable cooling of the Earth’s surface for a period of almost two years.

What are the three main volcanoes?

There are three main types of volcano - composite or strato, shield and dome.

Composite Volcanoes

Composite volcanoes, sometimes known as strato volcanoes, are steep sided

cones formed from layers of ash and [lava] flows. The eruptions from these volcanoes
may be a pyroclastic flow rather than a flow of lava. A pyroclastic flow is a superheated
mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust. A pyroclastic flow can travel down the side of a
20
volcano at very high speeds with temperatures over 400 degrees celsius. Composite
volcanoes can rise over 8000 feet.

When composite volcanoes erupt they are explosive and pose a threat to nearby
life and property. Eruptions are explosive due to the thick, highly viscous lava that is
produced by composite cone volcanoes. This viscous lava has a lot to do with why they
are shaped the way they are. The thick lava cannot travel far down the slope of the
volcano before it cools.

Composite volcanoes are usually found at destructive plate margins. Examples of

composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St Helens (USA) and Mount
Pinatubo (Philippines).

Shield Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes are low with gently sloping sides and are formed from layers of
lava. Eruptions are typically non-explosive. Shield volcanoes produce fast flowing fluid
[lava] that can flow for many miles. Eruptions tend to be frequent but relatively gentle.
Although these eruptions destroy property, death or injury to humans rarely occurs.

Shield volcanoes are usually found at constructive boundaries and sometimes at

volcanic hotspots. Examples of shield volcanoes include Mount Kilauea and Maunaloa on
Hawaii.

Dome (Acid Lava Cones)

Acid [lava] is much thicker than [lava] which flows from shield volcanoes. Dome
volcanoes have much steeper sides than shield volcanoes. This is because the lava is
thick and sticky. It cannot flow very far before ot cools and hardens. An example is Puy
de Dome in the Auvergne region of France which last erupted over 1 million years ago.

Location of active volcanoes in the Philippines as of 2020

21
 Name
Eruptions Description and current status

Ambalatungan Group 0 Explosions in 1952 is uncertain. Fumarolic with

solfataras and thermal springs.

Babuyan Claro 3 Eruptions were recorded in 1831, 1860 and

1913. Askedna Hot Springs is in the southern
base of the volcano.

Banahaw 4 Eruptions were uncertain during the mudflows of

1730, 1743, 1843 and 1909.

Biliran 1 Phreatic eruption in 1939. Fumarolic with

thermal springs

Bulusan 17 Eruptions years are from 1886 to 2011.

Permanently monitored

Cabalian[1] 1 Radiocarbon dating on a pyroclastic flow

deposit from the volcano estimated that the last
eruption was in 1820

Cagua 1 Eruption in 1860 and strong solfataric activity in

1907. Thermal areas are near the summit and
NW to NNE flanks.

Camiguin de Babuyanes 1 Its only recorded eruption was in 1857.

Fumarolic with thermal springs

Didicas 6 Eruptions in 1773, 1856, 1900, 1952, 1969 and

1978. A submarine volcano till 1952 when a
permanent island was formed.

Hibok-Hibok 5 Eruption in years 1827, 1862, 1871 and 1948–

1952. Activity from 1897–1902 was only
solfataric. Permanently monitored.

Iraya 1 Last eruption was in 1454. Seismic swarm in

1998.

22
 Name
Eruptions Description and current status

Iriga 0 The eruption in 1628 was discredited.

Jolo Group 0 Uncertain submarine eruption in 1897. Listed

as Bud Dajo, a cinder cone on Jolo Island, in
the PHIVOLCS list.

Kanlaon 26 Eruptions were recorded from 1886 to 2006. On

November 23, 2015 the volcano had a small,
steam-driven explosion. PHIVOLCS raised the
alert level to 1 (mild restiveness). Permanently
monitored.

Leonard Kniaseff 0 Last eruption was dated as c.120 AD. Strong

thermal features.

Makaturing 2 Eruption recorded in 1865 and 1882. The 1856

and 1858 eruptions was credited to Ragang

Matutum 0 Mountain was fumarolic on March 7, 1911, but if

an eruption occurred was uncertain. Thermal
springs in Akmoan and Linan.

Mayon 50 Eruptions were recorded from 1616 to 2013.

Permanently monitored. Most recent major
volcanic activity occurred in 2020 (ongoing).

Musuan 2 Eruptions in 1866 & 1867. Strong seismic

swarm in 1976.

Parker 1 A caldera-forming eruption occurred on January

4, 1641.

Pinatubo 3 Reawakened in 1991, producing the 2nd largest

eruption in the 20th century. Followed by milder
eruptions in 1992 and 1993.

Ragang 7 Eruption years are from 1765 to 1873. Eruptions

23
 Name
Eruptions Description and current status

were uncertain in 1915 and 1916.

San Pablo 0 Last activity was the formation of Sampaloc

Volcanic Field Lake around 1350 AD +/- 100 years determined
by anthropology

Smith 6 Eruption years are from 1652 to 1924.

Combined with Babuyan Claro on the GVP list.

Taal 35 Previous eruption years are from 1572 to 1977.

Last erupted on January 2020. Permanently
monitored.

As of January 2020, there were 24 active volcanoes in the Philippines. The Taal volcano

is the most recent volcano that erupted on January 12, 2020, located in the province of

Batangas. The caldera-type volcano is filled by a lake with a depth of 160 meters.

Important Terms to Remember

active volcano – a volcano that has erupted within the last 600 years and are

documented by man or those that erupted 10,000 years ago based on analyses of

datable materials.

ash – fragments of rocks; fine-grained lava

caldera – a volcanic crater that formed when a part of the wall of the crater collapses

following an explosive eruption

cinder – loose fragments of solidified lava

cinder cone – characterized by narrow base and steep slope

crater- a funnel-shaped depression at the top of a volcano formed as a result of

explosive eruptions composite

24
cone – formed from alternate solidification of lava and cinders characterized by large and

symmetrical slope.

geothermal – heat coming from inside the Earth

inactive volcano– a volcano that has no record of eruption

igneous landforms- igneous landforms are the result of magma coming from deep
within the earth to the surface, where it cools as lava. This can happen explosively or
slowly, depending on the chemical composition of the lava and whether there is an easy
path for it to take to the surface. If there is not a pathway, pressure builds up over time
(like a shaken soda) until the magma forcibly explodes outward.

Kilauea volcano- Kilauea is one of the world’s most active volcanoes. It is a shield-type
volcano that makes up the southeastern side of the Big Island of Hawaii. The volcano
rises 4,190 feet (1,227 meters) above sea level and is about 14 percent of the land area
of the Big Island. The summit caldera contains a lava lake known as Halema`uma`u that
is said to be the home of the Hawaiian volcano goddess, Pele.

lava – magma that has been ejected out of a volcano

magma – molten rock inside the Earth

shield cone - formed by accumulation of lava resulting in a broad, slightly domed

structure that resembles a warrior’s shield

silica – a compound of silicon (SiO2)

slope – degree of slant; inclination

Stratovolcano- A stratovolcano is a tall, conical volcano composed of one layer of

hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. These volcanoes are characterized by a steep
profile and periodic, explosive eruptions.

summit – peak or highest point

viscosity – the resistance to flow

25
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Where are the most active volcanoes?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. How do you know when a volcano is not going to erupt anymore?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. How would you find out if a volcano was going to explode?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. How is magma stored under a volcano?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. How quickly can a magmatic system reload after an eruption?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. Are there any truly predictive events prior to an eruption?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

26
7. What are the key reasons why some volcanoes strongly affect global climate
and some don't?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

8. Explain the 3 forms of volcanoes. In your answer, be sure to include the type
of volcano, kind of lava, type of eruption, and an example.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

9. How many volcanoes are there in the world?

_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

10. How many volcanic eruptions occur every year?

_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

11. Which is the world's largest volcano?

_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

12. Which is the world's highest volcano?

_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

13. Which was the world's biggest eruption?

_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

14. Which is the most dangerous volcano?

_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

27
 CHAPTER III
EARTHQUAKES AND FAULTS
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the
surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere
that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak
that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air,
and wreak destruction across entire cities. The seismicity, or seismic activity, of an area
is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The
word tremor is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling.

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and

displacing or disrupting the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located
offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can
also trigger landslides and occasionally, volcanic activity.

In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic
event—whether natural or caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.
Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults but also by other events
such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's
point of initial rupture is called its hypocenter or focus. The epicenter is the point at
ground level directly above the hypocenter.

Philippines is located along the Ring of Fire. People who live along the Ring of
Fire have to put up with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In this module, we will focus
on earthquakes.

An earthquake is one of the most frightening things that anyone can ever
experience. You grow up believing that the Earth is rock solid and steady. But then the
ground suddenly shakes and you do not know what to believe anymore.

Strong earthquakes have caused countless deaths all over the world, even before
people have started recording these events. No wonder scientists have been working
very hard to find a way to predict when an earthquake occurs.

No one can stop quakes from happening. But there are things that people can do
to avoid or reduce loss of life and damage to property. The first step is to have a clear
understanding of the occurrence of earthquakes.

On July 16, 1990, a strong earthquake hit Luzon. Have you heard about it? Maybe
not, because it happened before you were born. But if your parents are from Luzon, they
surely know about the earthquake. It is possible that they were even affected by it.

During that earthquake, many people lost their lives and many more were injured.
A lot of buildings and other structures were either damaged or destroyed. The
earthquake had a magnitude of 7.8 and its epicenter was located in Nueva Ecija.
According to scientists, the earthquake was caused by movement along the Philippine
Fault.

28
Earthquakes are associated with faults. When a fault suddenly moves, an earthquake
occurs.

In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across

which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large
faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the
largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as subduction zones or
transform faults.Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the
cause of most earthquakes. Faults may also displace slowly, by aseismic creep.

A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault
trace or fault line is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the surface. A fault
trace is also the line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault.

Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, geologists use the
term fault zone when referring to the zone of complex deformation associated with the
fault plane.

An earthquake may be described in two ways: intensity and magnitude. The

intensity of an earthquake gives us an idea of how strong or weak the shaking is. The
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) uses the following scale
to describe the intensity of earthquakes in the Philippines.

Table 1. PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Intensity Description
Scale
Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable
I circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
water in containers oscillates slowly.
Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects
II swing slightly. Still water in containers oscillates noticeably.
Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings.
III Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and nausea are
experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still
water in containers oscillates moderately.
Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people
IV outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of
heavy truck. Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses,
windows, and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed buildings
creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are
slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound
may sometimes be heard.
Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many
V sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors.
Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing
violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light and
unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open
containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs
of trees are noticeable
Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some
VI people lose their balance. Motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy

29
 objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring.
Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made
structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not
affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous
areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it
VII difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or
topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer
considerably damage. Some well-built structures are slightly damaged.
Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete
hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides
are observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by
which loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave
like liquid).
Very Destructive - People are panicky. People find it difficult to stand even
VIII outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete
dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or
toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced,
twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments may tilt or
topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken.
Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man-made structure to sink, tilt or
topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly
areas. Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the
epicenter. Fissures and faults rupture may be observed. Trees are violently
shaken. Water splash or slop over dikes or banks of rivers.
Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake
IX with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. Bridges and elevated
concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts,
towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes are
bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings
and sandboils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations.
Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are
commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently or slops over dikes
and banks.
Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are
X destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and
uplift of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in
river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are
toppled, broken and uprooted.

Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged with distance

from the earthquake. Intensity, however, describes the degree of shaking caused by an
earthquake at a given place and decreases with distance from the earthquake epicentre.

The intensity of an earthquake is determined by observing the effects of the

earthquake in different places. Houses, buildings, and other structures are inspected.

Another way of describing the strength of an earthquake is by magnitude.

The released energy can be calculated by scientists and is called the magnitude of
the earthquake. Obviously, the greater the magnitude, the stronger the earthquake. To
30
distinguish the two, intensity is expressed using Roman numerals (I, II, III) while
magnitude uses Hindu-Arabic numerals (2, 3, 4).

Earthquakes with a magnitude of 2 may or may not be felt. Those that are felt by
most people have a magnitude of 4. Magnitude 6 quakes can lead to a lot of damage in
highly populated areas.

Earthquakes with a magnitude of 7 can cause severe damage. A magnitude 8 or 9

quake results in widespread destruction, especially near the epicenter. Luckily, only one
or two occur every year.

We often think of earthquakes as something harmful and the reason is obvious.

But earthquakes help scientists figure out what is inside the Earth. How? As you know by
now, when a fault suddenly moves, an earthquake is generated.

The shaking starts from the focus and spreads out. You can get an idea of how
this happens by throwing a pebble into a pond. See the ripples that move out in circles?
The vibrations from the focus are something like that.

The vibrations are more properly called seismic waves. As seismic waves travel
through the body of the Earth, they behave in different ways, depending on what they
encounter along way.

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through
and around the earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic
waves.

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different
ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can
travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the
surface of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both
body and surface waves.

Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves
emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

For example, as seismic waves travel deeper into the crust, they speed up. That
means that at depth the rocks are denser. In the upper part of the mantle, the waves slow
down. That means the rocks there are partially molten.

As the waves reach the core, one kind of seismic wave (s-waves) disappears.
That means that the outer core is liquid. At certain depths, the waves are reflected and
refracted (bent). That means the Earth must be layered.

Thus, earthquake waves give us a picture of the Earth’s interior, the way an
“ultrasound” provides an image of a baby inside the womb. This is why scientists know a
bit about the interior of our home planet, even if no one has gone deep into the Earth yet.

31
Faults are found not only on land but also under the sea. When a fault at the bottom of
the sea suddenly moves, the water above it can be affected. A sudden push from an
underwater fault can produce a wave called a tsunami.

Unlike a wave that is formed by the wind, a tsunami is so much more powerful. Wind
waves are just sea-surface waves. In comparison, a tsunami involves the whole depth of
the sea, from the seafloor to the surface.

Far from the shore, a tsunami is low, maybe just a meter high. But it travels at the speed
of a jet plane. When the tsunami reaches the shore, it slows down but it grows in height.

A tsunami is very destructive because the force of the whole ocean is behind it. This is
the reason why whole towns and cities are totally devastated after a tsunami attack.

So, how are earthquakes related to tsunamis? When a fault suddenly moves on land, you
get an earthquake. But if a fault suddenly moves in or near a body of water, you may get
a tsunami in addition to the earthquake.

Thus, when you are near the sea and you feel a strong earthquake, treat that as a
warning signal. Run to the highest place you can find, or if you have a vehicle, evacuate
inland.

Not every fault movement beneath the sea will produce a tsunami. Those faults that
move in a horizontal direction or sideways will not result in a tsunami. The fault has to
move in the vertical sense.

Tsunamis

A tsunami can kill or injure people and damage or destroy buildings and infrastructure as
waves come in and go out. A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by
earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions, or asteroids. Tsunamis can:

 Travel 20-30 miles per hour with waves 10-100 feet high.
 Cause flooding and disrupt transportation, power, communications, and the water
supply.
 Happen anywhere along U.S. coasts. Coasts that border the Pacific Ocean or
Caribbean have the greatest risk.

IF YOU ARE UNDER A TSUNAMI WARNING:

 First, protect yourself from an Earthquake. Drop, Cover, then Hold On.

 Get to high ground as far inland as possible.
 Be alert to signs of a tsunami, such as a sudden rise or draining of ocean waters.
 Listen to emergency information and alerts.
 Evacuate: DO NOT wait! Leave as soon as you see any natural signs of a tsunami
or receive an official tsunami warning.
 If you are in a boat, go out to sea.

HOW TO STAY SAFE WHEN A TSUNAMI THREATENS

32
Prepare NOW

 If you live near, or regularly visit a coastal area, learn about the risk of tsunami in
the area. Some at-risk communities have maps with evacuation zones and routes.
If you are a visitor, ask about community plans.
 Learn the signs of a potential tsunami, such as an earthquake, a loud roar from
the ocean, or unusual ocean behavior, such as a sudden rise or wall of water or
sudden draining of water showing the ocean floor.
 Know and practice community evacuation plans and map out your routes from
home, work, and play. Pick shelters 100 feet or more above sea level, or at least
one mile inland.
 Create a family emergency communication plan that has an out-of-state contact.
Plan where to meet if you get separated.
 Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System
(EAS) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather
Radio also provide emergency alerts.
 Consider earthquake insurance and a flood insurance policy through the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). Standard homeowner’s insurance does not
cover flood or earthquake damage.

Survive DURING

 If you are in a tsunami area and there is an earthquake, then first protect yourself
from the earthquake. Drop, Cover, and Hold On. Drop to your hands and knees.
Cover your head and neck with your arms. Hold on to any sturdy furniture until the
shaking stops. Crawl only if you can reach better cover, but do not go through an
area with more debris.
 When the shaking stops, if there are natural signs or official warnings of a tsunami,
then move immediately to a safe place as high and as far inland as possible.
Listen to the authorities, but do not wait for tsunami warnings and evacuation
orders.
 If you are outside of the tsunami hazard zone and receive a warning, then stay
where you are unless officials tell you otherwise.
 Leave immediately if you are told to do so. Evacuation routes are often marked by
a wave with an arrow in the direction of higher ground.
 If you are in the water, then grab onto something that floats, such as a raft, tree
trunk, or door.
 If you are in a boat, then face the direction of the waves and head out to sea. If
you are in a harbor, then go inland.

Be Safe AFTER

 Listen to local alerts and authorities for information on areas to avoid and shelter
locations.
 Avoid wading in floodwater, which can contain dangerous debris. Water may be
deeper than it appears.
 Be aware of the risk of electrocution. Underground or downed power lines can
electrically charge water. Do not touch electrical equipment if it is wet or if you are
standing in water.
 Stay away from damaged buildings, roads, and bridges.
 Document property damage with photographs. Conduct an inventory and contact
your insurance company for assistance.
 Save phone calls for emergencies. Phone systems are often down or busy after a
disaster. Use text messages or social media to communicate with family and
friends.

33
Earthquake Safety

An earthquake is a sudden, rapid shaking of the earth caused by the shifting of rock
beneath the earth’s surface. They strike without warning, at any time of year, day or
night. Forty-five U.S. states and territories are at moderate to very high risk of
earthquakes. Learn what to do to keep your loved ones safe!

Practice DROP, COVER and HOLD ON with all members of your household.

Doorways are no stronger than any other part of a structure so don’t rely on them for
protection! During an earthquake, get under a sturdy piece of furniture and hold on.

During

Staying Safe Indoors

 DROP, COVER and HOLD ON!

o Move as little as possible - most injuries during earthquakes occur because
of people moving around, falling and suffering sprains, fractures and head
injuries.
o Try to protect your head and torso.

 If you are in bed, stay there, curl up and hold on, and cover your head.
 Stay indoors until the shaking stops and you are sure it is safe to exit.
o If you must leave a building after the shaking stops, use stairs rather than
an elevator in case of aftershocks, power outages or other damage.

 Be aware that smoke alarms and sprinkler systems frequently go off in buildings
during an earthquake, even if there is no fire.
 If you smell gas, get out of the house and move as far away as possible.
 Before you leave any building check to make sure that there is no debris from the
building that could fall on you.

Staying Safe Outdoors

 Find a clear spot and drop to the ground. Stay there until the shaking stops.
 Try to get as far away from buildings, power lines, trees, and streetlights as
possible.
 If you're in a vehicle, pull over to a clear location and stop. Avoid bridges,
overpasses and power lines if possible.
 Stay inside with your seatbelt fastened until the shaking stops.
 After the shaking has stopped, drive on carefully, avoiding bridges and ramps that
may have been damaged.
 If a power line falls on your vehicle, do not get out. Wait for assistance.
 If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes or cliffs, be alert for
falling rocks and other debris as well as landslides.

Staying Safe after an Earthquake

If away from home, return only when authorities say it is safe to do so.

Check yourself for injuries and get first aid, if necessary, before helping injured or trapped
persons.

34
After an earthquake, the disaster may continue. Expect and prepare for potential
aftershocks, landslides or even a tsunami if you live on a coast.

Each time you feel an aftershock, DROP, COVER and HOLD ON. Aftershocks frequently
occur minutes, days, weeks and even months following an earthquake.

Look for and extinguish small fires. Fire is the most common hazard after an earthquake.

Important Terms to Remember

aseismic

This term describes a fault on which no earthquakes have been observed.

Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's crust that
creates seismic waves.
Earthquakes are accordingly measured with a seismometer, commonly known as a
seismograph.
The magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported using the Richter scale or a
related Moment scale (with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being hard to notice and
magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas).

Epicenter

The epicenter is the point on the earth's surface vertically above the hypocenter (or
focus), point in the crust where a seismic rupture begins.

Fault

Plane A fault is a weak point within a tectonic plate where pressure from beneath the
surface can break through and causing shaking in an earthquake.

Focus

The focus or hypocentre of an earthquake is where the earthquake originated from,

usually underground on the fault zone.

hypocenter

The hypocenter is the point within the earth where an earthquake rupture starts. The
epicenter is the point directly above it at the surface of the Earth. Also commonly termed
the focus. 

Magnitude

Magnitude is used to describe the size of the Earthquake. There are a number of
different ways to calculate the magnitude of an earthquake, including the Richter Scale.

35
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Describe in your own words what a fault is.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. How is a strike-slip boundary different from a convergent and

divergent boundary?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

3. What is a tsunami?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

4. How does a tsunami form?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

5. How are earthquake waves produced?

36
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

6. What does a Richter scale show?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

7. What are the differences between compression, shear, and surface

waves?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

8. Distinguish between the focus and the epicenter of an earthquake.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

9. Identify and describe each of the four types of damage caused by earthquakes.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

10. Identify and describe the different scales used to rate earthquakes.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

37
 CHAPTER IV
PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven
large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of Earth's
lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years
ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the
first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic
theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Our country is blessed with so many land features such as mountains and
volcanoes. These features can be sources of different minerals or can be used for
agricultural purposes. For example, we have the majestic and world renowned Mayon
Volcano. Because of its activity, it produces fertile slopes and plains which are used by
the locals to grow their crops. Also, found in the northeastern coast of Luzon, we have
the Sierra Madre mountain range which is home to many endemic species of flora and
fauna.

Have you ever wondered why our country is endowed with these kinds of geologic
features? Well, if your answer is YES, then this module will help you find the answer to
your question.

In this module, we will study thoroughly the framework that will enable us to
understand how and why several features of the Earth continuously change. This theory
is what we call “Plate Tectonics.” This describes the events within the Earth that give rise
to mountain ranges, volcanoes, earthquake belts, and other features of the Earth’s
surface.

Earth’s lithosphere consists of layers, the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
This part of the module will focus on the outermost layer which is called crust. The crust
is made of a variety of solid rocks like sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. It has an
average density of 2.8 g/cm3 and its thickness ranges from 5 to 50 km. The crust is
thickest in a part where a relatively young mountain is present and thinnest along the
ocean floor.

According to the plate tectonics model, the entire lithosphere of the Earth is broken into
numerous segments called plates.

The outer shell of the earth, the lithosphere, is broken up into tectonic plates. The
seven major plates are the African plate, Antarctic plate, Eurasian plate, Indo-
Australian plate, North American plate, Pacific plate and South American plate.

38
 There are seven relatively large plates and a number of smaller ones, including
the Philippine plate. The plates move very slowly but constantly, and this movement is
called tectonics; thus the theory of moving lithospheric plates is called plate tectonics.
Before we study more about plate tectonics, let’s discuss first one of the consequences
of moving crustal plates which is crucial in studying plate tectonics: earthquake.

Earthquake releases three types of seismic waves; Primary (P-waves), Secondary (S-
waves), and Long surface waves (L-waves). The first two travel into the Earth’s interior
while the last one on the surface. These waves travel at different velocities; thus, do not
arrive at a seismic recording station at the same time. The farther the recording
instrument is from the focus, the greater the difference in arrival times of the first P-wave
compared to the first S-wave. The difference in the arrival time will tell us the distance of
the earthquake’s focus from the seismic recording station. However, it does not tell in
which direction it came from.

The places on Earth where most of the earthquakes originated or some mountains
and volcanoes were formed mark the boundaries of each lithospheric plate. As
mentioned earlier, each plate is slowly moving relative to each other, causing geologic
events to happen along their boundaries.

The Earth’s lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, is made up of
a series of pieces, or tectonic plates, that move slowly over time.

A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other.
Along these boundaries, earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises from
the Earth’s mantle to the surface, solidifying to create new oceanic crust

Divergent (Spreading):This is where two plates move away from each other. Molten
rock from the mantle erupts along the opening, forming new crust. The earthquakes that
occur along these zones, called spreading centers, are relatively small. The Great Rift
Valley in Africa, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden all formed as a result of divergent
plate motion.

When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The

impact of the colliding plates can cause the edges of one or both plates to buckle up into
a mountain ranges or one of the plates may bend down into a deep seafloor trench. A
chain of volcanoes often forms parallel to convergent plate boundaries and powerful
earthquakes are common along these boundaries.

At convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crust is often forced down into the
mantle where it begins to melt. Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying
into granite, the rock that makes up the continents. Thus, at convergent boundaries,
continental crust is created and oceanic crust is destroyed.

Convergent (Colliding): This occurs when plates move towards each other and
collide. When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the thinner, denser, and more
flexible oceanic plate sinks beneath the thicker, more rigid continental plate. This is called
subduction. Subduction causes deep ocean trenches to form, such as the one along the
west coast of South America. The rocks pulled down under the continent begin to melt.
Sometimes the molten rock rises to the surface, through the continent, forming a line of
volcanoes. About 80% of earthquakes occur where plates are pushed together, called
convergent boundaries.

39
 Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary. Natural or
human-made structures that cross a transform boundary are offset—split into pieces and
carried in opposite directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the plates
grind along, creating a linear fault valley or undersea canyon. Earthquakes are common
along these faults. In contrast to convergent and divergent boundaries, crust is cracked
and broken at transform margins, but is not created or destroyed.

Movement in narrow zones along plate boundaries causes most earthquakes.

Most seismic activity occurs at three types of plate boundaries—divergent, convergent,
and transform.

As the plates move past each other, they sometimes get caught and pressure
builds up. When the plates finally give and slip due to the increased pressure, energy is
released as seismic waves, causing the ground to shake. This is an earthquake.

Some of the plates have ocean water above them. Other plates include
continents, and some plates include both continents and ocean. The movements of the
plates help shape the geological features of our planet. The three main types of plate
movements include:

Another form of convergent boundary is a collision where two continental plates

meet head-on. Since neither plate is stronger than the other, they crumple and are
pushed up. This can lead to the formation of huge, high mountain ranges such as the
Himalayas.

When two tectonic plates slide past each other, the place where they meet is a
transform or lateral fault. The San Andreas Fault is one of the best examples of lateral
plate motion.

According to the plate tectonics model, the entire lithosphere of the Earth is broken into
numerous segments called plates. Each plate is slowly but continuously moving. As a
result of the motion of the plates, three types of plate boundaries were formed: Divergent,
Convergent, and Transform fault boundaries. Divergent boundary is formed when plates
move apart, creating a zone of tension. Convergent boundary is present when two plates
collide. Transform fault is characterized by plates that are sliding past each other. Plate
tectonics give rise to several geologic features and events.

Plate Boundaries
Types of Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries can be categorized in three fundamental types:
 1. Convergent boundaries: where two plates are colliding.
Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of
oceanic crust. The denser plate is subducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate
being forced under is eventually melted and destroyed.
i. Where oceanic crust meets ocean crust
Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur when both of the plates are made of oceanic
crust. Zones of active seafloor spreading can also occur behind the island arc, known as
back-arc basins. These are often associated with submarine volcanoes.

40
ii. Where oceanic crust meets continental crust
The denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming a mountain range on the continent.
The Andes is an example of this type of collision.
iii. Where continental crust meets continental crust
Both continental crusts are too light to subduct so a continent-continent collision occurs,
creating especially large mountain ranges. The most spectacular example of this is the
Himalayas.
 2. Divergent boundaries – where two plates are moving apart.
The space created can also fill with new crustal material sourced from molten magma
that forms below. Divergent boundaries can form within continents but will eventually
open up and become ocean basins.
i. On land
Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which produce rift valleys.
ii. Under the sea
The most active divergent plate boundaries are between oceanic plates and are often
called mid-oceanic ridges.
 3. Transform boundaries – where plates slide passed each other.
The relative motion of the plates is horizontal. They can occur underwater or on land, and
crust is neither destroyed nor created.
Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past each other. Rather, stress builds
up in both plates and when it exceeds the threshold of the rocks, the energy is released –
causing earthquakes.
Oceanic plates are formed by divergent plate boundaries. These zones, located along
mid-ocean ridges, represent areas where upwelling magma creates new oceanic crust.
As lava flows from these volcanic ridges, it quickly cools, forming extrusive igneous rock.
Continental plates, meanwhile, are formed primarily by convergent plate boundaries.
These zones represent areas where oceanic plates collide with and plunge underneath
continental plates – a process called subduction. As oceanic plates subduct, they melt to
form magma. This magma cools over millions of years, producing intrusive igneous rock
and new continental crust.
Continental drift describes one of the earliest ways geologists thought continents
moved over time. Today, the theory of continental drift has been replaced by the science
of plate tectonics. 
The theory of continental drift is most associated with the scientist Alfred Wegener. In the
early 20th century, Wegener published a paper explaining his theory that the
continental landmasses were “drifting” across the Earth, sometimes plowing through
oceans and into each other. He called this movement continental drift. 
Pangaea
Wegener was convinced that all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous,
single landmass called Pangaea. 
Wegener, trained as an astronomer, used biology, botany, and geology describe
Pangaea and continental drift. For example, fossils of the ancient reptile mesosaurus are
only found in southern Africa and South America. Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile only
one meter (3.3 feet) long, could not have swum the Atlantic Ocean. The presence of
mesosaurus suggests a single habitat with many lakes and rivers.

41
Wegener also studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, Norway.
These plants were not the hardy specimens adapted to survive in the Arctic climate.
These fossils were of tropical plants, which are adapted to a much warmer,
more humid environment. The presence of these fossils suggests Svalbard once had
a tropical climate.
 
Finally, Wegener studied the stratigraphy of different rocks and mountain ranges. The
east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa seem to fit together like pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle, and Wegener discovered their rock layers “fit” just as clearly. South
America and Africa were not the only continents with similar geology. Wegener
discovered that the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States, for instance,
were geologically related to the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland. 
Pangaea existed about 240 million years ago. By about 200 million years ago,
this supercontinent began breaking up. Over millions of years, Pangaea separated into
pieces that moved away from one another. These pieces slowly assumed their positions
as the continent we recognize today.
Today, scientists think that several supercontinents like Pangaea have formed and
broken up over the course of the Earth’s lifespan. These include Pannotia, which formed
about 600 million years ago, and Rodinia, which existed more than a billion years ago.
Tectonic Activity
Scientists did not accept Wegener’s theory of continental drift. One of the elements
lacking in the theory was the mechanism for how it works—why did the continents drift
and what patterns did they follow? Wegener suggested that perhaps the rotation of the
Earth caused the continents to shift towards and apart from each other. (It doesn't.)
Today, we know that the continents rest on massive slabs of rock called tectonic plates.
The plates are always moving and interacting in a process called plate tectonics. 
The continents are still moving today. Some of the most dynamic sites of tectonic activity
are seafloor spreading zones and giant rift valleys. 
In the process of seafloor spreading, molten rock rises from within the Earth and adds
new seafloor (oceanic crust) to the edges of the old. Seafloor spreading is most dynamic
along giant underwater mountain ranges known as mid-ocean ridges. As the seafloor
grows wider, the continents on opposite sides of the ridge move away from each other.
The North American and Eurasian tectonic plates, for example, are separated by the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge. The two continents are moving away from each other at the rate of about
2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per year. 
Rift valleys are sites where a continental landmass is ripping itself apart. Africa, for
example, will eventually split along the Great Rift Valley system. What is now a single
continent will emerge as two—one on the African plate and the other on the smaller
Somali plate. The new Somali continent will be mostly oceanic, with the Horn of Africa
and Madagascar its largest landmasses.
The processes of seafloor spreading, rift valley formation, and subduction (where heavier
tectonic plates sink beneath lighter ones) were not well-established until the 1960s.
These processes were the main geologic forces behind what Wegener recognized as
continental drift.

Important Terms to Remember

42
Continental Crust - the thick part of the Earth’s crust, not located under the ocean.

Continental volcanic arc - mountains formed in part by igneous activity associated with
subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent.

Convergent boundary - a boundary in which two plates move toward each other,
causing one of the slabs of the lithosphere to subduct beneath an overriding plate

Crust - the outer portion of the earth

Divergent boundary - a region where the crustal plates are moving apart Earthquake
vibration of Earth due to the rapid release of energy.

Fault - a break in a rock along which movement has occurred.

Fracture - any break in a rock in which no significant movement has taken place.

Geology - the science that studies Earth.

Hot - spot a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of creating magma.

Igneous rocks - are formed by cooling and crystallization of molten rock.

Lithosphere - The lithosphere is the outer solid part of the earth, including the crust and
uppermost mantle. The lithosphere is about 100 km thick, although its thickness is age
dependent (older lithosphere is thicker).The lithosphere below the crust is brittle enough
at some locations to produce earthquakes by faulting, such as within a subducted
oceanic plate.

Magma - a mass of molten rock formed at depth, including dissolved gases and crystals.

Metamorphic rocks - are formed when heat or pressure are applied to other rocks.

Mid-ocean ridge - a continuous mass of land with long width and height on the ocean
floor.

Oceanic Crust - the thin part of the Earth’s crust located under the oceans.

Plate tectonics - a theory which suggests that Earth’s crust is made up of plates that
interact in various ways, thus producing earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes, and other
geologic features.

Plates - rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit.

Primary (P) wave - the first type of seismic wave to be recorded in a seismic station
Rocks consolidated mixture of minerals

Secondary (S) wave - second type of earthquake wave to be recorded in a seismic

station

Sedimentary rocks - are formed via weathering and transport of existing rocks, and then
deposition, cementation, and compaction into a sedimentary rock.

Seismogram - a record made by a seismograph

Seismograph - a device used to record earthquake waves

Subduction - an event in which a slab of rock thrusts into the mantle

43
Transform fault boundary - a boundary produced when two plates slide past each other

Trench a depression - in the seafloor produced by subduction process

Volcanic Island arc - a chain of volcanoes that develop parallel to a trench

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Name and describe the three kinds of stress that can occur in Earth’s crust.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. Compare and contrast a normal fault and a reverse fault.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. Explain the differences between P waves, S waves and surface waves during an
earthquake.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. Which is likely to experience more damage during an earthquake, a house built

on solid rock or a nearby house built on soil riverbank? Explain your answer in
detail.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5. What are the four devices used to monitor faults? Pick one of the devices and
explain how it is used to monitor faults.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

44
6. Describe the contributions of studies of Earth's magnetic field to the
development of plate tectonics.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

7. List and describe the three types of plate boundaries and discuss the main
geologic features such as earthquake activity (number of events, depth of events,
etc.), volcanoes (where are volcanoes located relative to plate boundary, what type
of volcanism is associated with boundaries, etc.), bathymetric and topographic
expressions, etc.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

8. Plate tectonics are a comprehensive explanation for the way the outer part of the
planet works. Describe several of the main geologic features that are well
explained by the plates.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

9. Describe the intensity of shaking produced by earthquakes, how we measure it,

and the factors that can influence the shaking intensity level.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

45
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

CHAPTER V
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
A knowledge of earth's interior is essential for understanding plate tectonics. A
good analogy for teaching about earth's interior is a piece of fruit with a large pit such as
a peach or a plum. Most students are familiar with these fruits and have seen them cut in
half. In addition, the sizes of the features are very similar.

If we cut a piece of fruit in half, we will see that it is composed of three parts: 1) a
very thin skin, 2) a seed of significant size located in the center, and 3) most of the mass
of the fruit being contained within the flesh. Cutting the earth we would see: 1) a very thin
crust on the outside, 2) a core of significant size in the center, and 3) most of the mass of
the Earth contained in the mantle.

Scientists have studied heavenly bodies which are millions of miles away from
Earth. Equipped with powerful telescopes and space probes, they were able to reach and
examine the solar system and beyond. It seems ironic then, that we haven’t, and we
couldn’t reach the center of our very own planet.

This module will help you visualize and understand the composition and structure
of the Earth’s interior. It provides you scientific knowledge that will help you describe the
different layers of the Earth as well as understand their characteristics. You will also learn
concepts that explain the physical changes that it underwent in the past. This module
also consists of activities that will help you develop your critical thinking skills to have a
deeper understanding about the planet where you live.

Scientists tried to explore and study the interior of the Earth. Yet, until today, there
are no mechanical probes or actual explorations done to totally discover the deepest
region of the Earth. The Earth is made up of three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the
core. The study of these layers is mostly done in the Earth’s crust since mechanical
probes are impossible due to the tremendous heat and very high pressure underneath
the Earth’s surface.

You learned that an earthquake is a vibration of the Earth produced by the rapid
release of energy most often because of the slippage along a fault in the Earth’s crust.
This energy radiates in all directions from the focus in the form of waves called seismic
waves, which are recorded in seismographs. The two main types of seismic waves are
body waves and surface waves.
46
 Surface waves can only travel through the surface of the Earth. They arrive after
the main P and S waves and are confined to the outer layers of the Earth. There are two
types of surface waves: the Love waves and the Rayleigh waves. Love wave is named
after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for
this kind of wave in 1911. It is faster than Rayleigh wave and it moves the ground in a
side-to-side horizontal motion, like that of a snake’s causing the ground to twist. This is
why Love waves cause the most damage to structures during an earthquake.

The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave. It was named after John
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of
wave in 1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake
or an ocean. Since it rolls, it moves the ground either up or down or side-to-side similar to
the direction of the wave’s movement. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due
to the Rayleigh wave.

Unlike surface waves, body waves can travel through the Earth’s inner layers.
With this characteristic of the body waves, they are used by scientists to study the Earth’s
interior. These waves are of a higher frequency than the surface waves. The two types
of body waves are the P-waves (primary waves) and the S-waves (secondary waves).

The P-wave (primary wave) is a pulse energy that travels quickly through the
Earth and through liquids. The P-wave travels faster than the S-wave. After an
earthquake, it reaches a detector first (the reason why it is called primary). The P-waves
also called compressional waves, travel by particles vibrating parallel to the direction the
wave travel. They force the ground to move backward and forward as they are
compressed and expanded. Most importantly, they travel through solids, liquids and
gases.

The S-wave (secondary wave or shear wave) is a pulse energy that travels slower
than a P-wave through Earth and solids. The S-waves move as shear or transverse
waves, and force the ground to sway from side to side, in rolling motion that shakes the
ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction of the waves. The idea that the S-
waves cannot travel through any liquid medium led seismologists to conclude that the
outer core is liquid.

Scientists gained information about the Earth’s internal structure by studying how
seismic waves travel through the Earth. It involves measuring the time it takes for both
types of waves to reach seismic wave detecting stations from the epicenter of an
earthquake.

An epicenter is a point in the Earth’s surface directly above the focus. Since P-
waves travel faster than S-waves, they’re always detected first. The farther away from
the epicenter means the longer time interval between the arrival of P and S waves. In
1909, Yugoslavian seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić (moh-haw-rohvuh-chich) found out
that the velocity of seismic waves changes and increases at a distance of about 50
kilometers below the Earth’s surface. This led to the idea that there is a difference in
density between the Earth’s outermost layer (crust) and the layer that lies below it
(mantle). The boundary between these two layers is called Mohorovičić discontinuity in
honor of Mohorovičić, and is short termed Moho.

47
 P-waves can travel through liquids while S-waves cannot. During an earthquake,
the seismic waves radiate from the focus. Based on figure on the right, the waves bend
due t The Composition of the Earth’s Interior

The Earth’s composition tells a story about itself. It gives us clues to its past and
proofs about the gradual and slow changes that it has undergone for over 4.6 billion
years.

The crust is the thinnest and the outermost layer of the Earth that extends from
the surface to about 32 kilometers below. Underneath some mountains, the crust’s
thickness extends to 72 kilometers.

The continental crust is mainly made up of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium,

sodium, and potassium. The thickness of the continental crust is mostly 35-40 kilometers.
Continental crust, found under land masses, is made of less dense rocks such as granite.
The oceanic crust is around 7-10 kilometers thick which its average thickness is 8
kilometers. It is found under the ocean floor and is made of dense rocks such as basalt.
The oceanic crust is heavier than the continental crust. The crust consists of two layers.
The upper layer is composed of granite and is only found in the continental crust. Below
the granite is a layer made mainly of basalt. This is found on both under the continents
and the oceans.

Beneath the crust is the mantle, which extends to about 2900 kilometers from the
Earth’s surface. It makes up about 80% of the Earth’s total volume and about 68% of its
total mass. The mantle is mainly made up of silicate rocks, and contrary to common
belief, is solid, since both S-waves and P-waves pass through it. The attempt to study the
Earth’s mantle extended as far as studying the rocks from volcanoes, simply because
they were formed in the mantle. Scientists also studied rocks from the ocean floor. They
have determined that the mantle is mostly made of the elements silicon, oxygen, iron and
magnesium. The lower part of the mantle consists of more iron than the upper part. This
explains that the lower mantle is denser than the upper portion. The temperature and the
pressure increase with depth. The high temperature and pressure in the mantle allows
the solid rock to flow slowly.

The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle form a relatively cool, outermost
rigid shell called lithosphere and is about 50 to 100 kilometers thick. These lithospheric
plates move relative to each other. Beneath the lithosphere lies the soft, weak layer
known as the asthenosphere, made of hot molten material. Its temperature is about 300
– 800oC. The upper 150 kilometers of the asthenosphere has a temperature enough to
facilitate a small amount of melting, and make it capable to flow. This property of the
asthenosphere facilitates the movement of the lithospheric plates. The lithosphere, with
the continents on top of it, is being carried by the flowing asthenosphere.

The core is subdivided into two layers: the inner and the outer core. The outer
core is 2900 kilometers below the Earth’s surface. It is 2250 kilometers thick and is
made up of iron and nickel. The temperature in the outer core reaches up to 2000C at
this very high temperature, iron and nickel melt.

Aside from seismic data analysis, the Earth’s magnetic field strengthens the idea
that the Earth’s outer core is molten/liquid. The outer core is mainly made up of iron and
nickel moving around the solid inner core, creating Earth’s magnetism. The inner core is
made up of solid iron and nickel and has a radius of 1300 kilometers. Its temperature

48
reaches to about 5000C. The extreme temperature could have molten the iron and
nickel but it is believed to have solidified as a result of pressure freezing, which is
common to liquids subjected under tremendous pressure.

Aside from the fact that the Earth has a magnetic field and that it must be iron or
other materials which are magnetic in nature, the inner core must have a density that is
about 14 times that of water. Average crustal rocks with densities 2.8 times that of water
could not have the density calculated for the core. So iron, which is three times denser
than crustal rocks, meets the required density.

Some clues that the inner core and the outer core are made up of iron include the
following:

Iron and nickel are both dense and magnetic.

The overall density of the earth is much higher than the density of the rocks in the crust.
This suggests that the inside must be made up of something denser than rocks.

Meteorite analysis has revealed that the most common type is chondrite. Chondrite
contains iron, silicon, magnesium and oxygen; some contains nickel. The whole earth
and the meteorite roughly have the same density, thus the Earth’s mantle rock and a
meteorite minus its iron, have the same density.o change in density of the medium. As
the depth increases, the density also increases.

Have you had the chance to go to a mountain, stand on its peak and look at the
beauty that it offers? Do you think it looks exactly the same as before? Perhaps you
would think that it might be different - all plain, no plateaus, no mountains. If it wasn’t the
same 10 years ago, how much different is it 10 million years ago, 100 million years ago?
In 1912, Alfred Wegener (pronounced as vey-guh-nuhr), a German meteorologist,
proposed a theory that about 200 million years ago, the continents were once one large
landmass. He called this landmass Pangaea, a Greek word which means “All Earth.”
This Pangaea started to break into two smaller supercontinent called Laurasia and
Gondwanaland during the Jurassic Period. These smaller supercontinents broke into the
continents and these continents separated and drifted apart since then.

Wegener searched for evidences to support his claim. He noticed the fit of the
edges of the continents on the opposite sides of the South Atlantic. His evidences to the
Continental Drift Theory includes the distribution of fossils in different continents, rock
features, and ancient climates. Let us have a further study on these evidences.

It seems very impossible that the seven continents, which are currently thousands
of miles away from each other were actually connected pieces of a supercontinent. The
most visible and fascinating evidence that these continents were once one is their
shapes. The edge of one continent surprisingly matches the edge of another: South
America and Africa fit together; India, Antarctica, and Australia match one another;
Eurasia and North America complete the whole continental puzzle in the north.

Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms (plants and animals) from
the remote past. Fossilized leaves of an extinct plant Glossopteris were found in 250
million years old rocks. These fossils were located in the continents of Southern Africa,
Australia, India, and Antarctica, which are now separated from each other by wide
oceans. The large seeds of this plant could not possibly travel a long journey by the wind
or survive a rough ride through ocean waves.

49
Fossils found in rocks support the Continental Drift Theory. The rocks themselves also
provide evidence that continents drifted apart from each other. From the previous
activity, you have learned that Africa fits South America. Rock formations in Africa line
up with that in South America as if it was a long mountain range.

The folded cape mountains of South America and Africa line up perfectly as if they
were once a long mountain range.

Coal beds were formed from the compaction and decomposition of swamp plants
that lived million years ago. These were discovered in South America, Africa, Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and even in Antarctica. How is a coal bed formation
possible in Antarctica?

The current location of Antarctica could not sustain substantial amount of life. If
there is a substantial quantity of coal in it, thus, it only means that Antarctica must have
been positioned in a part of the Earth where it once supported large quantities of life. This
leads to the idea that Antarctica once experienced a tropical climate, thus, it might have
been closer before to the equator.

The question as to how the drifting took place left the Continental Drift Theory
blurry. Despite the evidences presented by Wegener, his idea that the continents were
once joined together was not accepted by the scientific society until the 1960s. He
wasn’t able to explain how this drifting took place. This made scientists conduct further
studies in search for the answer.

Findings that support Seafloor Spreading Theory:

1. Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge.

2. Rocks far from the mid-ocean ridge are older.

3. Sediments are thinner at the ridge.

4. Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those at the continents.

The Seafloor Spreading Theory contradicts a part of the Continental Drift Theory.
According to this theory, continents moved through unmoving oceans and that larger,
sturdier continents broke through the oceanic crust. Whereas, the seafloor spreading
shows that the ocean is the actual site of tectonic activity.

A magnetic compass tells us directions on Earth. It also proves that the Earth has
a magnetic field. The needle of a magnetic compass usually points to the North Pole of
the Earth which is actually the South Magnetic Pole at present.

The Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the very hot molten outer core and has
already existed since the birth of our planet. The Earth’s magnetic field is a dipole, one
that has a North Pole and a South Pole.

Magnetic reversal is also called magnetic ‘flip’ of the Earth. It happens when the
North Pole is transformed into a South Pole and the South Pole becomes the North Pole.
This is due to the change in the direction of flow in the outer core.

Magnetic reversals happened many times in the past. The occurrence of magnetic
reversals can be explained through the magnetic patterns in magnetic rocks, especially
those found in the ocean floor. When lava solidifies, iron bearing minerals crystallize. As
50
these crystallize, the minerals behave like tiny compasses and align with the Earth’s
magnetic field. So when magnetic reversal occurs, there is also a change in the polarity
of the rocks.

As a substance like water is heated, the less dense particles rise while denser
particles sink. Once the hot less dense particles cool down, they sink, and the other less
dense particles rise. This continuous process is called convection current. This is exactly
what happens in the Earth’s mantle. The hot, less dense rising material spreads out as it
reaches the upper mantle causing upward and sideward forces. These forces lift and
split the lithosphere at divergent plate boundaries. The hot magma flows out of the
mantle and cools down to form the new ocean crust. The downward movement of the
convection current occurs along a convergent boundary where the sinking force pulls the
tectonic plate downward.

The convection currents rotate very slowly, as they move and drag the plates
along. Because of convection current, the tectonic plates are able to move slowly along
the tectonic boundaries, pushing each other, sliding past each other and drifting away
from each other.
As an oceanic crust moves away from a divergent boundary, it becomes denser than the
newer oceanic crust. As the older seafloor sinks, the weight of the uplifted ridge pushes
the oceanic crust toward the trench at the subduction zone. This process is called ridge
push.

Slab pull is the other possible process involved in the tectonic plate movement.
The weight of the subducting plate pulls the trailing slab into the subduction zone just like
a tablecloth slipping off the table and pulling items with it. Now that you understand what
happens inside the Earth and its effects on the Earth’s surface, you should be able to
realize that the tectonic activities at the surface just like volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes are inevitable. You should view the Earth as a dynamic planet and still the
most fascinating planet for it offers you a home that no other planet can. Since you can’t
prevent these tectonic activities from happening, the following performance task will
enable you to contribute meaningfully in minimizing the damage that these phenomena
can bring.

Reducing the impacts of natural hazards

Reduce the impact of hazard
Monitoring tectonic activity using equipment may help predict and identify major events.
In addition to this, setting up evacuation zones and hazard mapping are helpful
techniques to reduce the impact of a hazard.
Build capacity to cope with the hazard
Educating people about what to do, and having regular earthquake drills, are helpful in
building capacity to cope. In addition, having well equipped emergency service teams
who are well trained also increases a country’s ability to cope. Buildings can also be
designed in a way to better survive earthquakes.
Tackle the root cause of the vulnerability

51
Governments and organisations can help reduce the vulnerability by actively trying to
reduce inequality and poverty in countries. Everyone, regardless of wealth, should have
the same status and right to protection.

Important Terms to Remember

Asthenosphere - soft, weak upper portion of the mantle where the lithospheric plates
float and move around.
Asthenosphere - The asthenosphere is the denser, weaker layer beneath the
lithospheric mantle. It lies between about 100 kilometers (62 miles) and 410 kilometers
(255 miles) beneath Earth’s surface. The temperature and pressure of the asthenosphere
are so high that rocks soften and partly melt, becoming semi-molten.

Body Waves - Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than
surface waves.

Continental crust - The continental crust is the layer of granitic, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks which form the continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to
their shores, known as continental shelves.

Continental Drift Theory - is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over
geologic time relative to each other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean
bed.

Continental Drift Theory - states that all the continents were once one large landmass
that broke apart, and where the pieces moved slowly to their current locations.
Convection current - current in the mantle because of the heat from the inner layers of
the Earth, and is the force that drives the plates to move around
Convection currents - transfer of heat from one place to another by mass motion of a
fluid such as water, air or molten rock. The heat transfer function of convection currents
drives the earth’s ocean currents, atmospheric weather and geology. Convection is
different from conduction, which is a transfer of heat between substances in direct
contact with each other.

Lithosphere - is the solid, outer part of the Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle
upper portion of the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure. It is
bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere (another part of the upper
mantle) below.

Lithosphere - the topmost, solid part of the Earth that is composed of several plates.
Lithospheric Plates - the moving, irregularly-shaped slabs that fit together to form the
surface of the Earth.

52
Love Waves - The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H.
Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of
wave in 1911. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

Mid-ocean ridge - area in the middle of the ocean where a new ocean floor is formed
when lava erupts through the cracks in the Earth’s crust.
Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho) - the boundary that separates the crust and the
mantle.
Oceanic crust - the outermost layer of Earth’s lithosphere that is found under
the oceans and formed at spreading centres on oceanic ridges, which occur at divergent
plate boundaries.

P Waves - The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest
kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P
wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It
pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air.

Plasticity - the ability of solid to flow.

Rayleigh Waves - The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of
wave in 1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake
or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the
same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is
due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

S Waves - The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the
second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only
move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves
that led seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move
rock particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave
is traveling in (the direction of wave propagation).

Seafloor spreading - process by which new ocean floor is formed near the mid-ocean
ridge and moves outward.
Seafloor Spreading - Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates
—large slabs of Earth's lithosphere—split apart from each other.

Seismology - is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and
around the earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic
waves.

Subduction - the process in which the crust plunges back into the Earth.
Surface Waves - Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower
frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.
Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that are almost enitrely
responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage
and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

Tectonics - branch of geology that deals with the movements that shape the Earth’s
crust.
53
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. What are the different layers of the Earth?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Why is there a need to study the Earth’s layers?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. What proves the existence of the boundary between the crust and the mantle?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. What are the characteristics of the asthenosphere?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5. What do the shapes of the continents now tell us about their past?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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6. How do people know what's in the Earth's core? Have people dug down?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

7. How do we know that the outer core of Earth is liquid?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

8. What is the difference between plate tectonics and plate boundaries?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

9. How does fossil evidence support the theory of plate tectonics?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

10. How do plate tectonics support continental drift?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

11. How has the theory of plate tectonics changed over time?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

12. How do convection currents in the mantle drive plate tectonics?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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13. Is the Australian Plate oceanic or continental? Support your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER VI
SOLAR ENERGY AND THE ATMOSPHERE

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy,
solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.
Atmosphere refers to the gases surrounding a star or planetary body held in place by
gravity. A body is more likely to retain an atmosphere over time if gravity is high and the
temperature of the atmosphere is low.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere is about 78 percent nitrogen, 21

percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, with water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases.
The atmospheres of other planets have a different composition.

The composition of the Sun's atmosphere consists of about 71.1 percent hydrogen, 27.4
percent helium, and 1.5 percent other elements.

In the previous module, you learned that the presence of different natural
resources in the Philippines is related to the country’s location. It was also mentioned that
the climate in a certain area depends on its latitude. In this module, you are going to
learn more about how the location of the Philippines influences its climate and weather.
To prepare you for this lesson, you must first learn about the envelope of air that
surrounds the Earth where all weather events happen – the atmosphere.

The troposphere is the layer closest to Earth’s surface. The temperature just
above the ground is hotter than the temperature high above. Weather occurs in the
troposphere because this layer contains most of the water vapor. Remember the water
cycle? Without water, there would be no clouds, rain, snow or other weather features. Air
in the troposphere is constantly moving. As a result, aircraft flying through the

56
troposphere may have a very bumpy ride – what we know as turbulence. People who
have used the airplane for travelling have experienced this especially when there is a
typhoon in areas where the plane passes through.

The stratosphere is the layer of air that extends to about 50 km from Earth’s
surface. Many jet aircraft fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable. It is in the
stratosphere that we find the ozone layer. The ozone layer absorbs much of the Sun’s
harmful radiation that would otherwise be dangerous to plant and animal life.
The layer between 50 km and 80 km above the Earth’s surface is called the
mesosphere. Air in this layer is very thin and cold. Meteors or rock fragments burn up in
the mesosphere.

The thermosphere is between 80 km and 110 km above the Earth. Space shuttles
fly in this area and it is also where the auroras are found. Auroras are caused when the
solar wind strikes gases in the atmosphere above the Poles.

The upper limit of our atmosphere is the exosphere. This layer of the atmosphere
merges into space. Satellites are stationed in this area, 500 km to 1000 km from Earth.

To summarize what has been discussed: More than three quarters of Earth’s
atmosphere is made up of nitrogen while one fifth is oxygen. The remaining 1% is a
mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapour, and ozone. These gases not only produce
important weather features such as cloud and rain, but also have considerable influence
on the overall climate of the Earth, through the greenhouse effect and global warming.

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

In order to understand the greenhouse effect, you need to first understand how a real
greenhouse works.

In temperate countries, a greenhouse is used to grow seedlings in the late winter

and early spring and later, planted in the open field when the weather is warmer.
Greenhouses also protect plants from weather phenomena such snowstorm or dust
storms. In tropical countries, greenhouses are used by commercial plant growers to
protect flowering and ornamental plants from harsh weather conditions and insect attack.
Greenhouses range in size from small sheds to very large buildings. They also vary in
terms of types of covering materials. Some are made of glass while others are made of
plastic.

57
 Greenhouses allow sunlight to enter but prevent heat from escaping. The
transparent covering of the greenhouse allows visible light to enter without obstruction. It
warms the inside of the greenhouse as energy is absorbed by the plants, soil, and other
things inside the building. Air warmed by the heat inside is retained in the building by the
roof and wall. The transparent covering also prevents the heat from leaving by reflecting
the energy back into the walls and preventing outside winds from carrying it away.
The Earth’s atmosphere is compared to a greenhouse. You know that besides
nitrogen and oxygen, Earth’s atmosphere contains trace gases such as carbon dioxide,
water vapor, methane, and ozone. Like the glass in a greenhouse, the trace gases have
a similar effect on the Sun’s rays. They allow sunlight to pass through, resulting in the
warming up of the Earth’s surface. But they absorb the energy coming from the Earth’s
surface, keeping the Earth’s temperature suitable for life on Earth. The process by which
the Earth’s atmosphere warms up is called ‘greenhouse effect,’ and the trace gases are
referred to as ‘greenhouse gases.’

The ‘greenhouse effect’ is a natural process and it warms the Earth. Without the
greenhouse effect, Earth would be very cold, too cold for living things, such as plants and
animals

More carbon dioxide means that more heat is trapped in Earth’s atmosphere.
More heat cannot return back into space. More heat trapped by the carbon dioxide
means a warmer Earth.

The increasing temperature phenomenon is known as ‘global warming’. Global

means that all countries and people around the world are affected even if that country is
not a major contributor of greenhouse gases. Many scientists now agree that many
human activities emit more greenhouses gases into the atmosphere, making the natural
greenhouse effect stronger. Scientists are also saying that if we carry on polluting the
atmosphere with greenhouse gases, it will have a dangerous effect on the Earth.

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. This section
provides information on emissions and removals of the main greenhouse gases to and
from the atmosphere.

Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Carbon dioxide is naturally produced when people and animals breathe. Plants
and trees take in and use carbon dioxide to produce their own food. Volcanoes also
produce carbon dioxide. Methane comes from grazing animals as they digest their food

58
and from decaying matter in wet rice fields. Ozone is also naturally present in the
stratosphere.

Carbon dioxide comes from the burning of fossil fuel such as coal, crude oil and
natural gas. Cutting down and burning of trees releases carbon dioxide. Methane can
also be released from buried waste. For example, the left-over food, garden wastes, and
animal wastes collected from our homes are thrown into dumpsites. When lots of wastes
are compressed and packed together, they produce methane. Coal mining also produces
methane.

Another group of greenhouse gases includes the chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs for

short. CFCs have been used in spray cans as propellants, in refrigerators as refrigerants,
and in making foam plastics as foaming agents. They become dangerous when released
into the atmosphere, depleting the ozone layer. For this reason, their use has been
banned around the world.

What have you learned about the atmosphere? There are natural processes in the
atmosphere that protect and sustain life on Earth. For example, the greenhouse effect
keeps temperature on Earth just right for living things. For as long as the concentration of
greenhouse gases are controlled, we will have no problem.

But human beings activities have emitted greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,
increasing their levels to quantities that have adverse effects on people, plants, animals
and the physical environment. Burning of fossil fuels, for example, has increased levels
of carbon dioxide thus trapping more heat, increasing air temperature, and causing global
warming. Such global phenomenon is feared to melt polar ice caps and cause flooding to
low-lying areas that will result to reduction in biodiversity. It is even feared that global
warming is already changing climates around the globe, causing stronger typhoons, and
creating many health-related problems.

During the day, the surface of the Earth becomes warm because of the Sun.
Some parts of the Earth will warm up more quickly than others. Naturally, the air above
the warmer surfaces will also become warm. What happens to the warm air, it will rise.
How is the air in the surroundings affected? It will move toward the place where warm air
is rising. Air moves toward the place where warm air is rising.

Whenever we feel the air moving, that means that somewhere, warm air is rising.
And the air around us moves toward the place where warm air is rising. Every time you

59
feel the wind, it means that air is moving toward the place where warm air is rising.
Strictly speaking, wind is air that is moving horizontally.

Sea Breeze and Land Breeze

Sand heats up faster than water, and that sand cools down faster than water. In
the same way, when land surfaces are exposed to the Sun during the day, they heat up
faster than bodies of water. At night, when the Sun has set, the land loses heat faster
than bodies of water.
Imagine that you are standing by the sea, along the shore. During the day, the
land heats up faster than the water in the sea. The air above land will then become warm
ahead of the air above the sea. You know what happens to warm air: it rises. So the
warmer air above the land will rise. The air above the sea will then move in to replace the
rising warm air. You will then feel this moving air as a light wind—a sea breeze.

The land and sea will both cool down. But the land will lose heat faster than the
water in the sea. In other words, the sea will stay warm longer. This time the air above
the sea will be warmer than that above land. The warm air above the sea will then rise.
Air from land will move out to replace the rising warm air. This moving air or wind from
land is called a land breeze.
A sea breeze describes a wind that blows from the ocean inland towards land.
This breeze occurs most often in the spring and summer months because of the greater
temperature differences between the ocean and nearby land, particularly in the afternoon
when the land is at maximum heating from the sun.

During the day, the sun heats up both the ocean surface and the land. Water is a
good absorber of the energy from the sun. The land absorbs much of the sun’s energy as
well. However, water heats up much more slowly than land and so the air above the land
will be warmer compared to the air over the ocean. The warm air over the land will rise
throughout the day, causing low pressure at the surface. Over the water, high surface
pressure will form because of the colder air. To compensate, the air will sink over the
ocean. The wind will blow from the higher pressure over the water to lower pressure over
the land causing the sea breeze. The sea breeze strength will vary depending on the
temperature difference between the land and the ocean.

At night, the roles reverse. The air over the ocean is now warmer than the air over
the land. The land loses heat quickly after the sun goes down and the air above it cools
too. This can be compared to a blacktop road. During the day, the blacktop road heats
up and becomes very hot to walk on. At night, however, the blacktop has given up the
added heat and is cool to the touch. The ocean, however, is able to hold onto this heat
after the sun sets and not lose it as easily. This causes the low surface pressure to shift

60
to over the ocean during the night and the high surface pressure to move over the land.
This causes a small temperature gradient between the ocean surface and the nearby
land at night and the wind will blow from the land to the ocean creating the land breeze.

A monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by

corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in
atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land
and sea.Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally
changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes
incorrectly used for locally heavy but short-term rains.

Many people think that monsoons are rains. They are not. Monsoons are wind
systems. But these winds usually bring abundant rainfall to the country and this is
probably the reason why they have been mistaken for rains. In Filipino, the monsoons
are called amihan or habagat, depending on where the winds come from.

The wind blows from the high-pressure area in the Asian continent toward the
lowpressure area south of the Philippines. The cold air that we experience from
December to February is part of this wind system. This monsoon wind is locally known as
amihan. The wind passes over some bodies of water before it reaches the Philippines.
The wind picks up moisture along the way and brings rain to the eastern part of the
Philippines.
They have changed places. As a result, the direction of the wind also changes.
This time the wind will move from the high-pressure area in Australia to the low-pressure
area in the Asian continent. This monsoon wind is locally called habagat.

The Inter tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Many people who listen to weather forecasts are confused about the inter tropical
convergence zone. But it is easy to understand it once you know that warm air rises, and
air moves toward the place where warm air is rising. The inter tropical convergence zone
is the place where winds in the tropics meet or converge. In time the rising warm air will
form clouds, which may lead to thunderstorms.

The Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is the region that circles the Earth,
near the equator, where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
come together. The intense sun and warm water of the equator heats the air in the ITCZ,
raising its humidity and making it buoyant. Aided by the convergence of the trade winds,

61
the buoyant air rises. As the air rises it expands and cools, releasing the accumulated
moisture in an almost perpetual series of thunderstorms.

An atmosphere is the layers of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial body.

Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent
other gases.

The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of
our weather - clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets
colder as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre. The
actual change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending on the
weather.

The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and
almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in
temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves
upwards it expands (because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air
higher up is cooler than air lower down.

The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. This is where the
air motion is determined by the properties of the Earth's surface. Turbulence is
generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface, and by thermals rising from the
land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence redistributes heat and moisture within the
boundary layer, as well as pollutants and other constituents of the atmosphere.

The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles,
where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km)
near the equator.

The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the
ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of
absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the
stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.

62
 By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us
from skin cancer and other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons,
and halons) which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers
have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes,
leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole".

Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the
ozone hole will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process.

The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the
temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the
"mesopause".

The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which

temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the
absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.

The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere",
since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning
them into "ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies
between night and day and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and
electrons which are present. The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing
us to receive shortwave radio broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world.

The Exosphere
The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen
and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow
"ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out
into space.

63
 Important Terms to Remember

Array – Multiple solar cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels can be wired
together to form a solar array. The more panels you install, the more energy you can
expect to generate, but depending on the efficiency of your panels, you may be able to
make the same amount of energy with fewer panels. (See solar panel efficiency and
solar cell.)

Balance of system (BOS) – All of the other physical parts that make up a solar system
outside of the panels: inverters, wiring, mounting hardware, monitoring system.

Efficiency – When referring to a solar cell or a solar panel, efficiency refers to the
percentage of sunlight captured and converted into usable electricity.

Electrical (or electric or utility) grid – The interconnected network of equipment that
delivers electricity from suppliers to consumers. Often called “the grid,” this infrastructure
is made up of generating stations that produce electrical power; high-voltage
transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers; and
distribution lines that connect individual customers to the system. In other words, the
poles and wires that transport electricity from where it’s made to your home or business.

Global warming - is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the
pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil
fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s
atmosphere. The term is frequently used interchangeably with the term climate change,
though the latter refers to both human- and naturally produced warming and the effects it
has on our planet. It is most commonly measured as the average increase in Earth’s
global surface temperature.

Greenhouse effect - a warming of Earth’s surface and troposphere (the lowest layer of
the atmosphere) caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and
certain other gases in the air. Of those gases, known as greenhouse gases, water vapour
has the largest effect.

Greenhouse gases - are gases in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat. They let sunlight
pass through the atmosphere, but they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from
leaving the atmosphere.

Ground-mounted solar – A solar array installed on land; used primarily for large-scale
commercial and utility-scale solar projects such as power plants that generate power for
thousands of homes and businesses.

Interconnection agreement – A contract between the homeowner and the local utility
allowing the homeowner to connect their solar power system to the electric grid. In some
areas, this enables the homeowner to receive a credit on their electricity bill from the
utility for any surplus electricity their solar power system generates.
64
Intertropical Convergence Zone - or ITCZ, is the region that circles the Earth, near the
equator, where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come
together. The intense sun and warm water of the equator heats the air in the ITCZ,
raising its humidity and making it buoyant. Aided by the convergence of the trade winds,
the buoyant air rises. As the air rises it expands and cools, releasing the accumulated
moisture in an almost perpetual series of thunderstorms.

Inverter – A solar power system generates direct current (DC) electricity, yet homes and
businesses use alternating current (AC) electricity to power electronic devices. A solar
inverter takes the DC electricity from the solar system and uses it to create AC electricity.
Inverters are like the brains of the solar system. Along with converting DC to AC power,
they also provide ground fault protection and system stats including voltage and current
on AC and DC circuits and energy production.

Land breeze - a local wind system characterized by a flow from land to water late at

night. Land breezes alternate with sea breezes along coastlines adjacent to large bodies
of water. Both are induced by differences that occur between the heating or cooling of the
water surface and the adjacent land surface. The land breeze is typically shallower than
the sea breeze since the cooling of the atmosphere over land is confined to a shallower
layer at night than the heating of the air during the day. 

Micro-inverter – The introduction of micro-inverters is one of the biggest technology

shifts in the photovoltaic (PV) industry. Placed on the back of each solar panel, a micro-
inverter optimizes energy production for each individual solar panel, not just for an entire
solar system, as central inverters do. This enables every solar panel to perform at its
maximum potential. It means one underperforming solar panel won't drag down the
performance of entire solar array, as opposed to central inverters that optimize for the
weakest link.

Module – Another name for a solar panel.

Monsoon - (from the Arabic mawsim, which means "season") arises due to a difference
in temperatures between a land mass and the adjacent ocean, according to the National
Weather Service. The sun warms the land and ocean differently, according to Southwest
Climate Change, causing the winds to play "tug of war" eventually switching directions
bringing the cooler, moister air from over the ocean. The winds reverse again at the end
of the monsoon season.

Mounting hardware – The racking and mounting equipment used to secure solar panels
to rooftops (or to trackers in ground mounted power plant installations) and to each other;
often made with lightweight aluminum frames and clips capable of withstanding the
elements while minimizing impact to the roof.

Ozone Layer - The ozone layer is a thin part of the Earth's atmosphere that absorbs
almost all of the sun's harmful ultraviolet light. "Ozone holes" are popular names for
areas of damage to the ozone layer. This is inaccurate. Ozone layer damage is more like
a really thin patch than a hole.

Photovoltaic (PV) – PV technologies convert sunlight to electricity through a naturally

occurring process in certain types of material, which are called semiconductors. When
photons (energy particles) from the sun hit semiconducting materials such as silicon,
electrons are knocked free from their atoms. If conductors are attached to the positive
and negative sides of a solar cell, it forms an electrical circuit. When electrons flow
65
through such a circuit, they generate electricity, powering electrical devices or sending
electricity to the grid.

Renewable energy – Energy generated from sources that naturally continually renew
themselves, such as sunlight, wind, geothermal heat or tidal movement.

Sea breeze - a light, cool wind blowing from the sea onto the land

Solar batteries (or storage) – Solar storage systems are comprised of high-capacity
rechargeable batteries (or battery banks) that can store excess energy generated by a
solar system for use at night or as a backup during emergency grid outages or other
times when the solar system cannot generate energy in real time. Batteries suited for
solar incorporate a variety of technologies, including lead acid, lithium-ion or flow
batteries.

Solar cell – A single light-capturing unit in a PV solar panel; solar cells are made of
silicon, like semiconductors. They are constructed with a positive layer and a negative
layer, which together create an electric field, just like in a battery, and are extremely thin
and light.

Solar panel (or module) – PV solar panels are made up of many solar cells linked
together to form a circuit and are mounted in a frame. PV solar panels generate DC
electricity, which must then be converted to AC electricity by an inverter because the U.S.
electrical grid uses AC power.

Solar power plant – A large-scale, usually ground-mounted solar array built for utility or
commercial use.

66
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. What kind of fossil fuels are used in the Philippines?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. Are we also contributing to the increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the

atmosphere? Why or why not?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. What are the five layers? Estimate the height of each layer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. Describe the graph for each layer.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5. In which layer is temperature increasing with increasing altitude?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

6. In which layer is temperature decreasing with increasing altitude?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

67
7. Discuss the energy efficiency, and why increasing efficiency does not lower the
amount of total energy consumed.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

8. What are the three main aspects that make an energy source sustainable?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

9. In your opinion, what kind of energy should we be investing in for the future and
why?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

10. How much would individual energy conservation help and what are some ways
we might do it?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

11. In 100 years, where do you think our primary energy will come from? Why?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

12. Name 10 factors affecting the real price of solar energy

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

13. What is a realistic energy profile for the future? Can renewables play a
significant percentage of energy consumption? To what degree will dependence
on fossil fuels be maintained?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

68
 CHAPTER VII
UNDERSTANDING TYPHOONS
A typhoon is a type of large storm system having a circular or spiral system of
violent winds, typically hundreds of kilometers or miles in diameter. The winds spiral
around a region of low atmospheric pressure. "Typhoon" is the name of these storms that
occur in the Western Pacific.

Every year the Philippines is hit by typhoons. No part of the country is spared. All
provinces have been visited by a typhoon at one time or another. In recent years, the
Philippines had been overwhelmed by powerful tropical cyclones.

According to the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services

Administration (PAGASA), about 20 tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area of
Responsibility each year. We have to be knowledgeable about tropical cyclones if we
want to prevent the loss of more lives.

We all know what a typhoon is. Or more accurately, we know what to expect when
a typhoon comes. We get a lot of rain and strong winds. Now, you may not have noticed
it but the winds in a typhoon move in a certain direction. They go around a central area.

If the wind speed is less, from 119 to 200 kph, then it is called a typhoon. If the
wind speed is between 65 and 118 kph, it is called a tropical storm. And when the wind
speed is between 35 to 64 kph, it is a tropical depression.

Tropical depression, tropical storm, typhoon, and supertyphoon are categories of

tropical cyclones (Table 1). In simple terms, a tropical cyclone is a system of
thunderstorms that are moving around a center. As the winds intensify or weaken, the
category is upgraded or downgraded accordingly.

Table 1. Tropical Cyclone Categories

Category Maximum Wind Speed

kilometers per hour (kph)
Tropical Depression 64
Tropical Storm 118
Typhoon 200
Super typhoon GREATER THAN 200

The term typhoon is used only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In the
northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean and in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, the
equivalent term is hurricane. Thus, a hurricane on one side of the Pacific Ocean will be
called a typhoon if it crosses into the other side.

In the Philippines, we use the same word for all categories of tropical cyclones.
We call it bagyo whether it is a tropical depression, a tropical storm or a typhoon.

When a tropical cyclone enters the PAR and it is on its way toward land, warning signals
are issued. The following signals are used by PAGASA to warn people about the
approaching weather disturbance. Do you know what the signals mean?

69
 PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNALS (PSWS)

PSWS # 1

A tropical cyclone will affect the locality Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected in at least
36 hours or irregular rains may be expected within 36 hours

PSWS # 2

A tropical cyclone will affect the locality

Winds of greater than 60 kph up to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24 hours

PSWS # 3

A tropical cyclone will affect locality

Winds of greater than 100 kph to 185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours

PSWS # 4

A very intense typhoon will affect locality very strong winds of more than 185 kph
may be expected in at least 12 hours

To be fully prepared for tropical cyclones, you should also put together an
emergency kit which includes the following: drinking water, canned goods, can opener,
radio, flashlight, extra batteries, clothes, blanket, and first aid kit. You never know when
you will need it. You must learn how to rely on yourself. In times of disaster, it may take a
while before help arrives.

There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis: sufficiently warm
sea surface temperatures, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to
middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure
center, a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear.
While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation, they do not
guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form. Normally, an ocean temperature of 26.5 °C
(79.7 °F) spanning through a depth of at least 50 metres (160 ft) is considered the
minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone. These warm
waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems. A minimum
distance of 500 km (300 mi) from the equator is normally needed for tropical
cyclogenesis. Whether it be a depression in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
or monsoon trough, a broad surface front, or an outflow boundary, a low level feature
with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis.

A typhoon forms when winds blow into areas of the ocean where the water is warm.
These winds collect moisture and rise, while colder air moves in below. This creates
pressure, which causes the winds to move very quickly. The winds rotate, or spin, around
a center called an eye.

Oceans and seas have great influence on the weather of continental masses. A large
portion of the solar energy reaching the sea-surface is expended in the process of
evaporation. These water evaporated from the sea/ocean is carried up into the
atmosphere and condenses, forming clouds from which all forms of precipitation result.

70
Sometimes, intense cyclonic circulations occur which is what we call the tropical
cyclones.

Tropical cyclones are warm-core low pressure systems associated with a spiral inflow of
mass at the bottom level and spiral outflow at the top level. They always form over
oceans where sea surface temperature, also air temperatures are greater than 26°C. The
air accumulates large amounts of sensible and latent heat as it spirals towards the
center. It receives this heat from the sea and the exchange can occur rapidly, because of
the large amount of spray thrown into the air by the wind. The energy of the tropical
cyclone is thus derived from the massive liberation of the latent heat of condensation.

Tropical cyclone is defined as a non-frontal, synoptic-scale cyclone developing over

tropical and sub-tropical waters at any level and having a definitely organized circulation.
In other parts of the world, these are referred to as hurricanes, typhoons or simply
tropical cyclones depending on the region. In the North Atlantic, Eastern North Pacific
and South Pacific Ocean, they are called"hurricanes". In the bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea
and Western South Indian Ocean, the name is"cyclonic". In the eastern part of the
Southern Indian Ocean, it is "willy-willy", and in the Western North Pacific Ocean, they
are called "typhoons".

Tropical cyclones can only form over oceans of the world except in the South Atlantic
Ocean and the south eastern Pacific where a tropical cyclone could never be formed due
to the cooler sea surface temperature and higher vertical wind shears. They develop at
latitudes usually greater than 5° from the equator. They reach their greatest intensity
while located over warm tropical water. As soon as they move inland, they begin to
weaken, but often not before they have caused great destruction.

The Philippines is prone to tropical cyclones due to its geographical location which
generally produce heavy rains and flooding of large areas and also strong winds which
result in heavy casualties to human life and destructions to crops and properties. Thus, it
is of utmost importance to have sufficient knowledge on such maritime phenomena for
beneficial purposes.

In one of the world’s most naturally deadly countries, catastrophes can originate almost
anywhere. Flash floods race down mountainsides. A zigzag of tectonic plates collide
below. Typhoons build in warm ocean waters and then tear westward.

And when disasters do strike, they strike hard, ravaging the Philippines’ shabby
infrastructure and often leaving scores dead, injured or without homes.

The combination of geography and poverty leaves those in the Philippines at almost
unequaled risk of calamity, a vulnerability that ranks among this nation’s most pressing
and confounding challenges. For three straight years, typhoons here have killed more
than 1,000 people, despite major government initiatives to reduce disaster risk. Typhoon
Haiyan, which ripped through the central Philippine islands Nov. 8, killed more than 3,600
and displaced 2 million.

Years of disasters — some capturing global attention, most not — have pushed the
Philippines into an unfortunate category: that of an undeveloped country where lives can
disappear en masse, sometimes in preventable ways. If that image is to be broken, the
Philippines must first contend with a set of problems common for a country pushing to
develop its economy, everything from the haphazard layout of towns to the denuding of
hillsides to make way for industry.
71
Over the past decades, Filipinos have flocked to risky, low-lying areas, havens for cheap
and crammed housing. Officials here say the Philippines must also improve emergency
training for distant local governments, enforce building codes and make sure that money
earmarked for infrastructure ends up helping those whose homes are the most
vulnerable.

Located on the Ring of Fire and in a main alleyway for typhoons, the Philippines will
never be disaster-proof, experts say. But it can cut the risk. If cyclones of identical
intensity were to strike Japan and the Philippines, the Philippines would have 17 times
the death toll, according to the Geneva-based Internal Displacement Monitoring Center.
Even in 2011, the year of Japan’s mega-quake and nuclear emergency, disasters forced
three times the number of people from their homes in the Philippines.

Over the past two decades, the Philippines has experienced more than 300 disasters —
everything from landslides to floods to volcanic eruptions. And Filipino officials say their
disasters are becoming more severe, in part because of climate change. Four of this
country’s 10 deadliest disasters have come in the past 10 years. The national statistics
board says typhoons — 19 per year on average — have grown in power since the 1970s.

Research suggests that a warmer world will lead to stronger storms. Although most
scientists balk at connecting any one event with climate change, the Philippines’
representative at a climate summit in Warsaw said recently that “hell storms” like Haiyan
could become the “new norm.”

Important Terms to Remember

Extratropical Cyclone - A cyclone (of any intensity) for which the primary energy source
is baroclinic (i.e., results from the temperature contrast between warm & cold air
masses).

Eye Wall - An organized band of cumulonimbus clouds immediately surrounding the

center of the tropical cyclone.

Hurricane - A hurricane is a tropical cyclone that has maximum sustained surface winds
of 74 mph or greater (64 knots or greater).

Hurricane Warning - A Hurricane Warning is issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or

higher are EXPECTED somewhere within the specified area of the Warning. Because
hurricane preparedness activities become difficult once winds reach tropical storm force,
the Warning is issued 36 hours in advance of the onset of tropical storm force winds.

Hurricane Watch - A Hurricane Watch is issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or

higher are POSSIBLE within the specified area of the Watch. Because hurricane
preparedness activities become difficult once winds reach tropical storm force, the Watch
is issued 48 hours in advance of the onset of tropical storm force winds.

Philippine Area of Responsibility(PAR) - This is the smallest and innermost monitoring

domain, whose boundary is closest to the Philippine Islands. The exact dimentions of this
domain are the area of the Western North Pacific bounded by imaginary lines connecting
the coordinates: 5°N 115°E, 15°N 115°E, 21°N 120°E, 25°N 135°E and 5°N 135°E. The

72
western boundary of the PAR is closer to the coastline of the country than the eastern
boundary. The eastern PAR boundary is several hundred kilometers away from the
nearest coastline in the eastern part of the country and completely encloses the East
Philippine Sea. Tropical Cyclones inside the PAR warrants the issuance of Severe
Weather Bulletin, the highest level of warning information issued for tropical cyclones.

Post-Tropical Cyclone - A cyclone that no longer possesses sufficient tropical

characteristics to be considered a tropical cyclone. Post-tropical cyclones can continue to
carry heavy rains and high winds. Note: former tropical cyclones that become
extratropical and remnant lows are 2 specific classes of post-tropical cyclones.

Remnant Low - A class of post-tropical cyclone that no longer possesses the convective
organization required of a tropical cyclone and has maximum sustained winds of less
than 34 knots.

Storm Surge - An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a tropical cyclone. This is
the difference in height between observed level of the sea surface and the level that
would have occurred in the absence of the storm. Storm suge is usually estimated by
subtracting the normal or astronomical tide from the observed storm tide.

Storm Tide - The water level rise resulting from the astronomical tide combined with the
storm surge.

Subtropical Cyclone - A non-frontal low pressure system that has characteristics of both
tropical and extratropical cyclones. Subtropical cyclones originate over tropical or
subtropical waters and have a closed circulation about a well-defined center. In
comparison to tropical cyclones, the maximum winds occur relatively far from the center
(greater than 60 nautical miles) and have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of
convection.

Tropical Cyclone - A tropical cyclone is a low pressure system (not associated with a
front) that develops over tropical and sometimes sub-tropical waters and has organized
deep convection with a closed wind circulation about a well-defined center.

Tropical Depression - A tropical depression is a tropical cyclone that has maximum

sustained surface winds (one-minute average) of 38 mph (33 knots) or less.

Tropical Disturbance - A tropical weather system with organized convection (generally

100-300 miles in diameter) originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a non-frontal
migratory character and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or longer. It may or may not
be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.

Tropical Storm - A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that has maximum sustained
surface winds ranging from 39-73 mph (34 to 63 knots).

Tropical Storm Warning - A Tropical Storm Warning is issued when Tropical Storm
conditions, including winds of 39-73 mph, are EXPECTED in a specified coastal area
within 36 hours or less.

Tropical Storm Watch - A Tropical Storm Watch is issued when Tropical Storm
conditions, including winds of 39-73 mph, pose a POSSIBLE threat to a specified coastal
area within 48 hours.

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Tropical Wave - An inverted trough (an elongated area of relatively low pressure) or
cyclonic curvature maximum moving east to west across the tropics. These can lead to
the formation of a tropical cyclone. Also known as an easterly wave.

Typhoon - a violent wind that has a circular movement, found in the West Pacific Ocean

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

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 TEST YOURSELF

1. What is the difference between a hurricane, typhoon and tropical cyclone?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. When do most hurricanes, typhoons and tropical cyclones occur?

_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Describe what conditions we need for each of the aspects below.

Latitude:
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Winds:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Sea Temperature:
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Moisture:
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________-
______________________________________________________________________

What are the 6 topics that affect the strength of a typhoon? Explain their effects.

1. ____________________: _______________________________________________

2. ____________________: _______________________________________________

3. ____________________: _______________________________________________

4. ____________________: _______________________________________________

5. ____________________: _______________________________________________

6. ____________________: _______________________________________________

CHAPTER VIII
CLIMATE
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 Climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of
30 years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense,
climate is the state of the components of the climate system, which includes the ocean
and ice on Earth. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, and altitude,
as well as nearby water bodies and their currents.

More generally, the "climate" of a region is the general state of the climate system
at that location at the current time.

What are the things you usually consider whenever you plan to have a picnic?
Most probably, you will consider the time, place, and most of all, the weather. Weather
affects your day-to-day activities. In your previous year level, you had encountered
different factors that affect weather. These factors help to determine the weather for
today each day.

Some of you may mistake climate with weather. But in fact, they are not the same.

Weather is what the forecasters on the TV news predict each day. They tell people
about the temperature, cloudiness, humidity, and whether a storm is likely in the next few
days. That’s weather! It is the mix of events that happens each day in our atmosphere.
Weather is not the same everywhere. It may be hot and sunny in one part of the world,
but freezing and snowy in another.

Climate is the average weather in a place over many years. While the weather can
change in just a few hours, climate takes hundreds, thousands, even millions of years to
change.

Climate is the general pattern of weather in a certain area over a long period of
time. On the other hand, weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a specific place
and time.

In this module, you will learn to distinguish climate from weather. You will find out
the factors that affect climate. You will understand why the climate of one country differs
from that of others. This module will also help you understand the causes of global
warming and other phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña.

The climate of the place is influenced by the surrounding bodies of water. Soil
absorbs heat faster than water. At the same time, soil releases heat faster compared to
water. These slow absorption and release of heat by the body of water greatly affect the
climate. Places that are near the oceans have moderate climate as the body of water
regulates the temperature. Even as both soil and water absorb the same amount of heat,
the temperature of water rises more slowly than that of soil. Because soil heats up faster
than water, air temperature above the sea is lower than above ground during day time.
Warm air thus moves out from land to sea, slowing down the rise of air temperature
above land. Thus, places without a body of water nearby tend to have higher air
temperature during day time

At night, soil cools down faster than water, so the air temperature above ground is
lower than that above the sea. Warm air then flows from sea to land, so the drop in air
temperature above ground is moderated. Places that are far from the bodies of water

76
have extreme climates, as there are no immediate bodies of water that will help to
circulate the movement of cold and warm air. The reason why temperature of water rises
or falls more slowly than soil is that water has higher heat capacity. Because of this,
water also absorbs more heat in warm days and slowly releases it in cold days. That is
why during summer, areas that are near a body of water will have moderate temperature
because water absorbs more heat. Similarly during winter, surrounding water slowly
releases heat causing the cooling effect to become lesser than normal in the nearby
landmass.

Topography is another factor that affects the climate of a certain place. One of the
topographic features of an area is mountain. Mountainous areas greatly affect the
amount of precipitation in a certain region. The area in which the wind blows is called the
windward side.

Topography is the study of the shape and features of land surfaces. The topography of
an area could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description
(especially their depiction in maps).

Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local
detail in general, including not only relief but also natural and artificial features, and even
local history and culture. This meaning is less common in the United States, where
topographic maps with elevation contours have made "topography" synonymous with
relief.

Here, the wind is blocked by the mountain, forcing it to move upward. As it moves
up, the water vapor condenses and forms clouds. This will result in precipitation on the
windward side. The air moves down towards the opposite region called leeward side. The
cold air mass starts to absorb heat and becomes warm and dry. As a result, the area
near the leeward side becomes dry and has less precipitation. The dry region on the
leeward side is called rain shadow. Vegetation in this region includes desert plants and
grassland.

Is climate change real? Is climate change man-made or is it just a natural occurrence?

These are just few questions that can be asked once we talk about climate change.

Climate change is one of the most current worldwide issues. Some experts say
that it is true that the Earth does go through a period of cooling and a period of warming.
The increase of temperature that we are experiencing right now is caused by factors
other than human activity. Another point of view is that the increase of Earth’s
temperature is brought about by human intervention.

Climate Change is the defining issue of our time and we are at a defining moment. From
shifting weather patterns that threaten food production, to rising sea levels that increase
the risk of catastrophic flooding, the impacts of climate change are global in scope and
unprecedented in scale. Without drastic action today, adapting to these impacts in the
future will be more difficult and costly.

Whether the cause is man-made or not, climate change is a change in the environment.

Global warming can bring about a rising of the sea level due to the melting of ice
caps and glaciers. We may experience severe weather disturbances such as much
stronger typhoons and heavier rainfalls. Some parts of the world may experience the so-

77
called El Niño or La Niña phenomena. And most of all, it can cause extinction of some
fauna and flora.

El Niño is an abnormal and lengthy warming in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean.

This natural phenomenon occurs at irregular intervals of two to seven years and lasts for
nine months or two years at most.

El Niño means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in Spanish. El Niño was originally
recognized by fishermen off the coast of South America in the 1600s, with the
appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean. The name was chosen based
on the time of year (around December) during which these warm waters events tended to
occur.

The term El Niño refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction

linked to a periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-
central Equatorial Pacific.

La Niña means The Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-
El Niño, or simply "a cold event."

La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across

the east-central Equatorial Pacific. Global climate La Niña impacts tend to be opposite
those of El Niño impacts. In the tropics, ocean temperature variations in La Niña also
tend to be opposite those of El Niño.

During a La Niña year, winter temperatures are warmer than normal in the Southeast and
cooler than normal in the Northwest.

Trade winds that move from east to west are strengthened. Upwelling of colder
water intensifies. Moving air brings along too much water vapor. When it reaches the
land mass such as the Philippines, precipitation is experienced. There would be an
increase of rainfall in some areas in the Philippines. For instance, areas that experienced
severe drought caused by El Niño may encounter above normal rainfall. But in some
cases, areas that experience dry season will have drier than normal conditions. La Niña’s
effects are the opposite of El Niño.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Greenhouse gases (including CO2, water vapor and aerosols) are found in the
atmosphere above the surface of the Earth. Their job is to trap heat reflected off the
Earth from the Sun. You have probably experienced the greenhouse effect while sitting in
a car that is parked in the Sun. The glass windows let in light but keep heat from
escaping. If it is a bit chilly out, it may feel nice to get into a warm car, but on a hot day, it
can be very uncomfortable to get inside a car that is rapidly warming up in the hot Sun.
(You may even open the doors and let some of the hot air escape before getting in the
car.)

The same is true for the Earth. If we did not have greenhouse gases, the Earth would be
60˚F colder! That would mean it would get down to (insert your typically low temperature
minus 60°F based on the weather in your area) in the winter! So, it would be safe to say
then that greenhouse gases are necessary to survive in our world; but, similar to sitting in
78
a car on a really hot day, too much trapped heat can make it difficult to survive as well. A
delicate balance — between what is necessary and what is too much — is key to our
survival on this planet. Even small changes in our global climate can have a big impact
on how we live.

What are some ways that you think global warming might affect people? (Give students a
moment to write down and/or share their answers.) It is difficult to predict how global
warming influences extreme weather events — such as hurricanes, tsunamis, and
tornados, but we can be fairly certain that a warmer atmosphere will at least result in a
greater number of extreme heat waves. More rain may be a result as well. Just as a
puddle will disappear by evaporating more quickly on a hot summer day, a warmer planet
allows more evaporation to occur resulting in more moisture in the atmosphere. This can
lead to more frequent and heavier storms when that added moisture is released back
onto the surface of the planet. Many scientists believe Hurricane Katrina, which hit the
Gulf Coast in August 2005, was stronger due to the warmer waters it traveled over in the
Gulf of Mexico, which caused more water to be evaporated into the storm clouds.

Our sea level has already risen 4-8 inches (10-20 cm) during the past century. Some
scientists believe that if global warming continues, and our glaciers continue to melt
adding more water into the ocean waters, that rising sea levels could flood coastal areas
sending millions of inhabitants out of their homes around the world, all within this century.

A worldwide effort, the Kyoto Protocol, is taking steps to limit the amount of greenhouses
gases being released into the atmosphere by alloting a certain amount of allowed
pollution (or "pollution credits") to every industrialized/developed country (except the U.S.
who is not participating). Companies that have cut back on the amount of greenhouse
gases they are releasing may sell their "pollution credits" to other companies who are
over their allowed amount. For example, if one company is given 10 credits, and they
only release 8 credits worth of greenhouses gases into the air, they can sell the other 2
credits to another company who is polluting over their limit.

Many scientists and engineers believe that human activity has contributed to global
cliimate change, and that we can prevent it by limiting our output of greenhouse gases.
What human activities create greenhouse gases? Most of it comes from burning fossil
fuels (such as oil, gas and coal) for energy to light our houses, drive our cars, and
manufacture products such as paper, plastics, computers, skateboards and packaged
foods. Everything that we buy requires some form of energy to create it and then be
made available for us to purchase it. Most of this energy comes from burning fuels such
as coal and oil. Burning these fuels releases greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide.
Greenhouse gases are sent into the air every time a new product is manufactured, and
even more greenhouse gases are released into landfills as these products are thrown
away. Landfill gas (LFG), naturally produced by the decomposition of organic materials in
landfills, contains mostly methane and carbon dioxide — both of which are greenhouse
gases that contribute to global warming.

Much of our daily human activities directly or indirectly contribute to increasing

greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming. Engineers can help reduce the
emission of harmful greenhouse gases by designing products that limit the production of
these harmful gases.

climate: The average weather (usually taken over a 30-year time period) for a particular
region and time period; the average pattern of weather for a particular region; climatic
79
elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, and
phenomena, such as fog, frost and hail storms.

climate change: The change in long-term weather patterns; changes can cause warmer
or colder temperatures; annual amounts of rainfall or snowfall can increase or decrease.

global warming: Refers to an average increase in the Earth's temperature, which in turn
causes changes in climate; a warmer Earth may lead to changes in rainfall patterns, a
rise in sea level, and a wide range of impacts on plants, wildlife, and humans.

greenhouse effect: The effect produced as greenhouse gases allow energy from the sun
to pass through the Earth's atmosphere, but prevent most of the outgoing heat from the
surface and lower atmosphere from escaping into outer space.

greenhouse gas: Any gas that absorbs the sun's heat in the atmosphere, including water
vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halogenated
fluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone (O3), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs), and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

Climate change is a proven fact. Global warming has caused serious changes to the
planet, such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, deforestation, and
disappearance of species. But, as individuals we can slow down global warming by
implementing small more sustainable actions within our community.

Let us tell you about daily habits that can be adopted to fight global warming locally,
through 6 simple actions that can result in big changes.

1. Reduce emissions

Use your car less, whenever possible, instead use sustainable transportation, such as
bicycling, or use public transportation more often. In the case of long-distance travel,
trains are more sustainable than airplanes, which cause a great deal of the CO2 emitted
into the atmosphere. If you're into cars, remember that every kilometer that you increase
your speed will considerably increase CO2 emissions and expenses. According to the
CE, each liter of fuel that your car uses, equals 2.5 kilos of CO2 emitted into the
atmosphere.

2. Save energy

Take a look at the labels on your appliances, and never leave them on standby. Always
adjust the thermostat for heating and air conditioning. By being careful how we use home
appliances, we can save energy and, of course, money at the end of the month.

3. Put the 3 R's of sustainability into practice

- Reduce: consume less, more efficiently.

- Reuse: take advantage of second-hand markets, to give new life to items that you don't
use anymore or find something that someone else has gotten rid of that you need. You'll
be saving money and reducing your consumption. Bartering is also a practical solution.

- Recycle: packaging, waste from electronics, etc. Did you know that you can save over
730 kilos of CO2 each year just by recycling half of the garbage produced at home?

4. What about your diet? Eat low-carbon

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A low-carbon diet results in smarter consumption:

- Reduce your meat consumption (livestock is one of the biggest contaminators of the
atmosphere) and increase your consumption of fruits and vegetables.

- Eat food that is local and in season: read the label and eat food that is produced in the
area, avoid imports which create more emissions due to transportation. Also, eat
seasonal items, to avoid less sustainable production methods.

- Avoid excessive packaging and processed foods as much as possible.

5. Act against forest loss

- As far as possible, avoid anything that may be a fire hazard.

- If you want to buy wood, choose wood with a certification or seal showing its
sustainable origin.

- Plant a tree! Throughout its life, it can absorb up to a ton of CO2.

6. Make demands from the government

Demand that they take measures toward a more sustainable life, any way that you can:
promote renewable energy, regulatory measures such as properly labelling products
(fishing method used, labels that specify product origins, whether or not they are
transgenic, etc.), promote more sustainable public transportation, promote the use of
bicycles and other non-polluting transportation methods in the city, correctly manage
waste through recycling/reuse, etc...

The population has more power than it realizes to demand measures from governments
to raise global awareness of the global warming problem

Climate Change in the Philippines

Climate change is happening now. Evidences being seen support the fact that the
change cannot simply be explained by natural variation. The most recent scientific
assessments have confirmed that this warming of the climate system since the mid-20th
century is most likely to be due to human activities; and thus, is due to the observed
increase in greenhouse gas concentrations from human activities, such as the burning of
fossil fuels and land use change. Current warming has increasingly posed quite
considerable challenges to man and the environment, and will continue to do so in the
future. Presently, some autonomous adaptation is taking place, but we need to consider a
more pro-active adaptation planning in order to ensure sustainable development.

What does it take to ensure that adaptation planning has a scientific basis? Firstly, we
need to be able to investigate the potential consequences of anthropogenic or human
induced climate change and to do this, a plausible future climate based on a reliable and
accurate baseline (or present) climate must be constructed. This is what climate
scientists call a climate change scenario. It is a projection of the response of the climate
system to future emissions or concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and is
simulated using climate models. Essentially, it describes possible future changes in
climate variables (such as temperatures, rainfall, storminess, winds, etc.) based on
baseline climatic conditions.

81
The climate change scenarios outputs (projections) are an important step forward in
improving our understanding of our complex climate, particularly in the future. These
show how our local climate could change dramatically should the global community fail to
act towards effectively reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

What is the Philippine government doing about climate change?

The Climate Change Act of 2009, or Republic Act 9729, established the Climate Change
Commission (CCC) under the Office of the President. The CCC is the principal climate
policymaking authority tasked to coordinate, monitor, and evaluate the programs and
action plans of the government related to climate change .

Important Terms to Remember

Altitude - the height above sea level.

Climate - is the average weather in a place over many years. While the weather can
change in just a few hours, climate takes hundreds, thousands, even millions of years to
change.

Climate - the overall condition of an area over a long period of time.

Climate Change - a long term shifting of global weather pattern
El Niño - brought about by the current of the ocean bringing warm air to a landmass in
the Pacific region.
Fauna – all the living animals in a given area.
Flora - all the plants in a given area.

Global Warming - an increase in the earth's atmospheric and oceanic temperatures

widely predicted to occur due to an increase in the greenhouse effect resulting
especially from pollution
Greenhouse Effect - the increase of global temperature due to some atmospheric
gases.
Gyre - the circular patterns formed by surface currents.
La Niña - is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the colder counterpart of
El Niño, as part of the broader El Niño–Southern Oscillation climate pattern. The name
La Niña originates from Spanish, meaning "the little girl", analogous to El Niño meaning
"the little boy".

Latitude - an imaginary line that is parallel to the equator.

Leeward - is the direction downwind (or downward) from the point of reference.

Longitude - an imaginary line that extends from north pole to south pole.
Mitigation – a manner of modifying something to become useful.
Precipitation - forms when water vapor condenses and falls to the ground as rain, snow,
hail or sleet.
Rain Shadow - is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area (away from the
wind). The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a

82
"shadow" of dryness behind them. Wind and moist air are drawn by the prevailing winds
towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses
the top. The air, without much moisture left, advances across the mountains creating a
drier side called the "rain shadow".

Temperature - refers to the hotness or coldness of an object.

Topography - is the study of the land surface. In particular, it lays the underlying
foundation of a landscape. For example, topography refers to mountains, valleys, rivers
or craters on the surface. The origin of topography comes from “topo” for “place” and
“graphia” for “writing”. It’s closely related to geodesy and surveying which are concerned
with accurately measuring the land surface.

Topography - the surface features of an area.

Weather - is what the forecasters on the TV news predict each day. They tell people
about the temperature, cloudiness, humidity, and whether a storm is likely in the next few
days. That’s weather! It is the mix of events that happens each day in our atmosphere.
Weather is not the same everywhere. It may be hot and sunny in one part of the world,
but freezing and snowy in another.

Windward - is the direction upwind from the point of reference, alternatively the direction
from which the wind is coming.

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

83
 TEST YOURSELF

1. What are the factors that affect climate?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. How can you lessen the harmful effects of climate change?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Explain how greenhouse effect happens.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

4. How is a rain shadow formed?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

5. What are some impacts of climate change to people and animals?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

6. How are "climate variability" and "climate change" different or the same?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

84
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

7. What is the relative role of atmospheric gases in radiation and energy exchanges in
the climate system? What factors influence temporal and spatial differences in the role of
a given gas?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

8. When does the reliable instrument record begin for climate variables? What are the
limitations of the early instrument record? What types of data are used to extend the
instrument record backward in time?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

9. What was the nature of climatic conditions during the period known as the Little Ice
Age? What sources of climatic information are available for the Little Ice Age?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

10. Describe the general decadal characteristics of the smoothed time series of global
temperature from 1880 to the present. What factors are commonly cited to account for
the prominent increasing and decreasing trends in this time series?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

11. Why is carbon dioxide the focus of so much attention regarding climate change?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

What is the role of trace gases in the Earth’s greenhouse effect and within the context of
climate change? Why some are trace gases a greater concern than other trace gases
regarding climate change?

85
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

12. What evidence is there that human activity has had an influence on the current
concentrations of atmospheric trace gases?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

13. What types of evidence can be used to support the position that "the greenhouse is
real"?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

14. How does a change in the sun’s radius change the solar flux density?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

15.How can fluctuations in sunspot number generate climate change on Earth?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

17. Explain the influence of earth orbital parameters on the climate system and the
spatial distribution of solar radiation.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

18. What is the "enhanced greenhouse effect"? What are the common contributors to this
perceived response?

86
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

19. Describe the characteristics of the link between CFCs and ozone and why this
coupling is a concern for climate change.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

20. Describe the global pattern of stratospheric ozone production and destruction, and
the three factors that control the distribution of stratospheric ozone.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER IX
SEASONS AND ECLIPSES

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 Like the other planets, the Earth moves mainly in two ways: it spins on its axis and
it goes around the Sun. And as the Earth revolves around the Sun, the Moon is also
revolving around the Earth. Can you imagine all these “motions” happening at the same
time? The amazing thing is we do not feel that the Earth is moving. In reality, the planet is
speeding around the Sun at 30 kilometers each second. (The solar system is also
moving around the center of the Milky Way!)

But even if we do not actually see the Earth or Moon moving, we can observe the
effects of their motion. For example, because the Earth rotates, we experience day and
night. As the Moon goes around the Earth, we see changes in the Moon‘s appearance.
In this module you will learn that the motions of the Earth and Moon have other effects.

An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet moves
into the shadow of another heavenly body. There are two types of eclipses on Earth: an
eclipse of the moon and an eclipse of the sun.

The moon moves in an orbit around Earth, and at the same time, Earth orbits the
sun. Sometimes Earth moves between the sun and the moon. When this happens, Earth
blocks the sunlight that normally is reflected by the moon. (This sunlight is what causes
the moon to shine.) Instead of light hitting the moon’s surface, Earth's shadow falls on it.
This is an eclipse of the moon -- a lunar eclipse. A lunar eclipse can occur only when the
moon is full.

A lunar eclipse can be seen from Earth at night. There are two types of lunar
eclipses: total lunar eclipses and partial lunar eclipses.

A total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon and the sun are on exact opposite
sides of Earth. Although the moon is in Earth's shadow, some sunlight reaches the moon.
The sunlight passes through Earth's atmosphere, which causes Earth’s atmosphere to
filter out most of the blue light. This makes the moon appear red to people on Earth.
A partial lunar eclipse happens when only a part of the moon enters Earth's
shadow. In a partial eclipse, Earth's shadow appears very dark on the side of the moon
facing Earth. What people see from Earth during a partial lunar eclipse depends on how
the sun, Earth and moon are lined up.

A lunar eclipse usually lasts for a few hours. At least two partial lunar eclipses
happen every year, but total lunar eclipses are rare. It is safe to look at a lunar eclipse.

88
 Sometimes when the moon orbits Earth, it moves between the sun and Earth.
When this happens, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching Earth. This
causes an eclipse of the sun, or solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the moon casts a
shadow onto Earth.

There are three types of solar eclipses.

The first is a total solar eclipse. A total solar eclipse is only visible from a small
area on Earth. The people who see the total eclipse are in the center of the moon’s
shadow when it hits Earth. The sky becomes very dark, as if it were night. For a total
eclipse to take place, the sun, moon and Earth must be in a direct line.

The second type of solar eclipse is a partial solar eclipse. This happens when the
sun, moon and Earth are not exactly lined up. The sun appears to have a dark shadow
on only a small part of its surface.

The third type is an annular (ANN you ler) solar eclipse. An annular eclipse
happens when the moon is farthest from Earth. Because the moon is farther away from
Earth, it seems smaller. It does not block the entire view of the sun. The moon in front of
the sun looks like a dark disk on top of a larger sun-colored disk. This creates what looks
like a ring around the moon.

During a solar eclipse, the moon casts two shadows on Earth. The first shadow is
called the umbra (UM bruh). This shadow gets smaller as it reaches Earth. It is the dark
center of the moon’s shadow. The second shadow is called the penumbra (pe NUM
bruh). The penumbra gets larger as it reaches Earth. People standing in the penumbra
will see a partial eclipse. People standing in the umbra will see a total eclipse.

Solar eclipses happen once every 18 months. Unlike lunar eclipses, solar eclipses only
last for a few minutes.

Seasons
A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and the
amount of daylight. On Earth, seasons are the result of Earth's orbit around the Sun and

89
Earth's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane. In temperate and polar regions, the seasons
are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface,
variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to
be dormant. Various cultures define the number and nature of seasons based on regional
variations.
You found out that there are two seasons in the Philippines: rainy and dry. You might
have noticed too that there are months of the year when it is cold and months when it is
hot. The seasons follow each other regularly and you can tell in advance when it is going
to be warm or cold and when it is going to be rainy or not.

Note that the axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit; it is tilted from
the vertical by 23.5 degrees.

In June, the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun. Naturally; the Northern Hemisphere will
also be tilted toward the Sun. The Northern Hemisphere will then receive direct rays from
the Sun. When the Sun’s rays hit the ground directly, the place will become warmer than
when the rays are oblique. This is why it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere at this
time.

But the Earth is not stationary. The Earth goes around the Sun.
After six months, in December, the North Pole will be pointing away from the Sun. The
Northern Hemisphere will no longer receive direct rays from the Sun. The Northern
Hemisphere will then experience a time of cold. For temperate countries in the Northern
Hemisphere, it will be winter. In tropical Philippines, it is simply the cold season.

After another six months, in June of the following year, the Earth will have made one full
trip around the Sun. The Sun’s direct rays will fall on the Northern Hemisphere once
more. It will be warm in the Northern Hemisphere and cold in the Southern Hemisphere
all over again. Thus, the seasons change because the direct rays of the Sun shift from
one hemisphere to the other as the Earth goes around the Sun.

You know that there are 24 hours in a day. You probably think that daytime and night-
time are always equal. But you can infer from the activity that the length of daytime
changes from month to month. When the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun, daytime will
be longer than night-time in the Northern Hemisphere.
What happens when daytime is longer than night-time? The time of heating up during the
day will be longer than the time of cooling down at night. The Northern Hemisphere

90
steadily warms up and the result is summer. At the same time, in the Southern
Hemisphere, the opposite is happening. Nights are longer than daytime. It is winter there.

But when the Earth has moved farther along its orbit, the North Pole will then be tilted
away from the Sun. night-time will then be longer than daytime in the Northern
Hemisphere. There would be a shorter time for heating up and longer time to cool down.
The result is winter in the Northern Hemisphere. In tropical Philippines, it is the cold
season. Meanwhile, it will be summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

Shadows and Eclipses

When a light source is blocked by an object, a shadow of that object is cast. The
shadow will darken the object on which it falls.

The distance of the object from the light source affects the size of its shadow.
When an object is closer to the light source, its shadow will appear big. But when it is
farther from the light source, its shadow is smaller.

The occurrence of shadows is an ordinary phenomenon that you experience every

day. Shadows can be seen anywhere. Sometimes, the shadow appears bigger than the
original object, other times smaller.

The umbra is the dark center portion of a shadow. The Moon's umbra causes total
solar eclipses, and the Earth's umbra is involved in total and partial lunar eclipses.

Like any other opaque objects illuminated by a light source, the Moon and the
Earth cast shadows into space as they block the sunlight that hits them. Each shadow
has 3 different areas: the umbra, the penumbra, and the antumbra.

The umbra is a shadow's dark core. Imagine a light source and an object casting a
shadow. If you are standing within the umbra, you will not be able to see any part of the
light source as the object blocks all direct light rays.

The other 2 areas are:

Penumbra – the lighter outer part of the shadow.

Antumbra – the lighter part of the shadow that begins where the umbra ends.

When the Earth enters the Moon's shadow, we see a solar eclipse; when the
Moon travels through the Earth's shadow, a lunar eclipse occurs. The type of eclipse
depends on the type of shadow that is involved.

If you are within the Moon's umbra and look into the direction of the Sun, you will
see a total solar eclipse as the Moon blocks the all of the Sun. On its journey through
space, the Moon always casts an umbra. This means that somewhere in space, on the
dark side of the Moon, a total solar eclipse is happening right now.
91
 The reason why solar eclipses are so rare is that the Moon's umbra rarely hits the
Earth's surface. Even during a total solar eclipse, the umbra only covers a small area on
Earth.

As both the Moon and the Earth are in constant motion, the umbra moves across
the face of the Earth during the eclipse, so the total phase can usually only be seen along
a slim eclipse path. For example, the total solar eclipse on April 8, 2024 will only be
visible along a narrow belt stretching across the United States, Mexico, and Canada.

The size of the area on the Earth's surface covered by the Moon's umbra during a
total solar eclipse depends, amongst other things, on the Moon's current distance from
Earth.

If the Moon is at its closest to Earth (its perigee) during the eclipse, the Moon
appears larger in the sky. In that case, the umbra's path across the Earth's surface
typically has a width of roughly 150 km (93 mi) at the Earth's equator. At higher latitudes,
the Sun's rays hit the Earth's surface at a shallower angle, so the umbra's size grows
accordingly. During some total solar eclipses, the umbra's path width reaches over 1000
km (621 mi) at the poles.

If the eclipse occurs when the Moon's distance is greater, the tip of the Moon's V-
shaped umbra (see illustration) may only just reach the Earth's surface during parts of the
eclipse, meaning that its diameter is close to zero. The total phase of the solar eclipse
then lasts only a short moment. For example, the total solar eclipse on December 6,
2067 is predicted to take only 8 seconds, with partial phases before and after totality.

If the Moon is close to its apogee, its farthest from Earth, during the eclipse, the
umbra does not reach the Earth's surface at all, and it is replaced by the antumbra,
producing an annular solar eclipse.

Like the Moon, Earth always casts an umbra. In fact, we travel through it quite
regularly. It is called: night. Every time the Sun goes down, we delve into the darkness
created by Earth's umbra. However, as with total solar eclipses, lunar eclipses only occur
every so often because they require the Moon to enter the Earth's umbra.

The Earth's umbra is involved in both total and partial lunar eclipses. During a total
lunar eclipse, the entire Moon enters the umbra. A partial lunar eclipse occurs when the
umbra covers only part of the Moon's surface.

Important Terms to Remember

ANTUMBRA – the lighter part of the shadow that begins where the umbra ends.

APOGEE - the point farthest from Earth.

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AURORA - It is created by the radiant energy emission from the sun and its interaction
with the earth's upper atmosphere over the middle and high latitudes. It is seen as a
bright display of constantly changing light near the magnetic poles of each hemisphere.
In the Northern Hemisphere, it is known as the aurora borealis or Northern Lights, and in
the Southern Hemisphere, this phenomena is called the aurora australis.

AUTUMN - The season of the year which occurs as the sun approaches the winter
solstice, and characterized by decreasing temperatures in the mid-latitudes. Customarily,
this refers to the months of September, October, and November in the North Hemisphere
and the months of March, April, and May in the Southern Hemisphere. Astronomically,
this is the period between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice.

DAWN - The first appearance of light in the eastern sky before sunrise. It marks the
beginning of morning twilight. The visual display is created by the scattering of light
reaching the upper atmosphere prior to the sun's rise to the observer's horizon. Also
known as daybreak.

DAY - Considered a basic unit of time as defined by the earth's motion. It represents the
time needed for one complete revolution of the earth about its own axis. Also know as a
sidereal day, it is approximately equal to 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds.

DUSK - The period of waning light from the time of sunset to dark.

ECLIPSE - The obscuring of one celestial body by another.

EQUINOX - The point at which the ecliptic intersects the celestial equator. Days and
nights are most nearly equal in duration. In the Northern Hemisphere, the vernal equinox
falls on or about March 20 and the autumnal equinox on or about September 22.

FOG - A visible aggregate of minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere at or

near the surface of the earth, reducing horizontal visibility to less than 5/8 statute miles. It
is created when the temperature and the dew point of the air have become the same, or
nearly the same, and sufficient condensation nuclei are present. It is reported as "FG" in
an observation and on the METAR.

FROST - The covering of ice crystals that forms by direct sublimation on exposed
surfaces whose temperature is below freezing.

LUNAR ECLIPSE - An eclipse of the moon occurs when the earth is in a direct line
between the sun and the moon. The moon does not have any light of its own, instead, it
reflects the sun's light. During a lunar eclipse, the moon is in the earth's shadow. It will
often look dim and sometimes copper or orange in color.

METEOROLOGY/METEOROLOGIST - The science and study of the atmosphere and

atmospheric phenomena. Various areas of meteorology include agricultural, applied,
astrometerology, aviation, dynamic, hydrometeorology, operational, and synoptic, to
name a few. A scientist who studies the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena.

MILKY WAY - is the Galaxy in which we live. It is a spiral shaped galaxy that contains
several hundred billion stars, including our Sun. It is about 100,000 light-years across
and about 10,000 light-years thick. If you are at a place which has a very dark night sky,
you can sometimes see the Milky Way as a thick band of stars in the sky. We live out in
the suburbs of the Milky Way - not near the center, but not near the edge either.

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MIST - A collection of microscopic water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. It does
not reduce visibility as much as fog and is often confused with drizzle.

MOISTURE - Refers to the water vapor content in the atmosphere, or the total water,
liquid, solid or vapor, in a given volume of air.

PENUMBRA - a part of a shadow in which only some of the light is blocked, used
especially about a shadow made during an eclipse

PERIGEE - the point of the orbit closest to Earth.

SEASON - is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and the
amount of daylight. On Earth, seasons are the result of Earth's orbit around the Sun and
Earth's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane

SHADOW - is a dark (real image) area where light from a light source is blocked by an
opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light
in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, or a reverse
projection of the object blocking the light.

SOLAR ECLIPSE - is an event in which a portion of the Earth is engulfed in a shadow

cast by the Moon which fully or partially blocks sunlight. It occurs when the Sun, Moon,
and Earth are aligned.

SPRING - The season of the year which occurs as the sun approaches the summer
solstice, and characterized by increasing temperatures in the mid-latitudes. Customarily,
this refers to the months of March, April, and May in the North Hemisphere, and the
months of September, October, and November in the Southern Hemisphere.
Astronomically, this is the period between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice.

SUMMER - Astronomically, this is the period between the summer solstice and the
autumnal equinox. It is characterized as having the warmest temperatures of the year,
except in some tropical regions. Customarily, this refers to the months of June, July, and
August in the North Hemisphere, and the months of December, January, and February in
the Southern Hemisphere.

Umbra - the dark inner part of a shadow in which all light is blocked, used especially
about a shadow made during an eclipse

WINTER - Astronomically, this is the period between the winter solstice and the vernal
equinox. It is characterized as having the coldest temperatures of the year, when the sun
is primarily over the opposite hemisphere. Customarily, this refers to the months of
December, January, and February in the North Hemisphere, and the months of June,
July, and August in the Southern Hemisphere.

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

94
 TEST YOURSELF

1. In which month is the North Pole tilted toward the Sun– in June or December?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. In which month is the North Pole tilted away from the Sun– in June or
December?
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. In June, which hemisphere receives direct rays from the Sun– the Northern
Hemisphere or Southern Hemisphere?
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. In December, which hemisphere receives direct rays from the Sun- the Northern
Hemisphere or Southern Hemisphere
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

5. What causes day and night?

_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

6. Why do the seasons change?

_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

95
7. What’s the difference between an equinox and a solstice?
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

8. How long will the solar eclipse last?

_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

9. What will I see during a total solar eclipse?

_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

10. Do solar eclipses affect humans?

_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

11. What are some misconceptions about eclipses?

_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER X
COMETS, ASTEROIDS, AND METEORS

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 Recent advances in space technology have allowed scientists coming from
different background like physics, chemistry, biology, and geology to collaborate on
studying Near-Earth Objects (NEO) like comets and asteroids. With more powerful
telescopes and space probes, the study of comets and asteroids provides more clues
about the origins of our solar system. Over the past three years, amateur and
professional astronomers have discovered several NEO’s that came close to Earth, the
most recent asteroid being Asteroid 2012 DA14. It made a very close approach to Earth
as it orbited the Sun on February 16, 2012 (Philippine Time). On the morning of February
16, 2012, an asteroid entered Earth’s atmosphere and exploded over Lake Chebarkul in
Russia hurting about 1,000 people in the process. These two events triggered
superstitions, fears, and doomsday prophecies held by different cultures. But do these
things have scientific basis?

Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of
dust, rock and ices. They range from a few miles to tens of miles wide, but as they orbit
closer to the sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can be
larger than a planet. This material forms a tail that stretches millions of miles.

Comets and asteroids are referred to be astronomers as Near-Earth Objects

(NEO). Comets are icy bodies or objects while asteroids are rocky fragments. They are
remnants from the formation of our solar system 4.6 billion years ago.

Comets orbit the Sun just like planets and asteroids do, except a comet usually
has a very elongated orbit.

As the comet gets closer to the Sun, some of the ice starts to melt and boil off,
along with particles of dust. These particles and gases make a cloud around the nucleus,
called a coma.

The coma is lit by the Sun. The sunlight also pushes this material into the beautiful
brightly lit tail of the comet.

Comet and asteroid both orbit the Sun and move relatively slow when viewed from
Earth. This means, you can see a comet for up to a year in the night sky (or even during
the morning if the comet is bright enough). Their major difference is their origin or where
they came from in space. Comets usually come from the Oort Cloud which is beyond our
Solar System, and a few from Kuiper Belt which is just beyond Neptune’s orbit. Long-
period comets come from the Oort Cloud, while shortperiod comets come from Kuiper

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Belt. Comet Halley, the most famous comet of the 20th century is the only known short-
period comet. It takes 75-79 years for Comet Halley to orbit the Sun. We see it in the sky
every time it makes its nearest approach to the Sun. All other comets that have been
identified are classified as long-period comets and takes 200 to hundred millions of years
to complete their orbit around the Sun. Asteroids, on the other hand, originate from the
Main Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter. This belt is theorized by scientists to be
remnants of a planet that did not completely form.

The composition of a comet is important in helping scientists understand how

Earth has liquid water, which in turn made the planet liveable. During Earth’s formation,
scientists theorized that the planet must have been too hot to have liquid water on its
surface. By studying comets’ orbits and the chemical composition of materials found in
impact craters found all over Earth, soil and ice samples collected from drilling down
Earth’s crust and marine layers, scientists theorized that the early impact of comets on
Earth brought liquid water to the planet.

The chemical composition of an asteroid is important in providing clues for scientists to

discover more about the chemical composition of Earth and the other planets in the Solar
System, as well as how life on Earth was affected by impacts in the past. It is the
scientists’ belief that Earth, other planets, and asteroids are essentially similar in
composition. In fact, asteroids are also called minor planets or planetoids. Asteroids are
mostly composed of metals like iron and nickel; the same metals that are theorized to
make up Earth’s core.

A meteoroid can be as small as a grain of sand or as big as a boulder. When it

enters Earth’s atmosphere, the air in front of the meteoroid heats up, causing materials to
burn up. From Earth, these glowing materials appear as a streak of light or a fast-moving
bright object that appears to have a tail just like a comet. What differentiates the two
when we see them in the sky is that a comet moves slowly and appears in the sky for a
longer time. A meteor moves swiftly and seems to fall on the ground. It “shoots” from a
point in the sky, making people think that it is a shooting or falling star. Also, a comet is
difficult to see with the unaided eye because it is farther from Earth compared to a
meteoroid entering Earth’s atmosphere. Sometimes, a comet can be bright enough to be
seen by the unaided eye, but this is rare, just like in the case of Comet Hale-Bopp.

A meteoroid usually all burns up when it enters Earth’s atmosphere. But when a
fragment from the meteoroid survives and makes it to the ground, this space rock
fragment is now called a meteorite. So if you heard from the news on radio or television
or read the news from newspapers about a meteorite exploding over Russia in February

98
2013, their use of the word meteorite is inaccurate. Instead, a meteoroid exploded over
Russia. The space rock fragments they collected on the ground are the meteorite.

Earlier, we mentioned that a meteoroid can come from comets. Comets orbit the Sun and
leave fragments on their orbit as they continue their journey around the Sun. These
fragments continue to orbit the Sun just like their parent comets. When Earth orbits the
Sun and passes through the orbit of a comet where these comet fragments are found, we
observe many streaks of light from Earth which is called a meteor shower. During a
meteor shower, meteors seem to originate from only one point in the sky because the
meteoroids are traveling in parallel paths with the same velocity. The meteor shower is
named after the constellation where they seem to originate from, but this does not mean
that the meteoroids come from the associated constellation. Remember: a meteor and a
meteor shower are light phenomena; they are not stars.

Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size from dust grains to small
asteroids. Think of them as “space rocks." When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere
(or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up, the fireballs or “shooting
stars” are called meteors. When a meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere and
hits the ground, it’s called a meteorite.

The numbers of meteors that can be seen during a meteor shower vary. It starts
with the appearance of a few meteors per hour, increasing in frequency until it reaches its
peak of 1-2 meteors per minute, and then declines.
Usually, the meteoroids that cause meteor showers come from comets, but they may
also come from an asteroid like in the case of the Geminids. Earth passes through
Asteroid3200 Phaethon’s orbit where some fragments from the asteroid are found. Once
these fragments enter Earth’s atmosphere, they burn up as well. Meteoroids from comets
appear fuzzy because of the ice particles while those from asteroids are clearer and
distinct because they do not have these ice particles.

What are Planets?

A planet (from Ancient Greek (astēr planētēs), meaning “wandering star”) is an

astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be
rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and
has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.

The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, science, mythology, and religion. The
planets were originally seen by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities.
99
As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed,
incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, the International Astronomical
Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This
definition has been both praised and criticized and remains disputed by some scientists
because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit.
While eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain “planets” under the
modern definition, some celestial bodies, such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta (each an
object in the Solar asteroid belt), and Pluto (the first-discovered trans-Neptunian object),
that were once considered planets by the scientific community are no longer viewed as
such.

Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-density gas giants and
smaller, rocky terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar
System. In order of increasing distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials,
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four gas giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites.

Mercury—the smallest planet in our solar system and closest to the Sun—is only slightly
larger than Earth's Moon. Mercury is the fastest planet, zipping around the Sun every 88
Earth days.

Venus spins slowly in the opposite direction from most planets. A thick atmosphere traps
heat in a runaway greenhouse effect, making it the hottest planet in our solar system.

Earth—our home planet—is the only place we know of so far that’s inhabited by living
things. It's also the only planet in our solar system with liquid water on the surface.

Mars
Mars is a dusty, cold, desert world with a very thin atmosphere. There is strong evidence
Mars was—billions of years ago—wetter and warmer, with a thicker atmosphere.

Jupiter is more than twice as massive than the other planets of our solar system
combined. The giant planet's Great Red spot is a centuries-old storm bigger than Earth.

Adorned with a dazzling, complex system of icy rings, Saturn is unique in our solar
system. The other giant planets have rings, but none are as spectacular as Saturn's.

Uranus—seventh planet from the Sun—rotates at a nearly 90-degree angle from the
plane of its orbit. This unique tilt makes Uranus appear to spin on its side.

Neptune—the eighth and most distant major planet orbiting our Sun—is dark, cold and
whipped by supersonic winds. It was the first planet located through mathematical
calculations.

Important Terms to Remember

Asteroid - An asteroid is a celestial body made of rock and metal that orbits the Sun.

Asteroids can vary in size from a few feet across to hundreds of miles.

100
Asteroid belt - An area between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where millions asteroids

orbit the Sun.

Astronaut - A person who is specially trained to travel into outer space.

Astronomical Unit (AU) - A measure of distance used for outer space. One AU is equal

to 149.6 million kilometers which is the mean distance from the center of the Sun to the

center of the Earth.

Astronomy - The branch of science that studies outer space, celestial bodies, and the

universe.

Atmosphere - An envelope of gases that surround a planet.

Black hole - An area in space with gravity so intense even light cannot escape its pull.

Black holes are formed when massive stars collapse.

Celestial body - An natural object that exists outside the Earth's atmosphere. Examples

include stars, planets, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids.

Coma - The area of gases and dust that form around a comet as it passes by the Sun.

Comet - A celestial body made of ice and rock that orbits the Sun. When a comet nears

the Sun a coma and tail of gases and dust can be seen.

Comet Hale–Bopp - (formally designated C/1995 O1) is a comet that was perhaps the

most widely observed of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many

decades.

Constellation - A grouping of stars that form a pattern in the sky when viewed from

Earth.

Cosmology - The branch of science that studies the origin and nature of the universe.

Dwarf planet - A celestial body that is large enough to become rounded from its own

gravity, but has not cleared its orbital region of other objects.

Eclipse - When one celestial body blocks the light of the Sun from another. In a solar

eclipse, the Moon blocks the light of the Sun from the Earth. In a lunar eclipse, the Earth

blocks the light of the Sun from the Moon.

Galaxy - A system consisting of a large number of stars bound together by gravity.

101
Gas giant - A large planet that is not composed mostly of rock, but primarily of gas.

There are four gas giants in the Solar System including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and

Neptune.

Geminids - are a prolific meteor shower caused by the object 3200 Phaethon, which is

thought to be a Palladian asteroid with a "rock comet" orbit.

Halley's Comet, - also known as 1P/Halley, is the most well known comet in the Solar

System. As a periodic (or short-term comet) it has orbital period that is less than 200

years, and has therefore been observed more than once by people here on Earth over

the centuries.

Kuiper belt - A large ring of millions of icy objects that exists outside the orbit of

Neptune.

Light year - A measure of length that equals the distance light travels one year in a

vacuum. It is about 5.8 trillion miles.

Main Asteroid Belt –asteroids orbit between Mars and Jupiter.

Meteor - A meteoroid that has entered the Earth's atmosphere is called a meteor.

Meteor shower - the profusion of meteors observed when the earth passes through a

meteor swarm.

Meteorite - A meteor becomes a meteorite when it reaches the ground.

Meteoroid - A small rocky object that orbits the Sun that has broken off from a comet or

asteroid.

Milky Way - The galaxy that contains the Solar System.

Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) - are comets and asteroids that have been nudged by the

gravitational attraction of nearby planets into orbits that allow them to enter the Earth’s

neighborhood. Composed mostly of water ice with embedded dust particles, comets

originally formed in the cold outer planetary system while most of the rocky asteroids

formed in the warmer inner solar system between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Nebula - A large cloud of dust in space. The dust in nebulae often forms stars and

planets.

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Nuclear fusion - The process by which two or more atoms are joined together to form a

larger atom. This process occurs inside stars and produces huge amounts of energy.

Oort cloud - A band of billions of icy objects that exists at the edge of the Solar System.

Orbit - The path a celestial object takes around a star or planet.

Planet - A large celestial object that has become rounded due to its gravity and has

cleared is nearby region of other smaller objects. Planets in the solar system include

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Planetoids - largest asteroids.

Satellite - A natural or artificial object that is in orbit around a planet.

Solar System - The Solar System consists of the Sun and all the objects that orbit

around it including the planets, asteroids, comets, and other objects.

Solar Wind - A stream of charged particles that is constantly flowing from the Sun.

Star - A giant ball of hot gas and plasma that generates huge amounts of energy through

nuclear fusion.

Sunspot - A dark area on the Sun caused by cooling from electromagnetic activity within

the Sun.

Supernova - A huge explosion caused when a star collapses on itself.

Telescope - An instrument used to view objects in outer space.

Universe - The universe is everything that exists including the stars, planets, matter,

energy and time.

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

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1. Why do comets have tails?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. How could measuring the orbit of a comet help scientists understand when
it will next be visible from earth?
3. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

4. What is a Kuiper belt?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. What causes the tail on Halley's Comet?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. Why do asteriods orbit the sun? Why/how do they stay in the Asteroid belt?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

7. Who was the first person to observe Halley's Comet?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

8. Which was the first asteroid to be discovered?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

9. Which comet has been seen the most times?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

10. What is the highest speed with which meteors enter our atmosphere?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

11. What is the difference between a meteor, a meteoroid, a meteorite, an

asteroid, and a comet?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

12. What path do comets follow through the solar system?

104
 _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

13. Explain how the tilts of the planets' axes of rotation affect the intensity of
their seasons at different latitudes.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

14. Compare/contrast orbital effects with effects caused by the rotations of the
planets.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

15. For each of the planets, discuss the mass, diameter, density and surface
gravity, and briefly explain how, for any given planet, these quantities are
related to each other.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

16. Discuss each planet's internal structure and composition in as much detail
as possible.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

17. Discuss the surface features and magnetic fields of each planet, and how
these can be used to infer their internal temperatures. For planets whose
surface features cannot be used for this purpose, discuss the reason for
that, and how we do infer their internal temperatures.

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_________________________________________________________________
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CHAPTER XI
CONSTELLATIONS

In this module, you will learn about the characteristics of stars. You will also learn
about the patterns that form from groups of stars. These patterns in the night sky appear
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to move in the course of the night because of Earth’s rotation. Different star patterns are
seen at different times of the year because of the Earth’s movement around the Sun.

Characteristics of Stars
When we look at the night sky, we see thousands of stars. In reality, there are
approximately 400 billion stars in our galaxy, and there are about 170 billion galaxies. A
person can see only about 3,000 stars on the average. These stars differ in many ways.
We see stars of different sizes, brightness, and color.

The brightness of a star as seen from the Earth depends on two factors-distance
and the actual brightness (or absolute brightness) of the star. The star’s brightness as
seen from Earth is its apparent brightness.

Astronomers consider the star’s absolute brightness when comparing stars. A

star’s absolute brightness is the brightness the star would have if all stars were the same
standard distance from Earth

Stars are seen in the same relative positions year after year. They provided early
astronomers with a reference system for measuring the motions of planets ("wandering
stars"), the Moon, and the Sun. The apparent westward rotation of the celestial sphere is
caused by the daily eastward rotation of the Earth, and the Sun's apparent motion among
the stars is the result of the Earth's annual orbit around the Sun.

Positions, Motions, and Distances. With the construction of larger telescopes it was
found that stars are not precisely "fixed." They move at various speeds, measured as
changes of direction in fractions of a second of arc per year, where one second of arc is
the angular size of a pinhead 183 m (200 yd) away. For all practical purposes most of the
faint stars may be regarded as truly fixed as viewed from Earth. They are used as a
reference frame for the minute motions of nearby stars, known as proper motion.

Parallax is another apparent motion of nearby stars. It is caused by the Earth's

orbit around the Sun. That is, a star seems to shift first one way, then the other, as the
Earth moves from 150 million km (93 million mi) on one side of the Sun to 150 million km
on the other side. Stellar parallax can be used to determine astronomical distance. If the
shift is 1 second of arc each way, the star is about 32 million million km (20 million million
mi) from an observer. This distance is called the parsec and is equal to 3.26 light-years, a
light-year being the distance that light travels in one year.

Brightness and Luminosity. Star brightness was first estimated by eye, and the
brightest stars in the sky were described as "stars of the first magnitude." Later the
magnitude scale was defined more accurately: 6th magnitude stars are just 1/100 as
bright as 1st magnitude stars; 11th magnitude stars are 1/100 as bright as 6th
magnitude, and so on. The magnitude scale is logarithmic. That is, each magnitude
corresponds to a factor of 1/2.54, because (1/2.54)5 = 1/100.

Photographs are also used to measure star brightness. With the emulsions
available in the early 1900s a blue star that appeared to the eye to have the same
brightness as a red star photographed much brighter, because the emulsions were much
more sensitive to blue light than to red. Because of this variation, two magnitude scales

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came into use: visual magnitude (mv) and photographic magnitude (mp). The difference
for any one star, of photographic magnitude minus visual magnitude mp - mv , measures
the color of that star - positive for red stars, negative for blue.

By using filters and special emulsions, astronomers soon had several other
magnitude scales, including ultraviolet and infrared. When photoelectric detectors were
introduced, the brightnesses of stars were measured with a photoelectric photometer at
the focus of a telescope. Standard colors (wavelengths) of light were adopted, and the
symbols (Ts = 30,000 K mv and mp that had been used for visual magnitude and
photographic magnitude were changed to V and B, with U for the ultraviolet scale and
several other letters for infrared scales.

Measuring the brightness of a star on any of these scales is complicated by the

Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs more light when a star is near the horizon. It also
absorbs different amounts of the different colors and can change during the night
because of changing dust or moisture in the air. Nevertheless, by comparing a star with a
standard at the same height above the horizon, astronomers using photoelectric
photometers can measure U, B, and V magnitudes with an accuracy of 0.01 magnitude.

Such photometry has provided a great deal of information regarding the

temperatures and energy output of stars, but it does not give the total energy output.
Each measurement (U, B, V) gives only a fraction of the star's light reaching the Earth.
Even if the measurements are combined, they give only the part that is not absorbed as it
passes through the Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere absorbs all light of short
wavelengths below ultraviolet and many of the long wavelengths above red. A theoretical
correction can be made, based on the star's temperature, to give a "bolometric"
magnitude, mb, adding the energy absorbed by the atmosphere. True bolometric
magnitudes, however, are measured only from rockets and spacecraft outside the Earth's
atmosphere.

From parallax-distance measurements it is possible to calculate the absolute

bolometric magnitude, or luminosity, of a star, a measure of its brightness relative to the
Sun if it were at the Sun's distance from Earth. It has been found that some stars (giants)
are 100,000 times more luminous than the Sun, and one supergigantic star - discovered
in 1997 near the center of our Galaxy - is several million times more luminous. Others
( white dwarfs) are 1,000 times less luminous.
When you look at the sky, what do you see? Do you see images of animals or
objects? Observers in ancient times also imagined group of stars that form pictures of
animals, objects and people. These imaginary groups of stars are called constellations.

Ever since people first wandered the Earth, great significance has been given to
the celestial objects seen in the sky. Throughout human history and across many
different cultures, names and mythical stories have been attributed to the star patterns in
the night sky, thus giving birth to what we know as constellations.

When were the first constellations recorded? Archaeological studies have

identified possible astronomical markings painted on the walls in the cave system at
Lascaux in southern France. Our ancestors may have recorded their view of the night sky
on the walls of their cave some 17 300 years ago. It is thought that the Pleiades star

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cluster is represented alongside the nearby cluster of the Hyades. Was the first ever
depiction of a star pattern made over seventeen millennia ago.

Over half of the 88 constellations the IAU recognizes today are attributed to
ancient Greek, which consolidated the earlier works by the ancient Babylonian, Egyptian
and Assyrian. Forty eight of the constellations we know were recorded in the seventh and
eighth books of Claudius Ptolemy’s Almagest, although the exact origin of these
constellations still remains uncertain. Ptolemy’s descriptions are probably strongly
influenced by the work of Eudoxus of Knidos in around 350 BC. Between the 16th and
17th century AD, European astronomers and celestial cartographers added new
constellations to the 48 previously described by Ptolemy; these new constellations were
mainly “new discoveries” made by the Europeans who first explored the southern
hemisphere. Those who made particular contributions to the “new” constellations include
the Polish-born, German astronomer Johannes Hevelius; three Dutch cartographers,
Frederick de Houtman, Pieter Dirksz Keyser and Gerard Mercator; the French
astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille; the Flemish mapmaker Petrus Plancius and the
Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci.

Each Latin constellation name has two forms: the nominative, for use when talking
about the constellation itself, and the genitive, or possessive, which is used in star
names. For instance, Hamal, the brightest star in the constellation Aries (nominative
form), is also called Alpha Arietis (genitive form), meaning literally “the alpha of Aries”.

The Latin names of all the constellations, their abbreviated names and boundaries
can be found in the table below. They are a mix of the ancient Greek patterns recorded
by Ptolemy as well as some more “modern” patterns observed later by more modern
astronomers.

88 Officially Recognized Constellations

English Name 2. Antlia Air pump

Latin Name
or Description
3. Apus Bird of Paradise
Princess of
1. Andromeda 4. Aquarius Water bearer
Ethiopia

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5. Aquila Eagle 36. Eridanus River
6. Ara Altar 37. Fornax Furnace
7. Aries Ram 38. Gemini Twins
8. Auriga Charioteer 39. Grus Crane
9. Bootes Herdsman Hercules, son
40. Hercules
of Zeus
10. Caelum Graving tool
41. Horologium Clock
11. Camelopardalis Giraffe
42. Hydra Sea serpent
12. Cancer Crab
43. Hydrus Water snake
13. Canes Venatici Hunting dogs
44. Indus Indian
14. Canis Major Big dog
45. Lacerta Lizard
15. Canis Minor Little dog
46. Leo Lion
16. Capricornus Sea goat
47. Leo Minor Little lion
Keel of
17. Carina
Argonauts' ship 48. Lepus Hare
Queen of 49. Libra Balance
18. Cassiopeia
Ethiopia
50. Lupus Wolf
19. Centaurus Centaur
51. Lynx Lynx
King of
20. Cepheus 52. Lyra Lyre or harp
Ethiopia
Sea monster 53. Mensa Table mountain
21. Cetus
(whale) 54. Microscopium Microscope
22. Chamaeleon Chameleon 55. Monoceros Unicorn
23. Circinus Compasses 56. Musca Fly
24. Columba Dove Carpenter's
57. Norma
25. Coma Berenices Berenice's hair Level

26. Corona Australis Southern crown 58. Octans Octant

27. Corona Borealis Northern crown Holder of

59. Ophiuchus
serpent
28. Corvus Crow
Orion, the
60. Orion
29. Crater Cup hunter
Cross 61. Pavo Peacock
30. Crux
(southern)
Pegasus, the
62. Pegasus
31. Cygnus Swan winged horse
32. Delphinus Porpoise Perseus, hero
63. Perseus who saved
33. Dorado Swordfish Andromeda
34. Draco Dragon 64. Phoenix Phoenix
35. Equuleus Little horse 65. Pictor Easel

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66. Pisces Fishes
67. Piscis Austrinus Southern fish
Stern of the
68. Puppis
Argonauts' ship
Compass on the
69. Pyxis
Argonauts' ship
70. Reticulum Net
71. Sagitta Arrow
72. Sagittarius Archer
73. Scorpius Scorpion
74. Sculptor Sculptor's tools
75. Scutum Shield
76. Serpens Serpent
77. Sextans Sextant
78. Taurus Bull
79. Telescopium Telescope
80. Triangulum Triangle
Southern
81. Triangulum Australe
triangle
82. Tucana Toucan
83. Ursa Major Big bear
84. Ursa Minor Little bear
Sail of the
85. Vela
Argonauts' ship
86. Virgo Virgin
87. Volans Flying fish
88. Vulpecula Fox

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 Important Terms to Remember

Average Temperature - This is the average surface temperature of the planet. Note that
for most inner planets the actual surface temperature will vary significantly between night
and day, we are lucky that Earth has an atmosphere to keep us warm at night!

Axial Tilt - This is the angle at which the planet is tilted from its orbital plane. Of
particular interest are Venus' and Uranus' axial tilts. Venus is upside down while Uranus
is orbiting sideways.

Claudius Ptolemy - a Greek mathematician, astronomer and geographer. Much of

medieval astronomy and geography were built on his ideas: his world map, published as
part of his treatise Geography in the 2nd century, was the first to use longitudinal and
latitudinal lines. This idea of a global coordinates system was highly influential, and we
use a similar system today.

Constellation - is a name given to a group of stars in the sky that make up a certain
pattern. Sometimes this pattern is imaginary. When the sky is clear these stars can be
seen from Earth without the use of a telescope.

Distance - This can be measured in light-years (ly) or parsecs (pc). A light-year is the
distance travelled by light particle in a year. They travel (in a vacuum) roughly
300,000,000 metres every second, so in a year they have traversed roughly 10 trillion
kilometres of space!

Eudoxus of Cnidus - Greek mathematician and astronomer who substantially advanced

proportion theory, contributed to the identification of constellations and thus to the
development of observational astronomy in the Greek world, and established the first
sophisticated, geometrical model of celestial motion. He also wrote on geography and
contributed to philosophical discussions in Plato’s Academy. Although none of his
writings survive, his contributions are known from many discussions throughout antiquity.

Genitive constellation - or possessive, which is used in star names.

Hyades star - a V-shaped cluster of stars in the head of the constellation Taurus held by
the ancients to indicate rainy weather when they rise with the sun.

IAU - International Astronomical Union

Johannes Hevelius - As an astronomer, he gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar

topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by
astronomers.

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Nominative constellation - use when talking about the constellation itself.

Orbital Period - This is the amount of time it takes for the planet to make one revolution
around the Sun.

Parallax - Astronomers derive distances to the nearest stars (closer than about 100 light-
years) by a method called stellar parallax.

Parsec - (symbol: pc) is a unit of length used to measure the large distances to
astronomical objects outside the Solar System. One parsec is approximately equal to 31
trillion kilometres (19 trillion miles),or 210,000 astronomical units, and equates to about
3.3 light-years.

Planetary Satellites - These are natural objects which orbit a planet, for example our
Moon.

Pleiades star - also known as the Seven Sisters and Messier 45, are an open star
cluster containing middle-aged, hot B-type stars in the north-west of the constellation
Taurus. It is among the star clusters nearest to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to
the naked eye in the night sky.

Proper motion - is the astrometric measure of the observed changes in the apparent
places of stars or other celestial objects in the sky, as seen from the center of mass of
the Solar System, compared to the abstract background of the more distant stars.

Spectral Class- This is a classification based upon the Morgan-Keenan System which
classifies stars according to colour and size. The first letter is an indication of the stars
colour including the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, M, where O is hottest at 'blue' and M is
coldest at 'red'. This letter is followed by a number between 0 and 9 which is an
increment to the next colour. Finally comes a Roman numeral from I to V which denotes
its size, where I are super-giants and V are main-sequence stars.

Stars - are huge celestial bodies made mostly of hydrogen and helium that produce light
and heat from the churning nuclear forges inside their cores. Aside from our sun, the dots
of light we see in the sky are all light-years from Earth. They are the building blocks of
galaxies, of which there are billions in the universe. It’s impossible to know how many
stars exist, but astronomers estimate that in our Milky Way galaxy alone, there are about
300 billion.

Surface Gravity - This is the power of the planet's gravitational field measured in units of
G. 1G is equal to the gravitational strength of Earth, so for example the moon is about
one fifth as strong while Jupiter is 2.5 times stronger than Earth.

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NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Describe the apparent motions of stars in different parts of the sky, as

seen at different latitudes.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

2. Discuss the formation of stars from clouds of gas and dust in the
interstellar medium.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

3. Discuss the various stages of stellar formation in as much detail as

possible, and explain why massive stars form very quickly, and low-mass
stars form very slowly.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

4. Discuss the ways in which stars of various masses age and die, starting
with low-mass stars.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

5. Discuss the structures and characteristics of white dwarfs, neutron stars

and black holes.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

6. Explain why these dead stars are usually difficult to observe, and describe
how they can (sometimes) be observed.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

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7. Describe the structure of our Galaxy, indicating the positions of the Sun,
the nucleus, the disk, the halo, globular clusters, and spiral arms.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

8. Describe the structures of other types of galaxies, and the differences

between the various types of galaxies.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

9. Discuss "dark" matter in galaxies.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

10.Describe the appearance of the Sun, and of the various regions in the
solar atmosphere; discuss the conditions within each part of the
atmosphere, and the nature of the Sun's "surface."
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

11. Describe the cycle of solar activity, discuss the changing appearance of
the Sun during that cycle, and explain how these changes are related to
changes in the Sun's magnetic field.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

12.Describe the Sun's internal structure.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

13.Discuss how density, temperature, pressure and other quantities change

as we go from the surface to the center.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

14.Describe the creation of energy in the solar core, the way in which the
Sun's energy gets from the center to the surface, and the changes which
occur in that energy while passing through the solar interior.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

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15. Discuss how we can determine the distances, motions, apparent and real
brightnesses, masses, diameters, densities, and temperatures of the stars,
and discuss the normal range of values for each quantity.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

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