Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

TYPICAL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Each Question carries 2 marks.

Choose correct or the best alternative in the following:

Q.1 Which of the following statement is the negation of the

statement, “2 is even and –3 is negative”?
(A) 2 is even and –3 is not negative.
(B) 2 is odd and –3 is not negative.
(C) 2 is even or –3 is not negative.
(D) 2 is odd or –3 is not negative.

Ans:D

Q.2 If A × B = B× A,(where A and B are general matrices) then

A=ϕ. (B) A = B‟.
(C) B = A. (D) A‟ = B.

Ans:C

Q.3 A partial ordered relation is transitive, reflexive and

(A) antisymmetric. (B) bisymmetric.
(C) antireflexive. (D) asymmetric.

Ans:A

Q.4 Let N = {1, 2, 3, ….} be ordered by divisibility, which of the following subset is
totally ordered,
(A) (2, 6, 24). (B) (3, 5,15).
(C) (2, 9,16 ) . (D) (4,15, 30 ) .

Ans:A

Q.5 If B is a Boolean Algebra, then which of the following is true

(A) B is a finite but not complemented lattice.
(B) B is a finite, complemented and distributive lattice.
(C) B is a finite, distributive but not complemented lattice.
(D) B is not distributive lattice.

1
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans:B

Q.6 In a finite state machine, m = (Q, ∑ , δ, q 0 , F ) transition function δ is a function which maps
(A) Q → ∑ × Q . (B) Q × ∑ → Q .
(C) Q → F . (D) Q × q 0 → ∑.
Ans:B

Q.7 If f ( x) = cos x and g ( x) = x 3 , then (f o g ) ( x) is

(A) (cos x ) .
3
(B) cos 3 x.
(cos x )
(C) x 3. (D) cos x 3 .

Ans:D

Q.8 p → q is logically equivalent to

(A) ~ q → p (B) ~ p → q
(C)
~p∧q (D) ~ p ∨ q

Ans:D
Q.9 Which of the following is not a well formed formula?
(A) ∀x [P(x) → f (x) ∧ x ]
(B)
∀x1∀x 2 ∀x3 [(x1 = x 2 ∧ x 2 = x 3 ) ⇒ x1 = x 3 ]
(C)
~ (p → q) → q
(D)
[T ∨ P(a, b)] → ∃zQ(z)
Ans:B

Q.10 The number of distinguishable permutations of the letters in the word BANANA are,
(A) 60. (B) 36.
(C) 20. (D) 10.

Ans:A

Q.11 Let the class of languages accepted by finite state machines be L1 and the class of languages
represented by regular expressions be L2 then,
(A) L1 ⊂ L2 . (B) L2 ⊆ L1.
(C) L1 ∩ L2 = Φ . (D) L1 = L2.

Ans:D

Q.12 [~ q ∧ (p → q)] →~ p is,

2
 (A) Satisfiable. (B) Unsatisfiable.
(C) Tautology. (D) Invalid.

Ans:C

Q.13 The minimized expression of ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC is

(A) A + C . (B) BC .
(C) C . (D) C.

Ans:C

Q.14 Consider the finite state machine M = ({s 0 , s1, s 2 , s3},{0,1}, F), where F = {fx x ∈ {0,1}} is
defined by the following transition table. Let for any w = x1x2.....xn , let fw =
fxn o fxn −1 o fxn − 2 o ...fx 2 o fx1 . List the values of the transition function, f10110 .

0 1
s0 s0 s1
s1 s2 s1
s2 s2 s3
s3 s0 s3
(A)
(B) fw(s 0 ) = s 0 , fw(s1 ) = s 0 , fw(s 2 ) = s 2 ,
fw(s3 ) = s 2 . fw(s 0 ) = s 0 , fw(s1 ) = s1 ,
(C)
fw(s 2 ) = s 2 , fw(s 3 ) = s 3 . fw(s 0 ) = s 2 ,
(D)
fw(s1 ) = s 0 , fw(s 2 ) = s3 , fw(s3 ) = s1.
Ans:B fw(s0 ) = s3 , fw(s1 ) = s3 , fw(s2 ) = s1, fw(s3
) = s1.

Q.15 Which of the following pair is not congruent modulo 7?

(A) 10, 24 (B) 25, 56
(C) -31, 11 (D) -64, -15

Ans:B

Q.16 [ ]
For a relation R on set A, let M R = m ij , m ij = 1 if a i Ra j and 0 otherwise, be the matrix
of relation R. If ( M R )2 = M R then R is,
(A) Symmetric (B) Transitive
(C) Antisymmetric (D) Reflexive
Ans:B
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.17 In an examination there are 15 questions of type True or False. How many sequences of
answers are possible.

Ans:
Each question can be answered in 2 ways (True or False). There are 15 questions, so they all
15
can be answered in 2 different possible ways.

Q.18 Find the generating function for the number of r-combinations of {3.a, 5.b, 2.c}

Ans:
Terms sequence is given as r-combinations of {3.a, 5.b, 2.c}. This can be written as rC3.a,
rC r
5.b, C2.c. Now generating function for this finite sequence is given by

f(x) = rC3.a + rC5.bx + rC2.cx2

Q.19 Define a complete lattice and give one example.

Ans:
A lattice (L, ≤) is said to be a complete lattice if, and only if every non-empty subset S of L has
a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound. Let A be set of all real numbers in [1, 5] and ≤
is relation of „less than equal to‟. Then, lattice (A, ≤) is a complete lattice.

Q.20 For the given diagram Fig. 1 compute

(i)
A∪ B
(ii) A ∩ B ∩
C

Ans: (i) A ∪ B = u + v (ii) A ∩ B ∪ C = y + z

Q.21 The converse of a statement is: If a steel rod is stretched, then it has been heated. Write the
inverse of the statement.

Ans: The statement corresponding to the given converse is “If a steel rod has not been heated
then it is not stretched”. Now the inverse of this statement is “If a steel rod is not stretched then
it has not been heated”.

Q.22 Is (P ∧ Q)∧ ~ (P ∨ Q) a tautology or a fallacy?

Ans: Draw a truth table of the statement and it is found that it is a fallacy.

Q.23 In how many ways 5 children out of a class of 20 line up for a picture.

Ans: It can be performed in 20P5 ways.

4
Q.24 If P and Q stands for the statement
P : It is hot
Q : It is humid,
then what does the following mean?
P ∧ (~ Q ) :

Ans: The statement means “It is hot and it is not

humid”.

Q.25 In a survey of 85 people it is found that 31 like to drink milk, 43 like coffee and 39 like tea.
Also 13 like both milk and tea, 15 like milk and coffee, 20 like tea and coffee and 12 like none
of the three drinks. Find the number of people who like all the three drinks. Display the
answer using a Venn diagram.

Ans: Let A, B and C is set of people who like to drink milk, take coffee and take tea
respectively. Thus |A| = 31, |B| = 43, |C| = 39, |A∩B| = 15, |A∩C| = 13, |B∩C| = 20, |A∪B∪C|
= 85 – 12 = 73. Therefore, |A∩B∩C| = 73 + (15 + 13 + 20) – (31 + 43 + 39) = 8. The Venn
diagram is shown below.

A 11 B 16
7
8

512

1412
C

Q.26 Consider the set A = {2, 7, 14, 28, 56, 84} and the relation a ≤ b if and only if a divides b.
Give the Hasse diagram for the poset (A, ≤ ).

Ans: The relation is given by the set {(2,2), (2, 14), (2, 28), (2, 56), (2, 84), (7, 7), (7, 14), (7,
28), (7, 56), (7, 84), (14, 14), (14, 28), (14, 56), (14, 84), (28, 28), (28, 56), (28, 84), (56, 56),
84 56

28

14

2 7
(84, 84)}. The Hasse Diagram is shown below:
Q.27 How many words can be formed out of the letters of the word „PECULIAR‟ beginning with P
and ending with R?
(A) 100 (B) 120
(C) 720 (D) 150

Ans:C

Q.28 Represent the following statement in predicate calculus: Everybody respects all the selfless
leaders.

Ans: For every X, if every Y that is a person respects X, then X is a selfless leader. So in
predicate calculus we may write:
X. Y(Person(Y) → respect(Y,X)) → selfless-leader(X)
Where person(Y): Y is a person
respect(Y,X): Y respects X
selfless-leader(X): X is a selfless leader.

Q.29 In which order does a post order traversal visit the vertices of the following rooted tree?

Ans: The post order traversal is in order (Right, Left, Root). Thus the traversal given tree is C
E D B A.

Q.30 Consider a grammar G = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S). Let L (G)= { }
(ab )n n ≥ 1 then if P be
the set of production rules and P includes S aB, give the remaining production rules.

Ans: One of the production rules can be: S→aB, B→bA, A→aB, B→b.

Q.31 Choose 4 cards at random from a standard 52 card deck. What is the probability that four
kings will be chosen?

Ans: There are four kings in a standard pack of 52 cards. The 4 kings can be selected in 4C4 =
1 way. The total number of ways in which 4 cards can be selected is 52C4. Thus the
probability of the asked situation in question is = 1 / 52C4.

Q.32 How many edges are there in an undirected graph with two vertices of degree 7, four
vertices of degree 5, and the remaining four vertices of degree is 6?
 Ans: Total degree of the graph = 2 x 7 + 4 x 5 + 4 x 6 = 58. Thus number of edges in the graph
is 58 / 2 = 29.

Q.33 Identify the flaw in the following argument that supposedly shows that n2 is even when n is an
even integer. Also name the reasoning:

Suppose that n2 is even. Then n2 = 2k for some integer k. Let n = 2l for some integer l. This
shows that n is even.

Ans: The flaw lies in the statement “Let n = 2l for some integer l. This shows that n is even”.
This is a loaded and biased reasoning. This can be proved by method of contradiction.

Q.34 The description of the shaded region in the following figure using the operations on set is,
(A) C ∪ (A ∩ B)
(B) (C − ((A ∩ C) ∪ (C ∩ B))) ∪ (A ∩ B)
(C) (C − (A ∩ C) ∪ (C ∩ B)) ∪ (A ∩ B)
(D) A ∪ B ∪ C − (C ∪ (A ∩ B))

Ans:B
xy
Q.35 A2×2 has an inverse if and only if,
uv
matrix
(A) x, y, u and v are all nonzeros. (B) xy - uv ≠ 0
(C) xv - uy ≠ 0 (D) all of the above.
`
Ans:C

Q.36 If x and y are real numbers then max (x, y) + min (x, y) is equal to
(A) 2x (B) 2y
(C) (x+y)/2 (D) x+y

Ans:D

Q.37 The sum of the entries in the fourth row of Pascal‟s triangle is
(A) 8 (B) 4
(C) 10 (D) 16

Ans:A

Q.38 In the following graph

 the Euler path is

(A) abcdef (B) abcf

(C) fdceab (D) fdeabc

Ans:C

Q.39 Let A = Z+, be the set of positive integers, and R be the relation on A defined by a R b if and
only if there exist a k ∈Z+ such that a = bk. Which one of the following belongs to R?
(A) (8, 128) (B) (16, 256)
(C) (11, 3) (D) (169, 13)

Ans:D

Q.40 For the sequence defined by the following recurrence relation

Tn = nTn−1, with initial conditionT1 = 7 , the explicit formula for Tn is
n−1
(A) Tn = n 7 (B) Tn = 7.n!
(C) n!
Tn = 7 (D) Tn = n! − 7
Ans:B

Q.41 Which one of the following is not a regular expression?

(A) [
(a + b)* − (aa + bb)] *
[
(B) (0 + 1) − (0b + a1)*(a + b )
*

(C) (01 + 11 + 10) (D) (1 + 2 + 0) (1 + 2)

* *

Ans:B
]
Q.42 Which of the following statement is the negation of the statement “2 is even or –3 is
negative”?
(A) 2 is even & -3 is negative (B) 2 is odd & -3 is not negative
(C) 2 is odd or –3 is not negative (D) 2 is even or –3 is not negative

Ans:B

Q.43 The statement ( p∧q) ⇒ p is a

(A) Contingency. (B) Absurdity
(C) Tautology (D) None of the above

Ans:C

Q.44 In how many ways can a president and vice president be chosen from a set of 30 candidates?
(A) 820 (B) 850
(C) 880 (D) 870
 Ans:D

Q.45 The relation { (1,2), (1,3), (3,1), (1,1), (3,3), (3,2), (1,4), (4,2), (3,4)} is
(A) Reflexive. (B) Transitive.
(C) Symmetric. (D) Asymmetric.

Ans:B
Q.46 Let L be a lattice. Then for every a and b in L which one of the following is correct?
(A) (B) a ∨ (B ∨ C) = (a ∨
a∨b=a∧
(C) b a ∨ (b ∧ c) (D) B) ∨ C a ∨ (b ∨ c) =
=a b
Ans:B

Q.47 The expression a + a c is equivalent to

(A) a (B) a+c
(C) c (D) 1

Ans:B

Q.48 A partial order relation is reflexive, antisymmetric and

(A) Transitive. (B) Symmetric.
(C) Bisymmetric. (D) Asymmetric.

Ans:A

Q.49 If n is an integer and n2 is odd ,then n is:

(A) even. (B) odd.
(C) even or odd. (D) prime.

Ans:B

Q.50 In how many ways can 5 balls be chosen so that 2 are red and 3 are black
(A) 910. (B) 990.
(C) 980. (D) 970.

Ans:B

Q.51 A tree with n vertices has edges

(A) n (B) n+1
(C) n-2 (D) n-1

Ans:D

Q.52 In propositional logic which one of the following is equivalent to p →q

 (A)
p→q (B) p → q
(C)
pVq (D) pVq

Ans:C

Q.53 Which of the following statement is true:

(A) Every graph is not its own sub graph.
(B) The terminal vertex of a graph are of degree two.
(C) A tree with n vertices has n edges.
(D) A single vertex in graph G is a sub graph of G.

Ans:D

Q.54 Pigeonhole principle states that A → B and A > B then:

(A) f is not onto (B) f is not one-one
(C) f is neither one-one nor onto (D) f may be one-one

Ans:B

Q.55 The probability that top and bottom cards of a randomly shuffled deck are both aces is:
(A) 4 52 × 4 52 (B) 4 52 × 3 52
(C) 4 52 × 3 51 (D) 4 52 × 4 51

Ans:C

Q.56 The number of distinct relations on a set of 3 elements is:

(A) 8 (B) 9
(C) 18 (D) 512

Ans:D

Q.57 A self complemented, distributive lattice is called

(A) Boolean Algebra (B) Modular lattice
(C) Complete lattice (D) Self dual lattice

Ans:A

Q.58 How many 5-cards consists only of hearts?

(A) 1127 (B) 1287
(C) 1487 (D) 1687

Ans:B

Q.59 The number of diagonals that can be drawn by joining the vertices of an octagon is:
 (A) 28 (B) 48
(C) 20 (D) 24

Ans:C

Q.60 A graph in which all nodes are of equal degrees is known as:
(A) Multigraph (B) Regular graph
(C) Complete lattice (D) non regular graph

Ans:B

Q.61 Which of the following set is null set?

(A) {0}
(B) { }
(C) {φ} (D) φ
Ans:B

Q.62 Let A be a finite set of size n. The number of elements in the power set of A x A is:
(A) 22n (B) 2 n 2

( )2
(C) 2 n ( )n
(D) 2 2

Ans:B

Q.63 Transitivity and irreflexive imply:

(A) Symmetric (B) Reflexive
(C) Irreflexive (D) Asymmetric

Ans:D

Q.64 A binary Tree T has n leaf nodes. The number of nodes of degree 2 in T is:
(A) log n (B) n
(C) n-1 (D) n+1

Ans:A

Q.65 Push down machine represents:

(A) Type 0 Grammar (B) Type 1 grammar
(C) Type-2 grammar (D) Type-3 grammar

Ans:C

Q.66 Let * be a Boolean operation defined by

A * B = AB + A B , then A*A is:
 (A) A (B) B
(C) 0 (D) 1

Ans:D

Q.67 In how many ways can a party of 7 persons arrange themselves around a circular table?
(A) 6! (B) 7!
(C) 5! (D) 7

Ans:A

Q.68 In how many ways can a hungry student choose 3 toppings for his prize from a list of 10
delicious possibilities?
(A) 100 (B) 120
(C) 110 (D) 150

Ans:B

Q.69 A debating team consists of 3 boys and 2 girls. Find the number of ways they can sit in a row?
(A) 120 (B) 24
(C) 720 (D) 12

Ans:A

Q.70 Suppose v is an isolated vertex in a graph, then the degree of v is:

(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 3

Ans:A

Q.71 Let p be “He is tall” and let q “He is handsome”. Then the statement “It is false that he is
short or handsome” is:
(A) p ∧ q (B) ~ (~ p ∨ q)
(C) p∨ ~ q (D) ~ p ∧ q

Ans:B

Q.72 The Boolean expression XY + XY′ + X′Z + XZ′ is independent of the Boolean variable:
(A) Y (B) X
(C) Z (D) None of these

Ans:A

Q.73 Which of the following regular expression over {0,1} denotes the set of all strings not
containing 100 as sub string
(A) (C)
 Ans:D
0 * (1* 0 ) *. (B) 0 *1010 * .
0 *1* 01*. (D) 0 * (10 + 1)*.

Q.74 In an undirected graph the number of nodes with odd degree must be
(A) Zero (B) Odd
(C) Prime (D) Even

Ans:D

Q.75 Find the number of relations from A = {cat, dog, rat} to B = {male , female}
(A) 64 (B) 6
(C) 32 (D) 15

Ans:A

Q.76 Let P(S) denotes the powerset of set S. Which of the following is always true?
(A) P(P(S)) = P(S)
(B) P(S) I S =
(C)
P(S) I P(P(S)) = (D) P(S) S ∈ P(S)
Ans:D {∅}
Q.77 The number of functions from an m element set to an n element set is:
(A) mn (B) m + n
m
(C) n (D) m * n

Ans:A

Q.78 Which of the following statement is true:

(A) Every graph is not its own subgraph
(B) The terminal vertex of a graph are of degree two.
(C) A tree with n vertices has n edges.
(D) A single vertex in graph G is a subgraph of G.

Ans:D

Q.79 Which of the following proposition is a tautology?

(A) (p v q)→p (B) p v (q→p)
(C) p v (p→q) (D) p→(p→q)

Ans:C

Q.80 What is the converse of the following assertion?

I stay only if you go.
 (A) I stay if you go. (B) If you do not go then I do not stay
(C) If I stay then you go. (D) If you do not stay then you go.

Ans:B

Q.81 The length of Hamiltonian Path in a connected graph of n vertices is

(A) n–1 (B) n
(C) n+1 (D) n/2

Ans:A

Q.82 A graph with one vertex and no edges is:

(A) multigraph (B) digraph
(C) isolated graph (D) trivial graph

Ans:D

Q 83 If R is a relation “Less Than” from A = {1,2,3,4} to B = {1,3,5} then RoR-1 is

(A) {(3,3), (3,4), (3,5)}
(B) {(3,1), (5,1), (3,2), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4)}
(C) {(3,3), (3,5), (5,3), (5,5)}
(D) {(1,3), (1,5), (2,3), (2,5), (3,5), (4,5)}

Ans:C

Q.84 How many different words can be formed out of the letters of the word VARANASI?
(A) 64 (B) 120
(C) 40320 (D) 720

Ans:D

Q.85 Which of the following statement is the negation of the statement “4 is even or -5 is
negative”?
(A) 4 is odd and -5 is not negative (B) 4 is even or -5 is not negative
(C) 4 is odd or -5 is not negative (D) 4 is even and -5 is not negative

Ans:A

Q.86 A complete graph of n vertices should have edges.

(A) n-1 (B) n
(C) n(n-1)/2 (D) n(n+1)/2

Ans:C

Q.87 Which one is the contrapositive of q → p ?

 (A) p → q (B) ¬p → ¬q
(C) ¬q → ¬p (D) None of these

Ans:B

Q.88 A relation that is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive is a

(A) function (B) equivalence relation
(C) partial order (D) None of these

Ans:C

Q.89 A Euler graph is one in which

(A) Only two vertices are of odd degree and rests are even
(B) Only two vertices are of even degree and rests are odd
(C) All the vertices are of odd degree
(D) All the vertices are of even degree

Ans:D

Q.90 What kind of strings is rejected by the following automaton?

(A) All strings with two consecutive zeros

(B) All strings with two consecutive ones
(C) All strings with alternate 1 and 0
(D) None

Ans:B

Q.91 A spanning tree of a graph is one that includes

(A) All the vertices of the graph
(B) All the edges of the graph
(C) Only the vertices of odd degree
(D) Only the vertices of even degree

Ans:A

Q.92 The Boolean expression A + AB + AB is independent to

(A) A (B) B
(C) Both A and B (D) None
 Ans:B

Q.93 Seven (distinct) car accidents occurred in a week. What is the probability that they all
occurred on the same day?
6 7
(A) 1 7 (B) 1 2
5 7
(C) 1 7 (D) 1 7

Ans:A
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
PART – II, VOL – I

DESCRIPTIVES

Q.1 Solve the recurrence relation

T(k ) = 2 T(k −1),
(5)

Ans: The given equation can be written in the following

form:
tn - 2tn-1 = 0
Now successively replacing n by (n – 1) and then by (n – 2)
and so on we get a set of equations.

The process is continued till terminating condition.

Add these equations in such a way that all

intermediate terms get cancelled. The given equation

can be rearranged as

t
n

2
t
n
–
1

t
n
–
1

2
t
1
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
0 1 n–1
n
–
equations respectively by 2 , 2 , …, 2 and then adding
2 them together, we
n
= 0 get tn – 2 t = 0n
or, t = 2
n
0

t Q.2 Find the general solution of

n
r– r−1 r−2 S − 4 S + 4 S = 2r + r 2 r
2

–
Ans: The general solution, also called homogeneous
2
t solution, to the problem is given by homogeneous part
n
–
3 of the given recurrence equation. The homogeneous part
= of the given equation is
0
S r − 4Sr−1 + 4S r − 2 = 0 (1)
t
n
–
3

2
t
n
–
4

0
.
t2 – 2t1
=0
t1 – 2t0
=0
stop
here,
since t0
= 1 is
given ]
Multiplying
all the

2
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

The characteristic equation of (2) is given as

2
x − 4x + 4 = 0
or, (x − 2)(x − 2) = 0
or, x = 2, 2

The general solution is given by

r r
S r = A2 + Br2 _(2)

Q.3 ( )
Find the coefficient of X 20 in X 3 + X 4 + X 5 + ......... 5 . (7)

Ans: The coefficient of x20 in the expression (x3 + x4 + x5 + …)5 is equal to the coefficient of x5
2 3 4 5 5 15 3
in the expression (1 + x + x + x + x + x + …) because x is common to all the terms in (x +
4 5 5 2 3 4 5 5 1
x + x + …) . Now expression (1 + x + x + x + x + x + …) is equal to . The
(1 −
required coefficient is
x)5

5 + 5 −1 9
C5 = C5 = 126

Q.4 If G = ({S}, {0,1}, {S → OS1, S →∈}, S), find L(G). (7)

Ans: The language of the grammar can be determined as below:

S →0 S 1 [Apply rule S →0 S 1]
n n
→ 0S1 [Apply rule S →0 S 1 n ≥ 0 times ]
n
→0 1 [Apply rule S → ε]
n n
The language contains strings of the form 0 1 where n ≥ 0.

Q.5 By using pigeonhole principle, show that if any five numbers from 1 to 8 are chosen, then
two of them will add upto 9. (5)

2
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans: Let us form four groups of two numbers from 1 to 8 such that sum the numbers in a group
is 9. The groups are: (1, 8), (2, 7), (3, 6) and (4,5).
Let us consider these four groups as pigeonholes (m). Thus m = 4. Take the five numbers to be
selected arbitrarily as pigeons i.e. n = 5. Take a pigeon and put in the pigeonhole as per its
value. After placing 4 pigeons, the 5th has to go in one of the pigeonhole. i.e by pigeonhole
principle has at least one group that will contain 5 1
− + 1 numbers . Thus two of the numbers,

out of the five selected, will add up to 9.

Q.6 Test whether 101101, 11111 are accepted by a finite state machine M given as follows : (9)
M = {Q = {q 0 , q1 , q 2 , q 3 }, ∑ = {0, 1}, δ, {q 0 }}
Where

Inputs
States 01
δ is → q0 q 2q1
q1 q 2 q3q 0
q3 q0q 3
q1q 2

Ans: The transition diagram for the given FSM is as below:

Sq 0 Sq
0
1 1
1 1
0
qS Sq 3
0

The given FSM accepts any string in {0, 1} that contains even number of 0‟s and even number
of 1‟s. The string “101101” is accepted as it contains even number of 0‟s and even number of
1‟s. However string “11111” is not acceptable as it contains odd number of 1‟s.

Q.7 Let L be a distributive lattice. Show that if there exists an a with

a ∧ x = a ∧ y and a ∨ x = a ∨ y, then x = y. (7)

Ans: In any distributive lattice L, for any three elements a, x, y of L, we can write

3
Code: AC10 Subject: DISCRETE
STRUCTURES

x = x∨ (a ∧ x)
= (x∨ a) ∧ (x∨x) [Distributive law]
= (a∨ x) ∧ x [Commutative and Idempotent law]
= (a∨ y) ∧ x [Given that (a∨ x) = (a∨ y)]
= (a ∧ y) ∨ (y ∧ x) [Distributive law]
= (a ∧ y) ∨ (y ∧ x) [Given that (a ∧ x) = (a ∧ y)]
= (y ∧ a) ∨ (y ∧ x) [Commutative law]
= y ∧ (a ∨ x) [Distributive law]
= y ∧ (a ∨ y) [Given that (a∨ x) = (a∨ y)]
=y

Q.8 Check the validity of the following argument :-

“If the labour market is perfect then the wages of all persons in a particular employment
will be equal. But it is always the case that wages for such persons are not equal
therefore the labour market is not perfect.” (7)

Ans: Let p: “Labour market is perfect”; q : “Wages of all persons in a particular employment
will be equal”. Then the given statement can be written as
[(p→q) ∧ ~q] → ~p
Now, [(p→q) ∧ ~q] → ~p = [(~p∨q) ∧ ~q] → ~p
= [(~p ∧ ~q) ∨ (q ∧ ~q)] → ~p
= [(~p ∧ ~q) ∨ 0] → ~p
= [~(p ∨ q)] → ~p
= ~[~(p ∨ q)] ∨ ~p
= (p ∨ q) ∨ ~p = (p ∨ ~p) ∨ q = 1 ∨ q
=1 A tautology. Hence the given statement is true.

Q.9 Let E = xy + y′ t + x′ y z′ + xy′ zt′ , find

(i) Prime implicants of E, (ii) Minimal sum for E. (7)

Ans: K –map for given boolean expression is given as:

y’ y
0
0 0 1
t’ 0
1 1 1
x
1 1 1 1 x’
t
1 1 0 1

z’ z
4
5
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Prime implicant is defined as the minimum term that covers maximum number of min terms.
In the K-map prime implicant y‟t covers four min terms. Similarly yz‟ and xz are other prime
implicants. The minimal sum for E is [y’t + yz’ + xz].

Q.10 What are the different types of quantifiers? Explain in brief.

Show that ( ∃x )( P( x ) ∧ Q(x)) ⇒ (∃x) P(x) ∧ ( ∃x ) Q ( x ) (7)

Ans: There are two quantifiers used in predicate calculus: Universal and existential.

Universal Quantifier: The operator, represented by the symbol ∀, used in predicate calculus
to indicate that a predicate is true for all members of a specified set.

Some verbal equivalents are "for each" or "for every".

Existential Quantifier: The operator, represented by the symbol ∃, used in predicate calculus
to indicate that a predicate is true for at least one member of a specified set.

Some verbal equivalents are "there exists" or "there is".

Now, (∃x) (P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ⇒ For some (x = c) (P(c) ∧

Q(c))
⇒ P(c) ∧ Q(c)
⇒ ∃x P(x) ∧ ∃x Q(x)

Q.11 Which of the partially ordered sets in figures (i), (ii) and (iii) are lattices? Justify your
answer. (7)

Ans: Let (L, ≤) be a poset. If every subset {x, y} containing any two elements of L, has a glb
(Infimum) and a lub (Supremum), then the poset (L, ≤) is called a lattice. The poset in (i) is a
lattice because for every pair of elements in it, there a glb and lub in the poset. Similarly poset
5
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
in (ii) is also a lattice. Poset of (iii) is also a lattice.

6
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.12 Consider the following productions :

S → bA
aB A bAA a
→ aS aBB b
B →
bS
Then, for the string a a a b b a b b b a, find the

(i) the leftmost derivation.

(ii) the rightmost derivation. (7)

Ans:
(i) In the left most derivation, the left most nonterminal symbol is first replaced with some
terminal symbols as per the production rules. The nonterminal appearing at the right is taken
next and so on. Using the concept, the left most derivation for the string aaabbabbba is given
below:
S →aB [Apply rule S → aB]
→aaBB [Apply rule B → aBB]
→aaaBBB [Apply rule B → aBB]
→aaabBB [Apply rule B → b]
→aaabbB [Apply rule B → b]
→aaabbaBB [Apply rule B → aBB]
→aaabbabB [Apply rule B → b]
→aaabbabbS [Apply rule B → bS]
→aaabbabbbA [Apply rule S → bA]
→a a a b b a b b b a [Apply rule A → a]

(ii) In the right most derivation, the right most nonterminal symbol is first replaced with some
terminal symbols as per the production rules. The nonterminal appearing at the left is taken
next and so on. Using the concept, the right most derivation for the string aaabbabbba is given
below:

S →aB [Apply rule S → aB]

→aaBB [Apply rule B → aBB]
→aaBbS [Apply rule B → bS]
→aaBbbA [Apply rule S → bA]
→aaBbba [Apply rule A → a]
→ aaaBBbba [Apply rule B → aBB]
→ aaa B bbba [Apply rule B → b]
→ aaa bS bbba [Apply rule B → bS]
→ aaab bA bbba [Apply rule S → bA]

6
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
→a a a b b a b b b a [Apply rule A → a]

6
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.13 Determine the properties of the relations given by the graphs shown in fig.(i) and (ii) and
also write the corresponding relation matrices. (7)

1 0 0
Ans8. (a) (i) The relation matrix for the relation is : 0 1 0 .
0 1
The relation is reflexive, Symmetric and transitive. It is in fact antisymmetric as well.

1 1 0
1
11 1 0
The relation matrix for the relation is : .
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
The relation is reflexive, Symmetric but not transitive.

Q.14 If f is a homomorphism from a commutative semigroup (S, *) onto a semigroup (T, *′ ) ,

then show that (T, *′ ) is also commutative. (7)
Ans: The function f is said to be a homomorphism of S into T if
f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ∗‟ f(b) ∀ a, b ∈ S
i.e. f preserves the composition in S and T.
It is given that (S, *) is commutative, so
a*b = b*a ⇒ f(a*b) = f(b*a) ∀ a, b ∈ S

7
 ⇒ f(a) *‟ f(b) = f(b)*‟ f(a)
⇒ (T,*‟) is also commutative.

Q.15 Construct K-maps and give the minimum DNF for the function whose truth table is shown
below : (9)

x y z f(x, y, z)
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Ans: The K-map for the given function (as per the truth table) is produced below.

y’ y

x’ 11 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
x 1 0 0 1

z
z’
The three duets are: y‟z‟, x‟y‟ and xz‟. The DNF (Disjunctive normal form) is the Boolean
expression for a Boolean function in which function is expressed as disjoint of the min terms
for which output of function is 1. The minimum DNF is the sum of prime implicant. Thus the
minimum DNF for the given function is

y‟z‟+ x‟y‟ + xz‟

Q.16 Define tautology and contradiction. Show that “If the sky is cloudy then it will rain and it
will not rain”, is not a contradiction. (5)

Ans: If a compound proposition has two atomic propositions as components, then the truth
table for the compound proposition contains four entries. These four entries may be all T, may
4
be all F, may be one T and three F and so on. There are in total 16 (2 ) possibilities. The
possibilities when all entries in the truth table is T, implies that the compound proposition is
always true. This is called tautology.
However when all the entries are F, it implies that the proposition is never true. This situation
is referred as contradiction.
 Let p: “Sky is cloudy”; q : “It will rain”.
Then the given statement can be written as “(p→q) ∧ ~q”. The truth table for the expression is
as below:

p q p→q (p→q) ∧ ~q
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0

Obviously, (p→q) ∧ ~q is not a contradiction.

Q.17 How many words of 4 letters can be formed with the letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h, when
(i) e and f are not to be included and
(ii) e and f are to be included. (7)

Ans: There are 8 letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h. In order to form a word of 4 letters, we have to
find the number of ways in which 4 letters can be selected from 8 letters. Here order is
important, so permutation is used.

(i) When e and f are not to be included, the available letters are 6 only. Thus we can select 4
6 6!
out of six to form a word of length 4 in P ways = = 360 . Thus 360 words can
4 be (6 − 4)!
formed.
(ii) When e and f are to be included, the available letters are all 8 letters. Thus we can select 4
8 8!
out of 8 to form a word of length 4 in P ways = = 1680 . Thus 1680 words can
4 be (8 − 4)!
formed.

Q.18 Explain chomsky classification of languages with suitable examples. (7)

Ans: Any language is suitable for communication provided the syntax and semantic of the
language is known to the participating sides. It is made possible by forcing a standard on the
way to make sentences from words of that language. This standard is forced through a set of
rules. This set of rules is called grammar of the language. According to the Chomsky
classification, a grammar G = (N, ∑, P, S) is said to be of

Type 0: if there is no restriction on the production rules i.e., in α→β, where α, β∈ (N ∪ ∑)*.
This type of grammar is also called an unrestricted grammar and language is called free
language.
 Type 1: if in every production α→β of P, α, β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)* and |α| ≤ |β|. Here |α| and |β|
represent number of symbols in string α and β respectively. This type of grammar is also
called a context sensitive grammar (or CSG) and language is called context sensitive.

Type 2: if in every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-

terminal symbol. This type of grammar is also called a context free grammar (or CFG) and
language is called context free.

Type 3: if in every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-

terminal symbol and β may consist of at the most one non-terminal symbol and one or more
terminal symbols. The non-terminal symbol appearing in β must be the extreme right symbol.
This type of grammar is also called a right linear grammar or regular grammar (or RG) and
the corresponding language is called regular language.

Q.19 Find a generating function to count the number of integral solutions to e1 + e2 + e3 = 10,
if for each I, 0 ≤ ei . (7)

Ans: According to the given constraints polynomial for variable e1 can be written as

2 3
1+ x + x + x + …. since 0 ≤ e1
Similarly polynomial for variable e2 and e3 can be written as
2 3
1+ x + x + x + …. since 0 ≤ e2
2 3
1+ x + x + x + …. since 0 ≤ e3
respectively.

Thus the number of integral solutions to the given equations under the constraints is equal to
the coefficient of x10 in the expression
2 3 2 3 2 3
(1+ x + x + x + …. )( 1+ x + x + x + …. )( 1+ x + x + x + …. )

1
Thus the generating function f(x) = .
3
(1 − x)

Q.20. Prove by elimination of cases : if X is a number such that

X 2 − 5X + 6 = 0 then X = 3 or X = 2. (7)

Ans: Let a and b be two roots of the equation, then

a + b = 5 and a * b = 6
Now, (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4a*b
= 25 – 24 = 1
 ∴ a – b = 1 or -1
Now using the method of elimination (adding) the two equation a + b = 5 and a – b = 1, we get,
2a = 6, or a = 3. Using this value in any of the equation, we get b = 2.

It is easy to verify that, if a – b = -1 is taken then we get a = 2 and b = 3. Thus two root of the
given equations are X = 3 or X = 2.

Q.21 Consider the following open propositions over the universe

P(x): x ≥ 4 U = {− 4,−2, 0,1, 3, 5, 6, 8,10}
Q(x): x = 25
2
R(x) : s is a multiple of 2
Find the truth values of
(i) ( ) ( )
(ii) Px ∧ R (8)
x[~ Q(x)] ∧
P( x)

Ans: The truth values for each element of U under the given conditions of propositions is given
in the following table:

x P(x) Q(x) R(x) P(x) ∧ R(x) ~Q(x)∧ P(x)

-4 0 0 1 0 0
-2 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0
5 1 1 0 0 0
6 1 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 1 1 1
10 1 0 1 1 1

Q.22 Let nζ r = (n +1). nP(r−1), then compute (n +1)ζ (r−1), 7ζ 4 . (6)

Ans: It is given that nζr is defined as (n + 1) nPr-1. Then we can write

+ +
(n+1)ζ = (n + 2) n+1P = (n 2)(n 1)! , and
(r – 1) r-2 (n − r +

7ζ = 8* 7P = 8 * 7! = 1680
4 3 4

Q.23 Translate and prove the following in terms of propositional logic

A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A (5)
 Ans: Let SUB(A, B) stands for “A is subset of B” and EQL(A, B) stands for “A is equal to B”.
Then the given statement can be written as

∀A, B [SUB(A, B) ∧ SUB(B, A)] ⇔ EQL(A, B)

Q.24 Determine the number of integral solutions of the equation

x1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 = 20
where (9)
2 ≤ x 1 ≤ 6, 3 ≤ x 2 ≤ 7, 5 ≤ x 3 ≤ 8, 2 ≤ x 4 ≤ 9

Ans: According to the given constraints polynomial for variable x1 can be written as
2 3 4 5 6
x +x +x +x +x since 2 ≤ x ≤ 6
1
Similarly polynomial for variable x2, x3 and x4 can be written as
3 4 5 6 7
x +x +x +x +x since 3 ≤ x2 ≤ 7
5 6 7 8
x +x +x +x since 5 ≤ x3 ≤ 8
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x +x +x +x +x +x +x +x since 2 ≤ x4 ≤ 9
respectively.
Thus the number of integral solutions to the given equations under the constraints is equal to
the coefficient of x20 in the expression
2 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 7 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7
(x + x + x + x + x )( x + x + x + x + x )( x + x + x + x )( x + x + x + x + x + x +
8 9
x +x )
12 5 2 4 2 4 –4
= x (x – 1) (x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 1)
12 4 5 8 9 10 12 13 14 17 18 22 –4
= x [1 – x – 2x – x + 2x + x + x + 2x – x – 2x – x + x ] (1 – x)
20 4 5 8
In the coefficient of x , the terms that can contribute are from (1 – x – 2x – x ) only. All other
20 20
terms when multiplied with x , yields higher degree terms. Therefore coefficients of x in the
entire expression are equal to linear combinations of coefficients of x8, x4, x3 and 1 in (1 – x)–4
with respective constant coefficients 1, -1, -2, -1. This is equal to

C −8 C −2
4 C −31 = 165 − 35 − 40 − 1 = 89
11 7 6

Therefore number of integral solution is 89.

Q.25 Using BNF notation construct a grammar G to generate the language over an alphabet {0,1}
with an equal number of 0‟s and 1‟s for some integer n ≥ 0. (7)

Ans: The given language is defined over the alphabet ∑ = {1, 0}. A string in this language
contains equal number of 0 and 1. Strings 0011, 0101, 1100, 1010, 1001 and 0110 are all valid
strings of length 4 in this language. Here, order of appearance of 0‟s and 1‟s is not fixed. Let S
be the start symbol. A string may start with either 0 or 1. So, we should have productions S →
 0S1, S → 1S0, S → 0A0 and S → 1B1 to implement this. Next A and B should be replaced in
such a way that it maintains the count of 0‟s and 1‟s to be equal in a string. This is achieved by
the productions A → 1S1 and B → 0S0. The null string is also an acceptable string, as it
contains zero number of 0‟s and 1‟s. Thus S → ε should also be a production. In addition to
that a few Context sensitive production rules are to be included.

These are: A → 0AD0, 0D1 → 011, 0D0 → 00D, B→ 1BC1, 1C0 → 100, 1C1 → 11C.
Therefore, the required grammar G can be given by (N, ∑, P, S), where N = {S, A, B}, ∑ = (1,
0} and P = {S → 0S1, S → 1S0, S → 0A0, S → 1B1, A → 1S1, B → 0S0, A → 0AD0, 0D1 →
011, 0D0 → 00D, B→ 1BC1, 1C0 → 100, 1C1 → 11C, S → ε}.

Q.26 Construct the derivation trees for the strings 01001101 and 10110010 for the above grammar.
(7)
Ans: The derivation tree for the given string under the presented grammar is as below.

S S

0 S 1 1 S 0

1 S 0 0 S 1

0 S 1 1 S 0

0 S 1 1 S 0

ε ε

Q.27 Find the generating function to represent the number of ways the sum 9 can be obtained
when 2 distinguishable fair dice are tossed and the first shows an even number and the
second shows an odd number. (5)

Ans: Let x1 and x2 be the variable representing the outcomes on the two dice the x1 has values
2 4 6
2, 4, 6 and x2 has 1, 3, 5. Now polynomial for variable x1 and x2 can be written as (x + x + x )
3 5
and (x + x + x ) respectively.
9
Thus the number of ways sum 9 can be obtained is equal to the coefficient of x in the
2 4 6 3 5
expression (x + x + x )(x + x + x ). This is equal to 2.
Q.28 Prove that if l 1 and l 2 are elements of a lattice < L; ∨, ∧ then
>
(9)
(l 1 ∨l 2 = l 1 ) ↔ (l 1 ∧ l 2 = l 2 ) ↔ (l 2 ≤
l1 )

Ans: Let us use b = L1 and a = L2. It is given that a∨b = b. Since a∨b is an upper bound of a, a
≤ a∨b. This implies a ≤ b.
Next, let a ≤ b. Since ≤ is a partial order relation, b ≤ b. Thus, a≤b and b≤b together implies
that b is an upper bound of a and b. We know that a∨b is least upper bound of a and b, so a∨b ≤
b. Also b ≤ a∨b because a∨b is an upper bound of b. Therefore, a∨b ≤ b and b ≤ a∨b ⇔
a∨b = b by the anti-symmetry property of partial order relation ≤. Hence, it is proved that a∨b
= b if and only if a ≤ b.

Q.29 Let (S, *)be a semigroup. Consider a finite state machine M = (S, S F), where
F = {fx x ∈ S} and fx (y) = x * y for all x, y ∈ S Consider the relation R on S, x R y if and
only if there is some z ∈ S such that fz (x) = y. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
(14)
Ans: Let M = (S, I, ℑ, s0, T) be a FSM where S is the set of states, I is set of alphabets, ℑ is
C
transition table, s0 is initial state and T is the set of final states. Let T = S – T. Then set S is
decomposed into two disjoint subsets T and TC. Set T contains all the terminal (acceptance)
states of the M and TC contains all the non-terminal states of M. Let w ∈ I* be any string. For
any state s ∈ S, fw(s) belongs to either T or T C. Any two states: s and t are said to be w-
compatible if both fw(s) and fw(t) either belongs to T or to TC for all w∈ I*.

Now we have to show that if R be a relation defined on S as sRt if and only if both s and t are
w-compatible the R is an equivalence relation.
Let s be any state in S and w be any string in I*. Then fw(s) is either in T or in TC. This implies
that sRs ∀ s∈ S. Hence R is reflexive on S. Let s and t be any two states in S such that sRt.
Therefore, by definition of R both s and t w-compatible states. This implies that tRs. Thus, R is
symmetric also. Finally, let s, t and u be any three states in S such that sRt and tRu. This
implies that s t and u are w-compatible states i.e. s and u are w-compatible. Hence sRu. Thus, R
is a transitive relation. Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, it is an equivalence
relation.

Q.30 Represent each of the following statements into predicate calculus forms :
(i) Not all birds can fly.
(ii) If x is a man, then x is a giant.
(iii) Some men are not giants.
(iv) There is a student who likes mathematics but not history. (9)
Ans:
(i) Let us assume the following predicates
 bird(x): “x is bird”
fly(x): “x can fly”.
Then given statement can be written as: ∃x bird(x) ∧ ~ fly(x)
(ii) Let us assume the following
predicates man(x): “x is
Man”
giant(x): “x is giant”.
Then given statement can be written as: ∀x (man(x)→ giant(x))

(iii) Using the predicates defined in (ii), we can write

∃x man(x) ∧ ~ giant(x)
(iv) Let us assume the following predicates
student(x): “x is student.”
likes(x, y): “x likes y”. and ~likes(x, y) ⇒ “x does not like y”.

Then given statement can be written as:

∃x [student(x) ∧ likes(x, mathematics) ∧~ likes(x, history)]

Q.31 Let X be the set of all programs of a given programming language. Let R the relation on X
be defined as
P1 R P2 if P1 and P2 give the same output on all the inputs for which they terminate.
Is R an equivalence relation? If not which property fails? (5)

Ans: R is defined on the set X of all programs of a given programming language. Now let us
test whether R is an equivalence relation or not
Reflexivity: Let P be any element of X then obviously P gives same output on all the inputs for
which P terminates i.e. P R P. Thus R is reflexive.
Symmetry: Let P and Q are any two elements in X such that P R Q. Then P and Q give same
output on all the inputs for which they terminate => Q R P =>R is symmetric.
Transitivity: Let P, Q and S are any three elements in X such that P R Q and Q R S. It means P
and Q gives the same out for all the inputs for which they terminate. Similar is the case for Q
and S. It implies that there exists a set of common programs from which P, Q and S give the
same output on all the inputs for which they terminate i.e. P R S => R is transitive.
Therefore R is an equivalence relation.

Q.32 Let A = {1, 2, 4, 8,16} and relation R1 be partial order of divisibility on A. Let A
′ = {0,1, 2, 3, 4} and R 2 be the relation “less than or equal to” on integers. Show that (A,
R1 )and (A′, R 2 ) are isomorphic posets. (7)
 Ans: Any two posets (A, R1) and (A‟, R2) are said to isomorphic to each other if there exists a
function f: A → A‟ such that
• f is one to one and onto function; and
• For any a, b ∈ A, a R1 b ⇔ f(a) R2 f(b), i.e. images preserve the order of pre-images.

Let f: A → A‟ is defined as f(1) = 0, f(2) = 1, f(4) = 2, f(8) = 3, f(16) = 4.

It is obvious from the definition that f is one to one and onto. Regarding preservation of order,
it is preserved under the respective partial order relation. It is shown in the following hasse
diagram.

16 4
8 3
4 2
2 1
1 0

Q.33 Let ∇ be defined as R∇S = (R − S ) ∪ (S − R ) , then either prove or give counter

example for the following,
R⊆ S⇒R∇ T⊆ S∇ T (7)

Ans: Let R = {1, 2, 3, 4}; S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and T = {3, 6, 7}. Obviously R ⊆ S. However
R∇ T = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7}and S ∇ T = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7}. Clearly, (R∇ T) ⊄ (S ∇ T). Hence it is
disproved.

Q.34 Prove or disprove the following equivalence,

~ (p ↔ q ) ≡ ((p∧ ~ q) ∨ (q∧ ~ p)) (9)

Ans: RHS of the given expression ((p ∧ ~q) ∨ (q ∧ ~p)) can be written as

~(~((p ∧ ~q) ∨ (q ∧ ~p))) = ~((~(p ∧ ~q)) ∧ (~(q ∧ ~p)))

= ~((~p ∨ q) ∧ (~q ∨ p))
= ~((p → q) ∧ (q → p))
= ~(p ↔ q)

Q.35 Solve the following recurrence relation and indicate if it is a linear homogeneous relation or
not. If yes, give its degree and if not justify your answer. t n = t n −1 + n, t 1 = 4
(5)
Ans: The given equation can be written in the following form:
tn - tn-1 = n
 Now successively replacing n by (n – 1) and then by (n – 2) and so on we get a set of equations.
The process is continued till terminating condition. Add these equations in such a way that all
intermediate terms get cancelled. The given equation can be rearranged as
tn – tn–1 = n
tn–1 – tn–2 = n – 1
tn–2 – tn–3 = n – 2.
tn–3 – tn–4 = n – 3
.
t2 – t1 = 2 [we stop here, since t1 = 4 is given ]

Adding all, we get tn – t1 = [n + (n – 1) + (n – 2) + ... + 2]

or, tn = [n + (n – 1) + (n – 2) + ... + 2 + 4]
or, tn = n(n + 1)
2 +3
The given recurrence equation is linear and non homogeneous. It is of degree 1.

Q.36 State the relation between Regular Expression, Transition Diagram and Finite State
Machines. Using a simple example establish your claim. (6)

Ans: For every regular language, we can find a FSM for this, because a FSM work as
recognizer of a regular language. Whether a language is regular can be determined by finding
whether a FSM can be drawn or not.

A machine contains finite number of states. To determine whether a string is valid or not, the
FSM begins scanning the string from start state and moving along the transition diagram as per
the current input symbol. The table showing the movement from one state to other for input
symbols of the alphabets is called transition table.

Every machine has a unique transition table. Thus there is one to one relationship between
Regular language and FSM and then between FSM and transition table.

Q.37 Identify the type and the name of the grammar the following set of production rules belong
to. Also identify the language it can generate. (8)

S1 → S1S2
S1 → 1S1
S1 → e
S2 → S2S3
S2 → 01S2
S2 → 01
S3 → 0 S3
S3 → e
 Ans: In the left hand side of the production rules, only single non terminal symbol is use. This
implies that the grammar is either of Type 2 or Type 3. In the RHS of some production rules,
there are more than one non terminal. The null production can be removed by combining it
with the other productions. Thus, according to the Chomsky hierarchy, the grammar is of type
2, and name of the grammar is Context Free Grammar(CFG). The language of the grammar
can be determined as below:

S1 → S1S2
→ S1S2S3 [Apply rule S2 → S2S3]
m
→ S1S2 0 S [Apply rule → (m ≥ 0) times]
m 3 S 3 0S 3
→SS 0 [Apply rule S3 → e]
1 2
→ S1 01S2 m [Apply rule S2 → 01S2 ]
0
l m k
→ S1(01) (0 ) [Apply rule S2 → S2S3 and S2 → 01S2 (k ≥ 0,
l ≥ 1) times and then S2 → 01 once ]
l mkt
→ [(01) (0 ) ] [Apply rule S1 → S1S2 , (t ≥ 0) times,
S1→1S1 (n ≥ 0) time and S2 → e once]
n l m k t
That the language contains strings of the form 1 [(01) (0 ) ] where l ≥ 1 and other values
like n, m, k and t are ≥ 0.

Q.38 For any positive integer n, let I n = { x 1 ≤ x ≤ n}. Let the relation “divides” be written as
a b iff a divides b or b = ac for some integer c. Draw the Hasse diagram and determine
[
whether I 12 ; ] is a lattice. (8)

Ans: Hasse diagram for the structure (I12, |) is given below.

12
8

10 4 6 9

5 2 3
11 7
1
 It is obvious from the Hasse diagram that there are many pairs of element, e.g (7, 11), (8, 10)
etc that do not have any join in the set. Hence (I12, |) is not a lattice.

Q.39 Give the formula and the Karnaugh map for the minimum DNF, (Disjunctive
Normal Form)
(p∧ ~ q ) ∨ (~ q∧ ~ s ) ∨ (p∧ ~ r ∧ s) (6)

Ans: The K-map for the given DNF is shown below. The formula for the same is
pq’ + s’q’ + pr’s

r’ r

1 1 0 1
p’
0 0 0 1 q
0 01 0 0 q’
p
11 11 01 11
s
s’

Q.40 If the product of two integers a and b is even then prove that either a is even or b is even.
(5)
Ans: It is given that product of a and b is even so let a * b = 2n. Since 2 is a prime number and
n is any integer (odd or even), either a or b is a multiple of 2. This shows that either a is even or
b is even.

Q.41 Using proof by contradiction, prove that “ 2 is irrational”. Are irrational numbers
countable? (5)
 Ans:

Let 2 =s
So s2 = 2 (1)

If s were a rational number, we can write

p (2)
s=q

Where p is an integer and q is any positive integer. We can further assure that the gcd(p, q) =1
by driving out common factor between p and q, if any. Now using equation (2), in equation (1),
we get

p 2 = 2q 2 (3)

Conclusion: From equation (3), 2 must be a prime factor of p2. Since 2 itself is a prime, 2 must
be a factor of p itself. Therefore, 2∗2 is a factor of p2. This implies that 2∗2 is a factor of
2∗q2.
⇒ 2 is a factor of q2
⇒ 2 is a factor of q
Since, 2 is factor of both p and q gcd(p, q) = 2. This is contrary to our assumption that gcd(p,
q) = 1. Therefore, √2 is an irrational number. The set of irrational numbers is uncountable.

Q.42 Use quantifiers and predicates to express the fact that lim x → a f (x ) does not exist.
(4)
Ans: Let P(x, a) : lim f (x) exist. Then the given limit can be written as
x→a

∃a ¬P(x, a).

Q.43 Minimize the following Boolean expression using k-map method

F(A, B, C, D) = π (0,1, 4, 5, 8,12,13,14,15 ) (7)

.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans:

C’ C

1 1 0 10
A’
01 01 0 10
B
01 01 01 01 B’
A
11 10 00 10

D’ D
The minimized boolean expression C‟D‟ + A‟C‟ + AB

Q.44 Find a recurrence relation for the number of ways to arrange flags on a flagpole n feet tall
using 4 types of flags: red flags 2 feet high, white, blue and yellow flags each 1 foot high.
(7)
Ans: Let An be the number of ways in which the given flags can be arranged on n feel tall
flagpole. The red color flag is of height 2 feet, and white, blue and yellow color flag is of height
1 foot. Thus if n =1, flag can be arranged in 3 ways. If n = 2, the flags can be arranged in either
3x3 ways using 3 flags of 1 foot long each or in 1 way using 2 feet long red flag. Thus, flags on
2 feet long flagpole can be arranged in 10 ways. This can be written in recursive form as:

An = 3An – 1 ; An = 10An – 2 ; Adding them together, we have

2An – 3An – 1 – 10An – 2 = 0 and A1 = 3; A2 = 10.

Q.45 What is the principle of inclusion and exclusion? Determine the number of integers
between 1 and 250 that are divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7. (7)

Ans:
This principle is based on the cardinality of finite sets. Let us begin with the given problem
of finding all integers between 1 and 250 that are divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 or 7.
Let A, B, C and D be two sets defined as:
A = {x | x is divisible by 2 and 1 ≤ x ≤
250}, B = {x | x is divisible by 3 and 1 ≤ x
≤ 250},
C = {x | x is divisible by 5 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 250}
and D = {x | x is divisible by 7 and 1 ≤ x ≤
21
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
250}
Similarly, A ∩ B= {x | x is divisible by 2 and 3 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 250}

21
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

.
.
C ∩ D = {x | x is divisible by 5 and 7 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 250}
A∩B∩D = {x | x is divisible by 2, 3 and 7 and 1 ≤ x ≤
250}

Here, problem is to find the number of elements in A∪B∪C∪D. Also, there are numbers that
are divisible by two or three or all the four numbers taken together. A ∩ B, A ∩C, A ∩ D, B ∩
C, …, C ∩ D are not null set. This implies that while counting the numbers, whenever common
elements have been included more than once, it has to be excluded. Therefore, we can write
| A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D | = |A| + |B| + |C| + |D| – |A∩B| – |A∩C| – |A∩D| – |B∩C| – |B∩D| – |C
∩ D| + |A∩B∩C| + |A∩B∩D| + |A∩C∩D| + |B∩C∩D| - |A∩B∩C∩D|
The required result can be computed as below:

l−a 250 − 2
| A | = 125 n= +1= + 1 = 125
d 2

| B | = 83 l−a 249 − 3
n = +1= + 1 = 83
d 3
| C | = 50 l−a 250 − 5
n = +1= + 1 = 50
d 5
l−a 245 − 7
| D | = 35 n= + 1= + 1 = 35
d 7

− −
n = l a + 1 = 246 6 + 1 = 41
|A∩ B|=
d 6
41
n l−a 250 − 10
|A∩ C|= = +1= + 1 = 25
25
d 10
|A∩ D|=
17 n l−a 238 − 14
=d + 1= 1 17
14 + =

l− a240 − 15
| B ∩ C | = 16 n= +1= + 1 = 16
d 15
l− a 231 − 21
| B ∩ D | = 11 n= +1= + 1 = 11
d 21
22
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
|C∩D|=
7 n l−a 245 − 35
= +1= +1=7
d 35

23
 240 − 30
|A∩B∩C|=8 + 1 =8
30
210 − 42
|A∩B∩ D|= 5 +1=5
42
210 − 70
|A∩C∩ D|= 3 + 1 =3
70
210 − 105
|B∩C∩D|=2 +1=2
105
210 − 210
|A∩B∩C∩D|=1 +11
=
210

Therefore,
| A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D | = 125 + 83 +50 + 35 – 41 – 25 – 17 – 16 – 11 – 7 +8 + 5 + 3 + 2 –1
= 311 – 118
= 193.

Q.46 Show that S ∨ R is tautologically implied by (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R ) ∧ (Q → S) . (7)

Ans: Let us find the truth table for [(P∨Q)∧(P→R)∧(Q→S)] → (S∨R).

P Q R S (P∨Q) (P→R) (Q→S) (S∨R) [(P∨Q)∧(P→R)∧(Q→S)] → (S∨R)

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Hence the implication is a tautology.

Q.47 Identify the regular set accepted by the Fig.2 finite state machine and construct the
corresponding state transition table. (7)

Ans: The transition table for the given FSM is as below:

State 0 1
A {A, B} {}
B {B} {C}
C {B} {D}
D {E} {A}
E {D} {C}

The language (Regular set) accepted by the FSM is any string on the alphabets {0, 1} that
(a) begins with „0‟
(b) contains substring „011‟ followed by zero or more 0‟s, and
(c) does not contain 3 consecutive 1‟s.

Q.48 Construct truth tables for the following:

[(p ∨ q ) ∧ (~ r)] ↔q (7)

Ans: The required truth table for (p∨q) ∧ (¬r) ↔ q is as below:

p q r p∨q (p∨q) ∧ (¬r) (p∨q) ∧ (¬r) ↔ q

0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0

24
Q.49 (
Find the coefficient of x10 in 1 + x + x 2 + ......... )2 (7)

Ans: Let the given expression is written as

2
2 3
f(x) = (1 + x + x + x +…+ x )2 =
n 1
1− x
–2
= (1 – x)
10
The coefficient of x is equal to

2 + 10 − 1 11!
C 10 10!*1! 11.
=

Q.50 If [L, ∧, ∨] is a complemented and distributive lattice, then the complement a of any
element a ∈ L is unique. (7)

Ans: Let I and 0 are the unit and zero elements of L respectively. Let b and c be two
complements of an element a ∈ L. Then from the definition, we have

a∧b=0=a∧c
and a ∨ b = I = a ∨
c
We can write b = b ∨ 0 = b ∨ (a ∧ c )
= (b ∨ a) ∧ (b ∨ c ) [since lattice is distributive ]
= I ∧ (b ∨ c )
= (b ∨ c )
Similarly, c = c ∨ 0 = c ∨ (a ∧ b )
= (c ∨ a) ∧ (c ∨ b) [since lattice is distributive ]
= I ∧ (b ∨ c) [since ∨ is a commutative operation]
= (b ∨ c)
The above two results show that b = c.

Q.51 Consider the following Hasse diagram Fig.3 and the set B= {3, 4, 6}. Find, if they exist,
(i) all upper bounds of B;
(ii) all lower bounds of B;
(iii) the least upper bound of B;
(iv) the greatest lower bound of B; (7)
 Ans:
(i) The set of upper bounds of subset B = {3, 4, 6} in the given lattice is {5}. It is only
element in the lattice that succeeds all the elements of B.
(ii) Set containing lower bounds is {1, 2, 3}
(iii) The least upper bound is 5, since it is the only upper bounds.
(iv) The greatest lower bound is 3, because it is the element in lower bounds that succeeds
all the lower bounds.

Solve the recurrence relation S(k) − 4S(k − 1) + 3S(k) = 3 .

k
Q.52 (7)
Ans:

The general solution, also called homogeneous solution, to the problem is given by

homogeneous part of the given recurrence equation. The homogeneous part of the given

equation is

Sk − 4Sk −1 + 3Sk −2 = 0 (1)

The characteristic equation of (2) is given
as

2
x − 4x + 3 = 0
or, (x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
or, x = 1 and x = 3.

The homogeneous solution is given by

S k = A1k + B3k (2)

S k = kC3k
Now, particular solution is given by

Substituting the value of Sk in the given equation, we get

.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

[
C k3k − 4(k − 1)3k −1 + 3(k − 2)3k −2 ]
or, = 3k C[9k − 4(k − 1)3 + 3(k − 2)]3k−2
or, = 3k C[9k − 12(k − 1) + 3k − 6] = 9
or, C[9k − 9k + 6] = 9
3
or, 6C = 9 or, C =
2
3
∴ Particular solution is S= k3 k
k
2

The complete, also called total, solution is obtained by combining the homogeneous and

particular solutions. This is given as

3
S = A + B3k −
k3k (3)
k
2

Since no initial condition is provided, it is not possible to find A and B,

Q.53 Prove that A ∪ B = (A − B )∪ (B − A ) ∪ (A ∩ B ) . (7)

Ans: In order to prove this let x be any element of A ∪ B, then

x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B
⇔ (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) or (x ∈ B and x ∉ A) or (x ∈ A and x ∈ B)
⇔ (x ∈ A – B) or (x ∈ B – A) or (x ∈ A ∩ B)
⇔ x ∈ (A – B) ∪ (B – A) ∪ (A ∩
B) This implies that
A ∪ B ⊆ (A – B) ∪ (B – A) ∪ (A ∩ B) and
(A – B) ∪ (B – A) ∪ (A ∩ B) ⊆ A ∪ B

Thus A ∪ B = (A – B) ∪ (B – A) ∪ (A ∩ B)

Q.54 There are 15 points in a plane, no three of which are in a straight line except 6 all of which

27
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
are in one straight line.

27
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(i) How many straight lines can be formed by joining them?

(ii) How many triangles can be formed by joining them? (7)

Ans: There are 15 points out of which 6 are collinear. A straight can pass through any two
points. Thus
15 6 15
(i) The number straight lines that can be formed is C 2– C +1 2
= 105 – 15 + 1 = 91. C 2 is the
number of ways two points can be selected. If the two points are coming from 6 collinear, then
there can be only one straight line. Thus 6C 2is subtracted and 1 is added in the total.

15
(ii) The number Triangles that can be formed is C – 6C = 455 – 20 = 425. 15C is the number
3 3 3
of ways three points can be selected to form a triangle. If the three points are coming from 6
collinear, then no triangle is formed. Thus 6C 3is subtracted from the total.

Q.55 Prove the following Boolean expression:

(x ∨ y ) ∧ (x∨ ~ y) ∧ (~ x ∨ z) = x ∧ z (7)

Ans: In the given expression, LHS is equal to:

(x∨y)∧(x∨ ~y)∧(~x ∨ z) = [x∧(x∨ ~y)] ∨ [y∧(x∨ ~y)] ∧(~x ∨ z)

= [x∧(x∨ ~y)] ∨ [y∧(x∨ ~y)] ∧(~x ∨ z)
= [(x∧x) ∨ (x∧~y)] ∨ [(y∧x)∨ (y∧~y)] ∧(~x ∨ z)
= [x ∨ (x∧~y)] ∨ [(y∧x)∨ 0] ∧(~x ∨ z)
= [x ∨ (y∧x)] ∧(~x ∨ z) [x ∨ (x∧~y) =x]
= x ∧(~x ∨ z) [x ∨ (x∧y) =x]
= [x ∧~x)] ∨ (x ∧ z) [x ∨ (x∧~y) =x]
= 0 ∨ (x ∧ z) = (x ∧ z) = RHS

Q.56 Find how many words can be formed out of the letters of the word DAUGHTER such that
(i) The vowels are always together.
(ii) The vowels occupy even places. (7)

Ans: In the word DAUGHTER, there are three vowels: A, E and U. Number of letters in the
word is 8.
(i) When vowels are always together, the number of ways these letters can be arranged (5 +1)!
* 3!. The 5 consonants and one group of vowels. Within each such arrangement, the three
vowels can be arranged in 3! Ways. The required answer is 4320.
(ii) When vowel occupy even position, then the three vowels can be placed at 4 even positions
4
in 3*2*1 ways. The three even positions can be selected in C3 ways. And now the 5
consonants can be arranged in 5! Ways. Therefore the required number is = 3! * 4C *5!
3 =
2880

28
Q.57 Let R be the relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers such that
((a, b), (c, d))∈ R if and only if ad = bc. Determine whether R is an equivalence relation
or a partial ordering. (8)

Ans: R is defined on the set P of cross product of set of positive integers Z+ as (a, b) R (c, d) iff
a*d =b*c. Now let us test whether R is an equivalence relation or not

Reflexivity: Let (x, x) be any element of P, then since a*a = a*a , we can say the (a, a) R (a,
a).Thus R is reflexive.

Symmetry: Let (a, b) and (c, d) are any two elements in P such that (a, b) R (c, d). Then we
have a*d = b*c => c*b = d*a => (c, d) R (a, b) => R is symmetric.

Transitivity: Let (a, b), (c, d) and (e, f) are any three pairs in P such that (a, b) R (c, d) and (c,
d) R (e, f). Then we have a*d = b*c and c*f = d*e => a/e = b/f => a*f = b*e => (a, b) R (e, f)
=> R is transitive.
Therefore R is an equivalence relation.

Q.58 Prove that the direct product of any two distributive lattice is a distributive. (6)

Ans: Let (L1, ≤1) and (L2, ≤2) be two distributive lattices then we have to prove that (L, ≤) is
also a distributive lattice, where L = L 1 × L2 and ≤ is the product partial order of (L1, ≤1) and
(L2, ≤2). It will be sufficient to show that L is lattice, because distributive properties shall be
inherited from the constituent lattices.
Since (L1, ≤1) is a lattice, for any two elements a1 and a2 of L1, a1∨a2 is join and a1∧a2 is meet
of a1 and a2 and both exist in L1. Similarly for any two elements b1 and b2 of L2, b1∨b2 is join
and b1∧b2 is meet of b1 and b2 and both exist in L2. Thus, (a1∨a2, b1∨b2) and (a1∧a2, b1∧b2) ∈
L. Also (a1, b1) and (a2, b2) ∈ L for any a1, a2 ∈ L1 and any b1, b2 ∈ L2.
Now if we prove that
(a1, b1) ∨ (a2, b2) = (a1∨a2, b1∨b2) and
(a1, b1) ∧ (a2, b2) = (a1∧a2, b1∧b2)
then we can conclude that for any two ordered pairs (a1, b1) and (a2, b2) ∈ L, its join and meet
exist and thence (L, ≤) is a lattice.
We know that (a1, b1) ∨ (a2, b2) = lub ({(a1, b1), (a2, b2) }). Let it be (c1, c2). Then,
(a1, b1) ≤ (c1, c2) and (a2, b2) ≤ (c1, c2)
⇒ a1≤1c1, b1 ≤2 c2; a2 ≤1c1, b2 ≤2 c2
⇒ a1≤1c1, a2 ≤1c1; b1 ≤2 c2, b2 ≤2 c2
⇒ a1∨ a2 ≤1c1; b1∨ b2 ≤2 c2
 ⇒(a1∨ a2 , b1∨ b2) ≤ (c1, c2)
This shows that (a1∨ a2 , b1∨ b2) is an upper bound of {(a1, b1), (a2, b2)} and if there is any other
upper bound (c1, c2) then (a1∨ a2 , b1∨ b2) ≤ (c1, c2). Therefore, lub ({(a1, b1), (a2, b2)}) = (a1∨
a2, b1∨ b2) i.e.
(a1, b1) ∨ (a2, b2) = (a1∨a2,
b1∨b2) Similarly, we can show for the
meet.

Q.59 Given n pigeons to be distributed among k pigeonholes. What is a necessary and sufficient
condition on n and k that, in every distribution, at least two pigeonholes must contain the
same number of pigeons?
Prove the proposition that in a room of 13 people, 2 or more people have their birthday
in the same month. (8)

Ans: The situation when all the k pigeonholes may contain unique number of pigeons out of n
k (k − 1)
pigeons, if n ≥ (0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +…+ (k – 1)) . Thus, as long as n (number of
pigeons) 2

k (k − 1)
is less than equal to , at least two of the k pigeonholes shall contain equal number of
2
pigeons.
Let 12 months are pigeonholes and 13 people present in the room are pigeons. Pick a man and
make him seated in a chair marked with month corresponding his birthday. Repeat the process
until 12 people are seated. Now even in the best cases, if all the 12 people have occupied 12
different chairs, the 13th person will have to share with any one, i.e. there is at least 2 persons
having birthday in the same month.

Q.60 Define a grammar. Differentiate between machine language and a regular language. Specify
the Chowsky‟s classification of languages. (6)
Ans: Any language is suitable for communication provided the syntax and semantic of the
language is known to the participating sides. It is made possible by forcing a standard on the
way to make sentences from words of that language. This standard is forced through a set of
rules. This set of rules is called grammar of the language. A grammar G = (N, ∑, P, S) is said
to be of
Type 0: if there is no restriction on the production rules i.e., in α→β, where α, β∈ (N ∪ ∑)*.
This type of grammar is also called an unrestricted grammar.

Type 1: if in every production α→β of P, α, β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)* and |α| ≤ |β|. Here |α| and |β|
represent number of symbols in string α and β respectively. This type of grammar is also
called a context sensitive grammar (or CSG).
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Type 2: if in every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-

terminal symbol. This type of grammar is also called a context free grammar (or CFG).
Type 3: if in every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-
terminal symbol and β may consist of at the most one non-terminal symbol and one or more
terminal symbols. The non-terminal symbol appearing in β must be the extreme right symbol.
This type of grammar is also called a right linear grammar or regular grammar (or RG).

For any language a acceptor (a machine) can be drawn that could be DFA, NFA, PDA, NPDA,
TM etc. Language corresponding to that machine is called machine language. In particular a
language corresponding to Finite automata is called Regular language.

Q.61 Determine the closure property of the structure [ 5 × 5 Boolean matrices, ∧,∨ ,(•)] with
respect to the operations ∧,∨ and (•). Illustrate using examples and give the identity
element, if one exists for all the binary operations. (9)

Ans: Let A and B are any two 5x5 Boolean matrices. Boolean operations join (∨), meet (∧) and
product [(•)] on set of 5x5 Boolean matrix M is defined as

A ∨ B = [cij], where cij = max {aij, bij} for 1 ≤ i ≤ 5, 1 ≤ j

≤ 5 A ∧ B = [cij], where cij = min {aij, bij} for 1 ≤ i ≤ 5,
1≤ j≤ 55
A (•) B = [cij], where cij = ∑ a (•)b } for 1 ≤ i ≤ 5, 1 ≤ j ≤ 5
k = ik kj
1
It is obvious that for any two matrices A and B of M, (A ∨ B), (A ∧ B) and (A (•) B) are also in
M. Hence M closed under ∨, ∧ and (•). The identity element for the operations ∨, ∧ and (•) are

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 01 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0 , 1 1 1 1 and 00 1 respectively.
1 0 0

0 0 0 00 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
00 0 1 111 00 0 0 1
1
0 1
0
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Q.62 Prove that if x is a real number then
 1
[2x] = [x] + x+ (5)
2

31
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans: Let x be any real number. It has two parts: integer and fraction. Without loss of any
generality, fraction part can always be made +ve. For example, -1.3 can be written as –2 + 0.7.
Let us write x = a + b, and [x] = a (integer part only of the real x). The fraction part b needs to
considered in two cases:
0 < b < 0.5 and 0.5 ≤ b < 1.

Case 1: 0 < b < 0.5; In this case [2x] = 2a, and [x] +[x + .5] = a + a = 2a

Case 2: 0.5 ≤ b < 1; In this case [2x] = 2a + 1, and [x] +[x + .5] = a + (a + 1) = 2a
+1 Hence [2x] = [x] + [x + .5]

1
Q.63 Let A = 1 . For n a positive integer and f the Fibonacci number show that
1 0 n th
n

f n +1
fn
An = (5)

fn f n -1

Ans: The Fibonacci number is given as 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ... and so on and defined as

fn = f n – 1 + f n – 2

1 1 2 2 f f2
1
For A = , we have A = =3 . Let us suppose that it is true for n = k i.e.
1 0 1 f f1
f k +1 f 1
k k
2

A =
f k −1 . Then we prove that it is true for n = k + 1 as well and hence the result shall
fk
follow from mathematical induction.

k +1 fk fk 1 f k +1 + f f k +1 f k+ f k +1
1
k =2 fk
A
+1
= fk f k −1 =
1 f k + fk fk fk
0
−1 +1

n fn
Therefore we have the result,
+1
A =
 fn

f n −1 fn
Q.64 Let the universe of discourse be the set of integers. Then consider the following predicates:
P (x): x 2 ≥ 0
2
Q (x) : x − 5x + 6 = 0
R (x, y): x = y
2

32
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Identify from the following expressions ones which are not well formed formulas, if any
and determine the truth value of the well-formed-formulas:

(i) ∀ x [P(x)∧ Q (x)]

(ii) ∀ x ∀ y [R(P(x), y) → P (x)]
(iii) ∀XP (x) ∧ ∃ Y Q(y)
(iv) ∀ y ∀ x [P(x) → R(x, y)]
(v) ∀
y x
∃ R ( y, ∨ [∀z (9)

x ) Q(z)]

Ans:
(i) It is wff and not true for every x. P(x) is true for all x whereas Q(x) is true only for x = 2, 3
and not for all x.

(ii) It is not a wff because argument of R is predicate and not a variable as per the definition.
(iii)It is true because square of an integer is always ≥ 0 and there are y (= 2, 3) such that Q (y)
is true.
(iv) It is false. Because there exists x = 3 and y =5 (there are infinite many such examples) such
that P(3) is true but R(3, 5) is not true.
(v) ∀y ∃x R(y, x) is always true because square of an integer is an integer so we can always
find an x for every y such that R(y, x) is satisfied. However ∀zQ(z) is not true. Since two
statements are connected with ∨, it is TRUE.

Q.65 What is the minimum number of students required in a class to be sure that at least 6 will
receive the same grade if there are five possible grades A, B,C, D and F? (4)

Ans: Let us consider 5 pigeonholes corresponding to five grades. Then, our problem is to find
the number of pigeons (students) so that when placed in holes, one of the holes must contain at
least 6 pigeons (students). In the theorem above, m = 5, then we have to find n such that

n−1
+1 or, n − 1 = 25 or, n = 26
6
=
5

Therefore, at least 26 students are required in the class.

Q.66 Let n be a positive integer. Then prove

that ∑n (− 1)k C(n, r) (4)
=0
k =0
 n
Ans:
n
C
∑ (−1) k C(n, r)= + nC (−1)+ n C (−1) 2 + K+ n C (−1) n = (1 + (−1)) n = 0
k =0 0 1 2 n
33
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.67 Suppose E is the event that a randomly generated bit string of length 4 begins with a 1 and
F is the event that this bit string contains an even number of 1‟s. Are E and F independent
if the 16 bit strings of length 4 are equally likely? (6)

Ans: Number of 4 bit strings that begins with 1 is 8, thus P(E) = .5

Number of 4-bit string having even number of 1‟s is also 8 [C(4, 0) + C(4, 2) + C(4, 4)].
Therefore P(F) = .5

Now Number of 4-bit string that begins with 1 and contains even number of 1‟s is 4 [1 + C(3,
0)]. Thus P(E∩F) = .25.

Clearly P(E∩F) = P(E)*P(F). Thus E and F are independent.

Q.68 Find the sum-of-products expression for following function,

F(x, y, z) = y + z (6)

Ans: The sum of the product expression for the given function f is DNF (disjunctive normal
form) expression. The truth table for f is as below.

x y z F(x, y, z) = y + z’
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The required sum of product (min term) notation is

F(x, y, z) = x‟y‟z‟ + x‟yz‟ + x‟yz + xy‟z‟ + xyz‟ + xyz

Q.69 Using other identities of Boolean algebra prove the absorption

law, x + xy = x
Construct an identity by taking the duals of the above identity and prove it too. (8)

Ans: We have to prove that x + xy = x.

x + xy = x (y + y‟) + xy

34
 = xy + xy‟ + xy
= (xy + xy) + xy‟
= xy + xy‟
= x (y + y‟) = x.1 = x

The dual of the given identity is x(x+ y) = x. Now

x(x + y) = xx + xy
= x + xy
=x [From above theorem]

Q.70 Define grammar. Differentiate a context-free grammar from a regular grammar. (6)
Ans: Any language is suitable for communication provided the syntax and semantic of the
language is known to the participating sides. It is made possible by forcing a standard on the
way to make sentences from words of that language. This standard is forced through a set of
rules. This set of rules is called grammar of the language.
A grammar G = (N, ∑, P, S) is said to be of Context Free if in every production α→β of P, α ∈
N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-terminal symbol.
On the other hand, in a regular grammar, every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪
∑)*. Here α is a single non-terminal symbol and β may consist of at the most one non-terminal
symbol and one or more terminal symbols. The non-terminal symbol appearing in β must be
the extreme right (or left) symbol. This type of grammar is also called a right linear grammar
or regular grammar.

Q.71 Let L be a language over {0, 1} such that each string starts with a 0 and ends with a
minimum of two subsequent 1‟s. Construct,
(i) the regular expression to specify L.
(ii) a finite state automata M, such that M (L) = L.
(iii) a regular grammar G, such that G(L) = L. (8)
Ans:
+ *
(i) The regular expression for the language is 0 (0∨1) 11.

(ii) The finite automata M is as below:

 (iii) Now the regular grammar G is:
S → 0A,
A → 0A |1B,
B → 1 | 1C | 0A,
C →1C| 0A |ε

Q.72 Define an ordered rooted tree. Cite any two applications of the tree structure, also illustrate
using an example each the purpose of the usage. (7)

Ans: A tree is a graph such that it is connected, it has no loop or circuit of any length and
number of edges in it is one less than the number of vertices.

−
*

+ − 5

3 4 5 2

If the downward slop of an arc is taken as the direction of the arc then the above graph can be
treated as a directed graph. In degree of node + is zero and of all other nodes is one. There are
nodes like 3, 4, 5, 2 and 5 with out degree zero and all other nodes have out degree > 0. A node
with in degree zero in a tree is called root of the tree. Every tree has one and only one root and
that is why a directed tree is also called a rooted tree. The position of every labeled node is
fixed, any change in the position of node will change the meaning of the expression represented
by the tree. Such type of tree is called ordered tree.

A tree structure is used in evaluation of an arithmetic expression (parsing technique) The other
general application is search tree. The tree presented is an example of expression tree. An
example of binary search tree is shown below.

14

10 24

18
28
8 12
Q.73 Determine the values of the following prefix and postfix expressions. ( ↑ is exponentiation.)
(i) +, -, ↑ , 3, 2, ↑ , 2, 3, /, 6, –, 4, 2
(ii) 9, 3, /, 5, +, 7, 2, -, * (7)

Ans:
(i) +, -, ↑, 3, 2, ↑, 2, 3, /, 6, -, 4, 2 ⇔ +, -, ↑, 3, 2, ↑, 2, 3, /, 6, (4 – 2)
⇔ +, -, ↑, 3, 2, ↑, 2, 3, (6 / 2)
⇔ +, -, ↑, 3, 2, (2↑3), 3
⇔ +, -, (3 ↑ 2), 8, 3
⇔ +, (9 – 8), 3
⇔ (1 + 3) = 4

(ii) 9,3, /, 5, +, 7, 2, -, * ⇔ (9 / 3), 5, +, 7, 2, -, *

⇔ (3 + 5), 7, 2, -, *
⇔ 8, (7 – 2), *
⇔ 8* 5 = 40

Q.74 Let m be a positive integer with m>1. Determine whether or not the following relation is an
equivalent relation.
R = {(a, b) a ≡ b(mod m)} (6)

Ans: Relation R is defined as ≡m (congruence modulo m) on the set of positive integers. Let us
check whether it is an equivalence relation.
Reflexivity: Let x ∈ Z+ be any integer, then x ≡m x since both yields the same remainder when
divided by m. Thus, (x, x) ∈ R ∀ x ∈ Z. ∴R is a reflexive relation.
Symmetry: Let x and y be any two integers and (x, y) ∈ R. This shows that x ≡m y and hence y
≡m x. Thus, (y, x) ∈ R. ∴ R is a symmetric relation.

Transitivity: Let x, y and z be any three elements of Z such that (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ R. Thus, we
have x ≡m y and y ≡m z. It implies that (x–y) and (y–z) are divisible by m. Therefore, (x –
y) + (y – z) = (x – z) is also divisible by m i.e. x ≡m z.
∴ (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R. i.e. R is a transitive relation.

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

Q.75 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and, R = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
Use Warshall‟s algorithm to find the transitive closure of R. (6)
 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
Ans: The matrix for R is M =
R 0 0 1 0
0
0 0 1

Step 1: Call this matrix as initial Warshall matrix and denote it by W0.
Step 2: For K = 1 to 4, compute Wk –called Warshall‟s matrix at kth stage. To compute Wk from
Wk–1, we proceed as follows:
Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from Wk–1 to Wk,
Step 2.2: List the rows in column K of Wk–1 where, the entry in Wk–1 is 1. Say these rows p1, p2,
p3, …;
Similarly, list the columns in row K of Wk–1 where, the entry in Wk–1 is 1. Say these
columns q1, q2, q3, …;
Step 2.3: Place 1 at the locations (pi, qj) in Wk if 1 is not already there.
W1, W2, W3, and W4 are computed below.

For K = 1. We have to find W1.

Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W0 to W1. 1 0 0 1
Step 2.2: Here K = 1. Thus in W0, we have W = 1 1 0 1
„1‟ in column 1 at row = 1, 2; and „1‟ in row 1 0 0 1 0
1 at column =1, 4. Therefore, W1 will have 0 0 0 1
an additional „1‟at (2, 4). The Warshall „s
matrix W1 is given in the right side.

For K = 2. We have to find W2.

Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W1 to W2. 1 0 0 1
: Here K = 2. Thus in W1, we have „1‟ in column 2 at
1 1 0 1
row = 2; and „1‟ in row 2 at column =1, 2, 4. W =
Therefore, W2 will have no additional „1‟. The 2 0 0 1 0
Warshall „s matrix W2 is given in the right side. 0 0 0 1

For K = 3. We have to find W3.

Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W2 to W3. 1 0 0 1
:Here K = 3. Thus in W2, we have „1‟ in column 3 at
1 1 0 1
row = 3; and „1‟ in row 3 at column =3. Therefore, W 3 W =
3 0 0 1 0
will have no additional „1‟ The W3 is given in the right
side. 0 0 0 1
 For K = 4. We have to find W4.
Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W3 to W4. 1 0 0 1
Step 2.2: Here K = 4. Thus in W3, we have „1‟ in W 1 1 0 1
column 4 at row = 1, 2, 4; and „1‟ in row 4 at column = 4 0 0 1 0
4. Therefore, W4 will have no additional „1‟. The W4 is 0
shown in the right side matrix. 0 0 1

Therefore, W4 is the matrix for the transitive closure of the given relation R.
R = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2,1), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

Q.76 The graph Cn, n ≥ 3 consists of n vertices and n edges making a cycle. For what value of n
is Cn a bipartite graph? Draw the bipartite graph of Cn to justify your answer. (2)

Ans: For n = 2k, k = 2, 3, 4, …, Cn is a bipartite graph. C6 is drawn below which is bipartite

graph.

Q.77 Give an account of the two matrix representations for graphs. (4)

Ans: Two forms of representation used to represent a graph are: adjacency matrix and
incidence matrix. Let G = (V, E) be a graph, with no loops or multiple edges. Let |V| = m and
|E| = n. An incidence matrix for G is an m×n matrix MI = (aij), such that

aij 1 if v is an incident to e
i j
= 0 otherwise

Where v1, v2, v3, …, vm are m vertices and e1, e2, e3, …, en are n incidents (arcs) of G. An
incidence matrix is also called edge incidence matrix.
Similarly, an adjacency matrix, also called vertex adjacency matrix, for G is an m×m matrix
MA = (aij), such that
1
aij
0 if (v , v ) is an edge of G
i j
= otherwise
Q.78 Define a Hamilton path. Determine if the following graph has a Hamilton circuit. (4)

Ans: A path is called a Hamiltonian path if it contains every vertex of the graph exactly once.
If a Hamiltonian path is a circuit, it is called a Hamiltonian circuit.

Starting from node x1, we can go to x2 and then x3. Proceeding in that way we get a

Hamiltonian circuit, x1, x2, x3, x7, x6, x5, x8, x4, x1.

Q.79 Using generating function solve the recurrence relation

a k = 3 a k −1, k = 1, 2, 3......
and the initial condition a 0 = 2 (6)

Ans:
Let f(x) be the binomial generating function for the given recurrence

equation, ak = 3ak 1; a0 = 2 . Then we have f (x) ∞ ∞

−
∑k ak = a0 ∑3ak xk .
=
x + k=1
∞ k=0
or, f (x) = a0 + 3x ∑ ak = a0 + 3xf (x)
k
x
k=0
a0 2
or, (1 − 3x) f (x) = a0 or, f (x) =1 − = [Q a0 = 2]
1−
3x

The value of ak is given by the coefficient of x k in f(x). Therefore,

 1
Coeff of x k = x k in *2
o
(1 − 3x)
Coeff

1+ k− 1 k k k
= Ck 3 * 2= Ck 3 * 2
k
or, ak = 2 * 3

Q.80 Use Karnaugh map to simplify the following Boolean expression

wxyz+wxyz+ wxyz+wxyz+ wxyz+wxyz+ wxyz (6)

Ans: The K-map for the given Boolean expression is presented below.

y’ y

1 0 0 1
w’
1 0 0 0
x
1 00 00 00 x’
w
11 00 11 11

z
z’

The two duets and one quad are wx‟y, x‟yz‟ and y‟z‟ respectively. Thus the simplified
Boolean expression is
wx‟y + x‟yz‟ + y‟z‟

Q.81 Consider the poset ({1}, {2}, {4}, {1,2}, {1,4}, {2,4}, {3,4}, {1,3,4}, {2,3,4}, ≤) .
(i) Find the maximal elements.
(ii) Find the minimal elements.
(iii) Is there a least element.
(iv) Find the least upper bound of {{2}, {4} , if it exists. (8)
Ans:
(i) Maximal element in a poset is defined as element that is not succeeded by any other
element in the poset. The maximal elements are {1, 2}, {1, 3, 4} and {2, 3, 4}
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(ii) Maximal element in a poset is defined as element that is not preceded by any other element
in the poset. The minimal elements are {1}, {2} and {3}
(iii) There is no least element in the poset, as there exist no element x such that x precede every
element of the poset. For example neither {1} precede {2} nor {2} precede {1}.
(iv) The upper bound of {{2}, {4}} are {2, 4} and {2, 3, 4}. The least of the upper bounds is
{2, 4}.

Q.82 How many permutations of the letters A B C D E F G H contain string DEF? (3)

Ans: It is the problem of finding number of words that can be formed with the given 8 letters in
which DEF come together in that order. There will be six letters to be used to form words: A,
B, C, DEF, G, H. They can be permuted in 6! = 720 ways. Thus required number of words is
720.

Q.83 Determine if the relation represented by the following Boolean matrix is partially ordered.
(7)
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1

Ans: Let the given relation R is defined on set A = {x, y, z}. In order to test whether relation R
is partially ordered, we have to test whether R is reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive.

Reflexivity: Since all elements in the principal diagonal is „1‟, R is reflexive.

Anti Symmetry: In the given relation, we do not have any pairs (x, y) & (y, x) such that x ≠ y
i.e. for (x, y) & (y, x) in R, x = y. Thus R is anti symmetric.

Transitivity: The relation is not transitive because for (y, x) & (x, z) in R, (y, z) is not in R.
Therefore R is not partially ordered.

Q.84 Apply depth-first-search to find the spanning tree for the following graph with vertex d as the
starting vertex. (4)

42
 Ans: Let us start with node „d‟. Mark d as visited. Node „d‟ has two child „e‟ and „f‟. Visit node
„e‟ and mark it as visited. Select edge (d, e). and add it to spanning tree T. Thus, T = {(d, e)}
Now e has e has two children: c and f. Visit c, add (e, c) to T, and mark c as visited. Then visit
a and then b. Mark them visited and add arcs (c, a) and (c, b) to T. Up to here
T = {(d, e), (e, c), (c, a), (c, b)}

Here c has one more child e, which is already visited, so exit recursion and go up to e which
one more unvisited child f. Visit it, mark it as visited and we add (e, f) to T. f has three
children: d, g and h. d is visited so leave it. Visit g, and doing the basic work of marking as
visited and adding the arc used to visit the node in T, we finally get T as

T = {(d, e), (e, c), (c, a), (c, b), (e, f), (f, g), (g, h), (h, i), (h, k), (k, j)}

Q.85 A set contains (2n+1) elements. If the number of subsets of this set which contain at most n
elements is 8192. Find the value of n. (7)

Ans: The given set has (2n + 1) elements. The number of subsets of this set having at the most
n elements is given by formula
2n + 1 1 2n +1 2n
C0 + 2n + 1C1 + 2n + 1C2 + …..
2n + 1
Cn = 2 =2 .
2
2n 2n 13
This figure is given to be 8192, thus 2 = 8192 ⇔2 = 2 ⇔ 2n = 13 ⇔ n = 6.5
Therefore n = 6.5.

Q.86 Solve for a n , the recurrence relation

a n − 2a n−1 − 3a n−2 = 0, n ≥ 2, with a 0 = 3 and a1 = 1 . (7)

Ans: The given recurrence equation is homogeneous recurrence equation. The

The characteristic equation is given as

2
x − 2x − 3 = 0
or, (x + 1)(x − 3) = 0
or, x = −1, 3
The general solution is given by

n n
an = A(−1) + B3 _(2)
It is given that a0 = 3 and a1 = 1, so substituting n =0 and n = 1 in equation (2), we get

3 = A + B, and
1 = -A +3B
 Solving the simultaneous equation we have A = 2 and B = 1. Therefore the solution to
recurrence equation is
n n
an = 2(−1) + 3 _(3)

Q.87 Consider an 8 × 8 chess board. It contains sixty-four 1×1 squares and one 8 × 8 square.
What is the total number of all the n × n squares for1 ≤ n ≤ 8 , it contains? (6)
2 2
Ans: The number of 1x1 square is obviously 64 = 8 . Number of 8x8 square is 1 = 1 . If we
now take 2x2 square, then there are 7 squares in taking two rows of square. The 7 squares so
2
formed can be moved upward in 7 ways totaling the number of 2x2 square to 7 . Proceeding in
the same way, we can find that number of n x n squares (1 ≤ n ≤ 8) is
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8(8 + 1)(2 * 8 + 1) 8 * 9 *17
=1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 = 6 = 6
8 * 9 *17=
= 6 204

Q.88 Show that the following statements are equivalent:

P1 : n is even integer.
P2 : n − 1 is an odd integer.
P3 : n 2 is an even integer. (8)

Ans: In order to show the equivalence, we proceed to prove

(i) P1 ⇒ P2
(ii) P2 ⇒ P3

(iii)P3 ⇒ P1
(i) The statement P1 stand for “n is even integer” and P2 stands for “n – 1 is an odd
integer”. Now
P1 ⇒ n is an even integer
⇒ ∃ an integer m such that n = 2m
⇒ [(n – 1) = (2m – 1)] is an odd integer ⇒ P2

(ii) The statement P2 2

stand for “(n – 1) is an odd integer” and P3 stands for “n is an even
integer”. Now
P2 ⇒ (n – 1) is an odd integer
2
⇒ (n – 1) is an odd integer
2
⇒ (n –2n + 1) is an odd integer
2
⇒ n is an even integer because (2n – 1) is odd and once an odd is taken from odd, the
result is even.
⇒ P3
2
(iii) The statement P3 stands for “n is an even integer”. and Now
 2
P3⇒ n is an even integer
2
⇒ n – 1 is an odd integer
⇒ (n – 1)(n + 1) is an odd integer
⇒ (n – 1) and (n + 1) are odd integers
⇒ (n – 1) + 1 and (n + 1) – 1 are even integers
⇒ n is even integer ⇒ P1

Q.89 State DeMorgan‟s law. Prove it using the truth table. (4)

Ans: DeMorgan‟s law state

that (i) (x ∨ y)‟ = x‟ ∧ y‟

(ii) (x ∧ y)‟ = x‟ ∨ y‟

Let us draw truth table for the two statements

1 2 3 4 5 6
x y (x ∨ x‟ ∧ y‟ (x ∧ x‟ ∨ y‟
y)‟ y)‟
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0

It is obvious from the truth table that column (3) is equal to column (4). Similarly column(5)
is equal to column (6).

Q.90 Consider the function f : N → N , where N is the set of natural numbers, defined by
f ( n) = n + n + 1. Show that the function f is one-one but not onto.
2
(6)

Ans: In order to prove that f is one to one, it is required to prove that for any two integers n and
m, if f(n) = f(m) then n = m.
2 2
f(n) = f(m) ⇔ n + n + 1 = m + m + 1
⇔ n 2 + n = m2 + m
⇔ n(n + 1) = m(m + 1)
⇔ n = m. Because product of consecutive natural numbers starting from m and n are equal iff
m = n.

2
Next f is not onto because for any n (odd or even) n + n + 1 is odd. This implies that there are
even elements in N that are not image of any element in N.
Q.91 Let T be a binary tree with n vertices. Determine the number of leaf nodes in tree. (4)
r
Ans: Let the height of the tree be r. The number of leave nodes will maximum 2 . Total of
2 r–1 r
nodes are then given by [1+ 2 + 2 + … + 2 + 2 ]. And this is equal to n. i.e.
(2 r +1 −
r − i.e. n = 2r +1 − 1 ⇒ r = log 2 (n + 1) − 1
1) =2
+1
1; log (n + 1) − 1
2− 1 2
Therefore maximum number of leaf node is 2 .

Q.92
2},
{ }
Construct n thne ngrammar G that generates the language over an alphabet {0, 1,
L012 = 0 1 2 : n ≥ 1 and prove that L(G) = L012 . (10)

Ans: The production rule of the grammar for the language L012 is as below:
1. S → 0SA2
2. S → ε
3. 0A → 01
4. 1A → 11
5. 2A → A2

Now let us show that the grammar produces the language L012.
S → 0SA2 [Apply rule 1 once]
n n
→ 0 S (A2) [Apply rule 1 optionally n – 1 time]
n n
→ 0 (A2) [Apply rule 2 once]
n–1
→0 n – 1
(0A) 2 (A2) [rearrangement]
n–1 n–1
→0 (01) 2 (A2) [Apply rule 3 once]
n
→ 0 1 2 (A2) (A2) n – 2
[rearrangement]
n 2 n–2
→ 0 1A 2 (A2) [Apply rule 5 once]
n 2 2 n–2
→ 0 1 2 (A2) [Apply rule 4 once]
…
n n n
→0 1 2
Therefore, L(G) = L012.

Q.93 Let Q(x,y) denote x + y = 0. Determine the truth values of ∀x∃y Q(x, y) and ∃y∀x Q(x, y).
(4)
Ans: The statement ∀x ∃y Q(x, y) ⇒ For every x, there exists y such that x + y = 0. The
statement is true for the universe where 0 is identity element for the binary operation „+‟
and
inverse for every element exist in the universe for every element x. The universe is not
defined in the question, hence truth ness shall vary from universe to universe.

Next the statement ∃x ∀y Q(x, y) ⇒ there exists x such that for every x, x + y = 0. The
statement is cannot be true for the universe where 0 is identity element for the binary operation
 „+‟ and inverse for every element exist in the universe for every element x. Even if the universe
is not defined in the question, the statement is false.

Q.94 Let A ⊆ Z and f : A → N be a one-one function where Z is a set of integers and N is a set
of natural numbers. Let R be a relation on A defined as under:
(x, y)∈ R if and only if f (y) = k f (x) where k ∈ N
Prove that R is a partial order relation on A. (8)

Ans: R is defined on the subset A of all integers. In order to show that R is partial order
relation, it is to be shown that R is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive.
Reflexivity: Let x be any element of A then f(x) = 1.f(x) ⇒ (x, x) ∈ R. Thus R is reflexive.
Anti-symmetry: Let x, y ∈ A, such that (x, y) and (y, x) ∈ R.
Now (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ there exists a natural number k such that f(y) = kf(x)
Similarly, (y, x) ∈ R ⇒ there exists a natural number m such that f(x) = mf(y).

From the above two result, we can write f(x) = mk f(x). This implies that mk = 1, and product
of any two natural numbers is 1 iff both are 1. Thus m = k = 1. Hence f(x) = f(y). Since f is one
to one, we can conclude that x = y. Therefore, R is anti symmetric.
Transitivity: Let x, y, z ∈ A, such that (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ R.
Now (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ there exists a natural number k such that f(y) = kf(x)
Similarly, (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ there exists a natural number m such that f(z) = mf(y).
From the above two result, we can write f(z) = mk f(x). => (x, z) ∈ R. R is transitive.
Therefore R is a partial order relation.

Q.95 A speaks truth in 60% of the cases and B in 90% of the cases. Find the percentage of cases
when they are likely to contradict each other in stating the same fact. (6)

Ans:
Probability that A speaks Truth: P(A=T)= .6
Probability that A speaks False: P(A=F) = .4
Probability that B speaks Truth: P(B=T)= .9
Probability that A speaks False: P(B =f) = .1

Now probability that A and B likely to contradict is

P(A=T) x P(B =F) + P(B=T) x P(A =F)
= .6 x .1 + .9 x .4 = .06 + .36 = .42
Q.96 Give the regular expression of the set of all even strings over the alphabet {a, b} with at
least one of the two substrings aa or bb. Also construct the finite automata that can
accept the above language. (8)

Ans: Let us first draw the finite automata that accepts set of all even strings over alphabets

a
S0 S1
a
b b a b b

S2S3
a
{a, b}. The regular expression for class of strings accepted by the automata is
(aa + bb + abba + abab + baba + baab)*

Q.97 Compute A (2, 1) when

A : N × N → N , where N is the set of natural numbers, is defined
by
A(0, y) = y +1
A(x +1,0) = A(x,1)
A(x + 1, y + 1) = A(x + 1, y) (3)

Ans:
A(2, 1) = A(1+1, 0+1)
= A(1+1, 0)
= A(1, 1)
= A(1, 0)
= A(0, 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.

Q.98 Express the following statement as a disjunction (in DNF) also using quantifiers:
There does not exit a woman who has taken a flight on every airline in the world.
(3)

Ans: Let us define propositions.

Woman (x): “x is woman”
Flight (x, y): “x has taken flight on every airline y in world”.
Now the given statement can be written as
~[∃x Woman (x) ∧ ∀y Flight (x, y)]
= ~∀y ∃x [Woman (x) ∧ Flight (x, y)]
= ∃y ∀x [~Woman (x) ∨ ~Flight (x, y)]
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.99 Let L be a bounded distributive lattice. Show that if a complement exists it is unique.
(7)
Ans: Let I and 0 are the unit and zero elements of B respectively. Let b and c be two
complements of an element a ∈ B. Then from the definition, we have
a∧b=0=a∧c
and a ∨ b = I = a ∨
c
We can write b = b ∨ 0 = b ∨ (a ∧ c )
= (b ∨ a) ∧ (b ∨ c ) [since lattice is distributive ]
= I ∧ (b ∨ c )
= (b ∨ c )
Similarly, c = c ∨ 0 = c ∨ (a ∧ b )
= (c ∨ a) ∧ (c ∨ b) [since lattice is distributive]
= I ∧ (b ∨ c) [since ∨ is a commutative operation]
= (b ∨ c)
The above two results show that b = c.

Q.100 Find the least number of cables required to connect 100 computers to 20 printers
to guarantee that 20 computers can directly access 20 different printers. Justify your
answer.
(7)
Ans: The 100 computers and 20 printers can be connected using concept of a complete
bipartite graph K100, 20 to ensure that using minimum number of cable requirement. This
arrangement will require 2000 cables and will ensure that at any time 20 computers can directly
access the 20 computers.

Q.101 Prove that a simple graph is connected if and only if it has a spanning tree. (7)

Ans: First suppose that a simple graph G has a spanning tree T. T contains every node of G.
By the definition of a tree, there is a path between any two nodes of T. Since T is a subgraph of
G, there is a path between every pair of nodes in G. Therefore G is connected.

Now let G is connected. If G is a tree then nothing to prove. If G is not a tree, it must contain a
simple circuit. Let G has n nodes. We can select (n – 1) arcs from G in such a way that they not
form a circuit. It results into a subgraph having all nodes and only (n – 1) arcs. Thus by
definition this subgraph is a spanning tree.

49
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

0 0 0
1
Q.102 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and let R and S be the relations on A described by M R
0
0 0 0
= 0 1 0 0
0
1
0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
and M =
S
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
Use Warshall‟s algorithm to compute the transitive closure of R ∪ S . (7)

1 10
1
0
Ans: The matrix for R ∪ S is
M +M= 0 1 0 0
R S
1 1 0
1
01
1

Step 1: Call this matrix as initial Warshall matrix and denote it by W0.
11 0 1
01 0 0
W0 =
01 1 0
1
0 1 1

Step 2: For K = 1 to 4, compute Wk –called Warshall‟s matrix at kth stage. To compute Wk from
Wk–1, we proceed as follows:
Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from Wk–1 to Wk,
Step 2.2: List the rows in column K of Wk–1 where, the entry in Wk–1 is 1. Say these rows p1, p2,
p3, …;
Similarly, list the columns in row K of Wk–1 where, the entry in Wk–1 is 1. Say these
columns q1, q2, q3, …;
Step 2.3: Place 1 at the locations (pi, qj) in Wk if 1 is not already there.
W1, W2, W3, and W4 are computed below..
For K = 1. We have to find W1.
Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W0 to W1. 1 1 0 1
Step 2.2: Here K = 1. Thus in W0, we have „1‟ in 0 1 0 0
column 1 at row = 1; and „1‟ in row 1 at 1 W = 0
110
column =1, 2, 4. Therefore, W1 will have 0
111
no additional „1‟. The Warshall „s matrix
W1 is given in the right side.
50
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

For K = 2. We have to find W2.

Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W1 to W2.
Step 2.2: Here K = 2. Thus in W1, we have „1‟ in 1 1 0 1
column 2 at row = 1, 2, 3, 4; and „1‟ in 0 1 0 0
row 2 at column = 2. Therefore, W2 will W2 = 0 1 1 0
have no additional „1‟. The Warshall „s 0 111
matrix W2 is given in the right side.

For K = 3. We have to find W3.

Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W2 to W3. 11 0 1
Step 2.2: Here K = 3. Thus in W 2, we have „1‟ 0 1 0 0
in column 3 at row = 3, 4; and „1‟ in row 3 at W 0 1 1
column =2, 3. Therefore, W3 will have no = 0
3
011
additional „1‟ The W3 1
is given in the right
side.

For K = 4. We have to find

W4.
Step 2.1: Transfer all 1‟s from W3 to W4.
11 1
Step 2.2: Here K = 4. Thus in W3, we have „1‟ in
1
column 4 at row = 1, 4; and „1‟ in row 4 at 0 1 0 0
W = 0
column = 2, 3, 4. Therefore, W4 will have 4 1 1 0
0 1
additional „1‟ at (1, 3). The W4 is shown in 11
the right side matrix.

Therefore, W4 is the matrix for the transitive closure of the given relation.

Q.103 Express the negation of the statement ∀x∃y(xy = 1) so that no negation precedes a
quantifier. (3)

Ans: The negation of the given statement is written as ~[∀x ∃y (xy = 1)]. And

~[∀x ∃y (xy = 1)] = ∃x [~∃y (xy = 1)]

= ∃x ∀y [~(xy = 1)]
= ∃x ∀y (xy ≠ 1)
+
Q.104 Let P(n) be the statement n 2 + n is an odd number for n ∈ Z . Is P (n) true for all n?
Explain. (3)

Ans: Sum of two even positive integers is even. Sum of two odd positive integers is even.
Square of even is even and that of odd is odd. Thus for any positive integer n, n2 +n is always
an even positive integer. Therefore the statement P(n) is never true.
51
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.105 Draw the Hasse diagram for the poset (℘(A), ⊂) where A = {1, 2, 3, 4}and ℘(A)is the
power set of A. (8)

Ans: The Hasse diagram for the poset is as below.

Q.106 Show that a positive logic NAND gate is equivalent to negative logic NOR gate. (4)

Ans:

• Positive logic represents True or 1 with a high voltage and False or 0 with a low voltage.
• Negative logic represents True or 1 with a low voltage and False or 0 with a high voltage.

The problem is equivalent to proving the DeMorgan‟s rule of complementation

i.e. (x . y)‟ = x‟ + y‟

Let us find now truth table for positive NAND and negative NOR.
Negative NOR
x y x’ y’ (x’+y’)’ ((x’+y’)’)’
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0

52
 Positive NAND
x y (x . y)’
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Obviously, positive NAND gate is equivalent to negative NOR gate.

Q.107 Suppose P(n) = a 0 + a1n + a 2n + ....a m n . Pr ove that P(n) = O n

2 m
( m ). (5)

Ans: Let f and g are functions whose domains are subsets of Z+. We say f is O(g) if there exists
constants c and k such that |f(n)| ≤ c. |g(n)| ∀ n ≥ k. Now,

P(n) = a + a n + a n2 + … + a nm
0 m1 m2 m m m
≤ an +an +an +…+an ∀n≥1
0 1 2 m
= [a0 + a1+ a 2 + … + m] nm ∀ n ≥ 1
a
m
∴ P(n) = O(n )

Q.108 Show that among any n+1 positive integers whose value does not exceed 2n, there must be
an integer that divides one of the other integers. (5)
k
Ans: Every possible integer n can be written as n = 2 * m, where m is odd part and k ≥ 0. Here
m is called odd part of n. In any two numbers having same odd part, one is multiple of other
(and hence one divides other).

Mark 1, 3, 5, … 2n –1 (all (n – 1) odd numbers) as pigeonholes. Take a number and place it

according to its odd part. There are n + 1 numbers and n pigeonholes, so one of the
pigeonhole will have at least two numbers i.e. there is at least two integers having same odd
parts. Hence one will divide the other.

Q.109 If A and B are two subsets of a universal set then prove that A-B= A∩ B . (8)

Ans: In order to prove this let x be any element of (A – B) then

x ∈ A – B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∉ B
C
⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
C
⇔x∈A∩B
This implies that
 C
A – B ⊆ A ∩ B and
 C
A∩B ⊆A–B
C
Thus A – B = A ∩ B

Q.110 In a class of 60 boys, 45 boys play cards and 30 boys play carrom. How many boys play
both games? How many play cards only and how many play carrom only? (8)

Ans: Let A and B be the set of boys who play cards and carom respectively, then as per the
information available
|A| = 45, |B| = 30 and |A∪B| = 60. Now |A∩B| = |A| +|B| - |A∪B| = 45 + 30 – 60 = 15.
i.e. Number of boys who play both the games = 15.

Number of boys who plays cards only = |A| - |A∩B| = 45 – 15 = 30.

Number of boys who plays carrom only = |B| - |A∩B| = 30 – 15 = 15.

Q.111 How many words can be obtained by arranging the letters of the word „UNIVERSAL‟
in different way? In how many of them
(i) E,R,S occur together
(ii) No two of the letters E,R,S occur together. (10)

Ans: There are nine letters in the word „UNIVERSAL‟ and none is repeated. Thus they are
permuted in 9! ways.

(i) When E, R, S occur together, there will be 6 other letters and one (ERS). They are
permuted in 7! ways and so there will be 7! * 3! words having E,R,S together.
(ii) Any two letters of E, R, S can come together in 3P 2= 6 ways. When two letters (out of 9)
come together then 7 +1 = 8 letters can be arranged in 8! ways. Thus there will be 8!* 6
words in which any two of E, R, S come together.

∴Number of words in which no two of E,R,S come together = 9! - 8!*6

Q.112 Define symmetric, asymmetric and antisymmetric relations. (6)

Ans:
Symmetric Relation
A relation R defined on a set A is said to be a symmetric relation if for any x, y ∈ A, if
(x, y) ∈ R then (y, x) ∈ R An examples of a symmetric relation is:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} be a set and R be a relation on A defined as {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (1, 3)} then
R is a symmetric relation.
 Asymmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is called an asymmetric relation
if (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∉ R for x ≠ y
i.e. presence of pair (x, y) in R excludes the possibility of presence of (y, x) in R.

Anti-Symmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is called an anti-symmetric relation if for x, y∈A
(x, y) and (y, x) ∈ R ⇔ x = y
i.e. x ≠ y ⇒ either x ~R y or y ~R x or both.

Q.113 Prove by mathematical induction that if a set A has n elements, then P(A) has 2n elements.
(8)
n
Ans: We have to show that for a set A having n elements, its power set P(A) contains 2
elements.

For n = 1, the result is obvious as P(A) = {φ, A}

k
Suppose the result is true for n = k i.e. when |A| = k then |P(A)| = 2 . Include one more element
x to A. Now |A ∪{x}| = k +1. All the subsets of A are now subsets of |A ∪{x}|. In addition to
k
this there will be 2 subsets that will contain element x. i.e.
k k k+1
|P(A ∪{x})| = 2 + 2 = 2 .

This shows that result is true for n = k+1, whenever it is true for n = k.

Q.114 Let L be a lattice then for every a and b in L

a ∨ b = b if and only if a<=b (8)

Ans: Let a∨b = b. Since a∨b is an upper bound of a, a ≤ a∨b. This implies a≤b.
Next, let a ≤ b. Since ≤ is a partial order relation, b ≤ b. Thus, a≤b and b≤b together implies
that b is an upper bound of a and b. We know that a∨b is least upper bound of a and b, so a∨b
≤
b. Also b ≤ a∨b because a∨b is an upper bound of b. Therefore, a∨b ≤ b and b ≤ a∨b ⇔
a∨b = b by the anti-symmetry property of partial order relation ≤. Hence, it is proved that
a∨b = b if and only if a ≤ b.

Q.115 Using Boolean algebra show that

abc + abc + abc + abc = ab + ac + bc (8)
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans: Let us consider the LHS of the given expression.

abc + abc + abc + abc = abc + abc + abc + abc + abc + abc
= (abc + abc) + (abc + abc) + (abc + abc)
= ab(c + c) + a(b + b)c + (a + a)bc
= ab + ac + bc = RHS

Q.116 Explain extended pigeonhole principle and show that if 7 colors are used to paint 50
bicycles , at least 8 bicycles will be the same color. (4, 4)

Ans: The extended or generalized pigeonhole principle states that “If n objects (pigeons) are
placed in m places (pigeonholes) for m < n, then one of the places (pigeonholes) must
contains
n
at least 1
− + 1 objects (pigeons).
m
It can be proved in very simple way. Let us assume that none of the places (pigeonholes)
contains more than floor((n – 1)/m) objects (pigeons). Then there are at the most m ∗ floor((n
– 1)/m) ≤ m ∗ (n – 1)/m = n-1 objects. This is contrary to the given fact that there are n
objects. This contradiction is because of our assumption that “none of the places contains more
than floor((n – 1)/m) objects”. Thus our assumption is wrong. Therefore, one of the
n
pigeonholes must contain at least 1
− + 1 objects.
m

Let m = 7 colors are pigeonholes and n = 50 bicycles are pigeon, then one of the color
(pigeonhole) has at least n− 1 50 −
+ 1 objects . Thus at + 1 bicycles will have
1
same color. =
least 7
8
m

Q.117 If a graph G has more than two vertices of odd degree, then prove that there can be no Euler
path in G. (8)

Ans: If G is not connected then result is obvious. Let us suppose that G is a connected graph
and there are three vertices a, b and c of odd degrees. We know that if G has exactly two
vertices of odd degree then G has an Euler path in which one of the odd degree node is
starting node and other is end node. Let us assume that these two nodes are a and b. Let c has
degree 2n
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
+ 1. Then starting from a or b, c can be reached in along n arcs and reached out along another n
arcs. Next either the (2n + 1)th arc is left not travelled or in the process of travelling this arc,
path is trapped at c. In either case no Euler path is possible.
Q.118 Show that
( P ∧ Q) → P∨ P∨ Q)⇔ P ∨ Q) (8)

56
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans: Let us consider the LHS of the given equivalent expression

~ (P ∧ Q) → (~ P ∨ (~ P ∨ Q)) =~ (P ∧ Q) → (~ P ∨ [absorbtion law]
Q)
=~ (~ (P ∧ Q)) ∨ (~ P ∨
Q)
= (P ∧ Q) ∨ (~ P ∨ Q)
= (P ∨ (~ P ∨ Q)) ∧ (Q ∨ (~ P ∨ Q))
= ((P∨ ~ P) ∨ Q) ∧ (Q ∨ (~ P ∨ Q))
= (1 ∨ Q) ∧ (Q∨ ~ P)
= (Q∨ ~ P) = (~ P ∨ Q) = RHS
∴~ (P ∧ Q) → (~ P ∨ (~ P ∨ Q)) ⇔ (~ P ∨ Q)

Q.119 What is minimum spanning tree of a graph? Write down Prim‟s and Kruskal‟s algorithms
and execute them by taking a suitable example. (2,7,7)

Ans: Let G = (V, E) be a connected graph. Any connected spanning subgraph H = (V, E1) of G
is called spanning tree if H is a tree i.e. |E1| = |V| − 1. The concept of a spanning tree is used
basically in communication network design for remote switch installation” Where to place all
the required remote switches so that total cables requirement (cost) should be minimum”. This
requires finding of minimum spanning tree in a weighted graph. A spanning tree of a weighted
graph is called minimum spanning tree if the sum of edges in the spanning tree is minimum.

The stepwise Prim‟s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree in a weighted graph is given
below. Let G = (V, E) be graph and S = (VS, ES) be the spanning tree to be found from G.
Step 1: Select a vertex v1 of V and initialize
VS = {v1} and
ES = {}
Step 2: Select a nearest neighbor of vi from V that is adjacent to some v j∈VS and that edge (vi,
vj) does not form a cycle with members edge of ES. Set
VS = VS ∪{vi} and
ES = ES ∪{(vi, vj)}
Step 3: Repeat step2 until |ES| = |V| – 1.
Let us consider the following graph for example.
B D H
6 2
A 3
2
3 3 6
5 E 4
2 G
5 4
C
57
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
F

58
Let us begin with the node A of the graph. Initialize V S = {A} and ES = {}. There are eight
nodes so the spanning tree will have seven arcs. The iterations of algorithm applied on the
graph are given below. The number indicates iteration number.
1. Nodes B and C are neighbors of A. Since node C is nearest to the node A we select C.
Thus, we have VS = {A, C} and ES = {(A, C)}.
2. Now node B is neighbor of both A and C and C has nodes E and F as its neighbor. We have
AB = 3, CB = 3, CE = 5 and CF = 5. Thus, the nearest neighbor is B. We can select either
AB or CB. We select CB. Therefore, VS = {A, C, B} and ES = {(A, C), (C, B)}.
3. Now D, E, F are neighbor of nodes in VS. An arc AB is still to be considered. This arc
forms cycle with arcs AC and CB already in ES so it cannot be selected. Thus we have to
select from BD = 6, CE = 5, CF = 5. We may take either CE or CF. We select CF.
Therefore, VS = {A, C, B, F} and ES = {(A, C), (C, B), (C, F)}.
4. Now we have to select an arc from BD = 6, CE = 5, FE = 4, FG = 4. We select FE.
Therefore, VS = {A, C, B, F, E} and ES = {(A, C), (C, B), (C, F), (F, E)}.
5. The selection of arc CE is ruled out as it forms a cycle with the edges CF and FE. Thus, we
have to select an arc from BD = 6, ED = 2, FG = 4. We select ED. Therefore, V S = {A, C,
B, F, E, D} and ES = {(A, C), (C, B), (C, F), (F, E), (E, D)}.
6. Now BD is ruled out as it forms cycle with CB, CF, FE and ED. Thus we have to consider
DH = 2, EG = 3, FG = 4. We select DH. Therefore, VS = {A, C, B, F, E, D, H} and ES =
{(A, C), (C, B), (C, F), (F, E), (E, D), (D, H)}.
7. Now left over arcs are EG = 3, HG = 6, FG = 4. We select EG. Therefore, V S = {A, C, B, F,
E, D, H, G} and ES = {(A, C), (C, B), (C, F), (F, E), (E, D), (D, H), (E, G)}.
Since number of edges in ES is seven process terminates here. The spanning tree so obtained is
shown below.

C E

A BD G

H
Kruskal’s Algorithm
Let G = (V, E, γ) be graph and S = (VS, ES, γS) be the spanning tree to be found from G. Let |V|
= n and E = {e1, e2, e3, …, em}. The stepwise algorithm is given below.
Step 1: Select an edge e1 from E such that e1 has least weight. Replace
E = E − {e1} and
 ES = {e1}
Step 2: Select an edge ei from E such that ei has least weight and that it does not form a cycle
with members of ES. Set

E = E − {ei}
and ES = ES
∪{ei}
Step 3: Repeat step2 until |ES| = |V| – 1.

Let us consider the same graph to demonstrate the algorithm.

1. Since arcs AC, ED and DH have minimum weight 2. Since they do not form a cycle, we
select all of them and set ES = {(A, C), (E, D), (D, H)} and E = E − {(A, C), (E, D), (D,
H)}.
2. Next arcs with minimum weights 3 are AB, BC and EG. We can select only one of the AB
and BC. Also we can select EG. Therefore, E S = {(A, C), (E, D), (D, H), (B, C), (E, G)} and
E = E − {(B, C), (E, G)}.
3. Next arcs with minimum weights 4 are EF and FG. We can select only one of them.
Therefore, ES = {(A, C), (E, D), (D, H), (B, C), (E, G), (F, G)} and E = E − {(F, G)}.
4. Next arcs with minimum weights 5 are CE and CF. We can select only one of them.
Therefore, ES = {(A, C), (E, D), (D, H), (B, C), (E, G), (F, G),(C, E)} and E = E − {(C,
E)}.
Since number of edges in ES is seven process terminates here. The spanning tree so
obtained is as below.

E
C G D

A B F H

Q.120 Show that is R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on A, then R1 ∩ R2 is an equivalence

relation. (8)

Ans: It is given that R1 and R2 are equivalence relation on set A. In order to prove that R1∩R2
is an equivalence relation on A, it is required to prove that R 1∩R2 is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive on A.

Reflexivity: Let x∈A be any element, then pairs ∀x (x, x) are in R 1 and R2 and so all such pairs
are in R1∩R2 also. Hence R1∩R2 is reflexive.
 Symmetry: Let (x, y) be any pair in R1∩R2. Then (x, y) is in R1 and in R2. Since both the
relations are symmetric Pair (y, x) is in Both R 1and R2. This implies that (y, x) is R 1∩R2 and
therefore it is symmetric as well.

Transitivity: Let (x, y) and (y, z) be any two pairs in R 1∩R2. Therefore both these pairs are
also in R1 and R2. Since both are transitive relation so (x, z) is in both R 1 and R2. Hence
(x, z) is in R1∩R2 and it is transitive. This shows that R1∩R2 is an equivalence relation.

Q.121 Prove that the Digraph of a partial order has no cycle of length greater than 1. (8)

Ans: Suppose that there exists a cycle of length n ≥ 2 in the digraph of a partial order ≤ on a set
A. This implies that there are n distinct elements a1, a2, a3, …, an such that a1 ≤ a2, a2 ≤ a3, …,
an–1 ≤ an and an ≤ a1. Applying the transitivity n–1 times on a1 ≤ a2, a2 ≤ a3, …, an–1 ≤ an, we
get a1 ≤ an. Since relation ≤ is anti-symmetric a1 ≤ an and an ≤ a1 together implies that a1 = an.
This is contrary to the fact that all a 1, a2, a3, …, an are distinct. Thus, our assumption that there is
a cycle of length n ≥ 2 in the digraph of a partial order relation is wrong.

Q.122 How do you traverse a Binary Tree? Explain Preorder, Inorder and Postorder traversals
with example. (10)

Ans: Traversal of tree means tree searching for a purpose. The purpose may be for searching or
sorting of the items contained in a tree. A tree may contain an item at its node as a label.
Traversing a tree is a recursive procedure.

To implement this, a tree is considered to have three components: root, left subtree and right
subtree. These three components can be arranged in six different ways: (left, root, right), (root,
left, right), (left, right, root), (right, left, root), (right, root, left) and (root, right, left). The first
three are used whereas the last three combinations are of no use as it alters the positions of a
node in a positional tree.

−
*

+ − 5

3 4 5 2
 Inorder Traversal: In this form of traversal, a tree is traversed in the sequence: Left subtree,
Root, Right subtree.

In the above expression, begin at the root node marked, +. Since first we have to
traverse its left subtree, so move to the root of left subtree i.e. node marked, *. Again it has a
left subtree with root node marked +, visit it. This subtree has a node labeled 3, which has no
left subtree, so out put 3. Then root of this subtree i.e. „+‟ and then right subtree which is again
a node labeled with 4, so output it. Thus we have expression obtained till here is 3 + 4.
Proceeding this way we get (3+4)*(5–2)+(-5). Parentheses signify both precedence and portion
of the sub tree to which this sub-expression corresponds.
Preorder Traversal: In this form of traversal a tree is traversed in the sequence: Root, Left
subtree, Right subtree. Apply the algorithm recursively till all nodes have been visited, we get +
* + 3 4 – 5 2 –5.
Postorder Traversal: In this form of traversal a tree is traversed in the sequence: Left subtree,
Right subtree, Root. We get 3 4 + 5 2 – * 5 – +.

Q.123 Consider the finite state machine whose state transition table is :

a b

S0 S0 S1
S1 S1 S2
S2 S2 S3
S3 S3 S0

Draw the graph for it. (6)

Ans: The graph for the automata as per the transition table is drawn below. Since no start state
and no final state is specifies, using the convention, first state S 0 is shown as start state and last
state S3 is shown as final state.

a a a

S0 bS1 bS 2 b S3

b a
Q.124 Simplify the Boolean function:
F = ABC + BCD + ABCD + ABC (8)

Ans: The K-map for the given Boolean function: ABC + BCD + ABCD + ABC is as below.

C’ C

1 1 0 1
A’
0 0 0 1
B
0 00 00 00 B’
A
11 11 00 11

D
D’

The simplified expression is sum of expressions for to two quads and one duet i.e.
BC + BD + ACD

Q.125 Is the following argument valid? If valid, construct a formal proof, if not explain why.
“If wages increases, then there will be inflation. The cost of living will not increase if there
is no inflation. Wages will increase. Therefore, the cost of living will increase.
(Let p = wages increase, q = inflation, r = cost of living will increase) (8)

Ans: The given statement can be represented using propositions and connectives as

p → q, ¬q → ¬r and p.

Now, p → q
p

q
And, contra positive statement corresponding to ¬q → ¬r is r → q. Here r → q and q does
not imply truthness of r. „r‟ may be true or false for “r → q and q” to be true. Therefore it can
not be said that “the cost of living will increase”.

Q.126 A speaks truth in 80% of the cases and B speaks truth in 60% of the cases. Find the
probability of the cases of which they are likely to contradict each other in stating the same
fact. (8)
 Ans:
Probability that A speaks Truth: P(A=T)= .
8 Probability that A speaks False: P(A=F)
= .2 Probability that B speaks Truth:
P(B=T)= .6 Probability that A speaks False:
P(B =f) = .4

Now probability that A and B likely to contradict is

P(A=T) x P(B =F) + P(B=T) x P(A =F)
=.8 x .4 + .6 x .2 = 32 + .12 = .44

Q.127 Let A = {− 2,−1,0,1,2}, B = {0,1,4} and f : A → B is defined as f (x) = x 2 is a

function. If so find that whether it is one to one or bijection? (8)

Ans: For defined function f: A→B defined as f(x) = x2 elements -2 and 2 have same image 4
in B. Similarly elements -1 and 1 of A has same image 1 in B. Thus f is not one to one. Next
each element y of B is image of some element x of A hence f is onto function. Therefore f is
neither one-to-one nor bijection but it is a surjective.

Q.128 Prove by induction

1.1! + 2.2! + …….+n.n! = (n+1)! – 1 (8)

Ans: The result is obvious for n = 1. When n = 1, we have 1.1! = 2! -1

Next suppose that the given result is true for n = k. i.e.
1.1! + 2.2! + 3.3! +…..+ k.k! = (k+1)! – 1
Now when n = k + 1, we get
1.1! + 2.2! + 3.3! +…..+ k.k! + (k + 1).(k+1)! = (k+1)! – 1+(k + 1).(k+1)!
= (k+1)!{1 + k +1} – 1
= (k+2)! – 1
This shows that whenever result is true for n = k, it is true for n = k + 1 as well. Hence by
induction it true for all n.

Q.129 In the word „MANORAMA‟

(i) Find the number of permutations formed taking all letters.

(ii) Out of these the number of permutations with all A‟s together.
(iii) Find the number of permutations which start with A and end with M. (8)

Ans: In the word MANORAMA, M appears 2 times and A appears 3 times. All other character
appears only once.
8!
1. Number of permutations formed taking all letters = ∗3!
2!
= 3360 .
 2. When all A‟s are taken together, the three A‟s are counted as one. This results into total
number of 6 letters to be permuted. Number of permutations formed in this case =
6!
= 360 .
2!
3. When permutations start with A and end in M, the six left over places are to be filled
with 6 letters in which A has count 2. Number of permutations formed in this case =
6!
= 360 .
2!

Q.130 Prove that a graph G is a tree iff G has no cycles and E = V − 1 . (8)
Ans: Let G is tree then we have to prove that G has no cycle and it has |V| - 1 edge. Let |V| = n.
From the definition of a tree a root has indegree zero and all other nodes have indegree one.
There must be (n – 1) incoming arcs to the (n – 1) non-root nodes. If there is any other arc, this
arc must be terminating at any of the nodes. If the node is root, then its indegree will become
one and that is in contradiction with the fact that root always has indegree zero. If the end point
of this extra edge is any non-root node then its indegree will be two, which is again a
contradiction. Hence there cannot be more arcs. Therefore, a tree of n vertices will have exactly
(n – 1) edges and no cycle.
Next suppose that G has no cycle and it has n – 1 edge. Then we have to show that G is a tree.
A connected graph in n nodes having (n-1) edge is a tree.We prove that G is connected, then
work is done.We prove it by induction.
For n=2 & |E| =1, the graph is connected if it is acyclic.
Let Gk be an acyclic graph with n=k & |E| = k-1 and it is connected. We add one node and arc e
to Gk. If e is added between any two nodes of G k, then it introduces a cycle in Gk. Thus to
preserve the cyclic property of Gk & Gk+1 e is added between any node of Gk to the new node.
The modified graph Gk+1 has k+1 nodes & k arcs.Thus Gn having n nodes & n-1 arcs is
connected if it is acyclic.

Q.131 If A and B are two subsets of a universal set then prove that
A – B = A ∩ BC
Ans: In order to prove this let x be any element of (A – B) then
x ∈ A – B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∉ B
C
⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
⇔x∈ A∩
C
B This implies that
A – B ⊆ A ∩ BC and
C
A∩B ⊆A–B
C
Thus A – B = A ∩ B

Q.132 A man has four friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more friends to tea party?
(8)
 Ans: A friend may be called or may not be called. There are two possibilities for each friend.
Since one or more friends are to be invited, so total possible number of ways in which they can
be invited = 24 – 1 = 15. 1 is subtracted from the possible way to remove the possibilities when
none is invited.

( a,b )
Q.133 If R is a relation N × N defined by R ( c,d ) iff a + d = b + c, show that R is an
equivalence relation. (8)

Ans: A relation is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

In order to prove that R is an equivalence relation, it needs to be proved that R is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.
Reflexivity: Let (a, b) be any pair in N x N, then obviously a + b = b + a. This implies that

R(a, b) ∀(a, b) ∈ N x N. R is reflexive.

(a, b)

Symmetry: For any pair (a, b) and (c, d) in N x N, (a, b)

if R(c, d) then
a + d = b + c ⇔ c + b = d + a ⇔ (c, .
d) (a, b)
R R is symmetric as well.
(a, b)
Transitivity:For any three pairs (a, b), (c, d) and (e, f) in N x N, if R (c,d)
(c, d) and R(e,f) then
a + d = b + c, and

c+f=d+e⇔ d+e=c+f
Subtracting second from first, we get,
a – e = b – f ⇔ a + f = b + e ⇔ (a, (e, f) .

b)R

R is transitive also. Hence R is an equivalence relation.

Q.134 Minimize the Boolean expression (by algebraic method)

F = AC + AB + ABC + BC and then draw the circuit diagram using only NAND gate.
(8)
Ans: The given expression can be minimized by algebraic method as follows:
AC + AB + ABC + BC = AC + AB + ABC + ABC + ABC
= AC + AB + AC(B + B) + ABC [Distributive law]
= AC + AB + AC + ABC [B + B = 1, 1.A = A]
= ( A + A)C + ABC + AB [Distributive law]

= C + ABC + A B
 = C + AB [ A + A = 1.C = C]
1, [C + ABC =
C]
=~ (~ C• ~ ( AB)) [Complement of complement]
Now the circuit diagram using the NAND gate only is as below:
 A
1 A
~ ( AB)
B ~ (~ ( AB). ~ C)

C
1 ~C

Q.135 Design an automaton which accepts only even numbers of 0s and even number of 1‟s.
(8)
Ans: The required automata that accepts even number of 0‟s and even number of 1‟s is given
below.
0

S0 S1
0
1 1
1 1
0
S2 S3
0

Q.136 Consider the context free

grammar S → SS + SS*a
(i) Show how the string aa + a* can be generated by this grammar.
(ii) Construct a parse tree for this string.
(iii) What language is generated by this grammar. (8)

Ans: The production rule of the grammar can be numbered as

1. S → SS+ 2. S → SS* 3. S→a

(i) S → SS* [Apply rule 2]

→ Sa* [Apply rule 3]
→ SS + a* [Apply rule 1]
→ Sa + a* [Apply rule 3]
→ aa + a* [Apply rule 3]

(ii) The parse tree for the above expression is drawn below.
 S

S S *

S S + a

a a

(iii) Language generated by the grammar is L = {w | w = an(+ ∨ a ∨ *)n (+ ∨ *)}

Q.137 For any relation R in a set A, we can define the inverse relation −1 a −1 a
R by Rb iff Rb .
Prove that
−1
(i) As a subset of A x A, R = {(b, a ) (a, b ) ∈
R}.
−1
(ii) R is symmetric iff R = R . (8)

–1
Ans: As per the definition of the inverse of the relation (b, a) ∈R iff (a, b) ∈ R. Let (b, a)
be any element of R–1 then (a, b) ∈ R. This implies that a, b ∈ A ⇒ (b, a) ∈ A x A and hence
–1 –1 –1
R is subset of A x A i.e. R ⊆ A x A and R = {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ R}
–1
(ii) Let R is symmetric. For any pair (a, b) ∈ R (b, a) ∈ R. since R is symmetric, (b, a) ∈ R
,
–1
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. Thus, R ⊆ R. Conversely let (a, b) be any element in R, then by symmetry (b,
–1 –1 –1
a) ∈ R and this ⇒–1(a, b) ∈ R . i.e. (a, b) ∈ R⇒ (a, b) ∈ R . Thus, R⊆ R . Taken together it
implies that R = R .
–1
Next let R = R . By definition of inverse of relation then, for any pair (a, b) ∈ R, we have (b,
a) ∈ R. Thus R is symmetric.

Q.138 Write Prim‟s Algorithm. (6)

Ans: Prim’s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree from a weighted graph in stepwise
form is given below.

Let G = (V, E) be graph and S = (VS, ES) be the spanning tree to be found from G.
Step 1: Select a vertex v1 of V and initialize
VS = {v1} and
ES = {}
 Step 2: Select a nearest neighbor of vi from V that is adjacent to some vj∈VS and that edge (vi,
vj) does not form a cycle with members edge of ES. Set
VS = VS ∪{vi} and
ES = ES ∪{(vi, vj)}

Step 3: Repeat step2 until |ES| = |V| – 1.

Q.139 Prove that A tree with n vertices has (n – 1) edges. (6)

Ans: From the definition of a tree a root has indegree zero and all other nodes have indegree
one. There must be (n – 1) incoming arcs to the (n – 1) non-root nodes. If there is any other arc,
this arc must be terminating at any of the nodes. If the node is root, then its indegree will
become one and that is in contradiction with the fact that root always has indegree zero. If the
end point of this extra edge is any non-root node then its indegree will be two, which is again a
contradiction. Hence there cannot be more arcs. Therefore, a tree of n vertices will have exactly
(n – 1) edges.

Q.140 Prove the De Morgan‟s Law by algebraic

method For every pair of elements x and y in
A
(i) (x + y) = x ⋅ y
(ii) (x ⋅ y) = x + y (10)

Ans:
(i) For any two variables a and b, whenever a .b‟ = 0 and a + b‟ = 1, we say that a and b are
equal. Substituting b with (x + y)‟ and a with x‟.y‟ in the LHS of the equation a .b‟ = 0, we
get,
(x‟.y‟). ((x + y)‟)‟
=(x‟.y‟).(x + y) [Double Negation]
=((x‟.y‟).x) + ((x‟.y‟).y) [Distribution law]
=(x‟.x.y‟) + (x‟.y‟.y) [Associative and commutative law]
=(0.y‟)+(x‟.0) [Complementation]
=0 + 0 = 0

Similarly, substituting b with (x + y)‟ and a with x‟.y‟ in the LHS of the equation a + b‟ = 1,
we get
(x‟.y‟) + ((x + y)‟)‟
=(x‟.y‟) + (x + y) [Double Negation]
 =((x‟.y‟) + x) + ((x‟.y‟) + y) [Distribution law]
=((x‟+x).(y‟+ x)) + ((x‟+y).(y‟+ y)) [Distribution law]
=(1.(y‟+ x)) + ((x‟+y).1)) [Complementation]
=(y‟ + y) +(x‟ + x) [Associative and commutative law]
=1 + 1 [Complementation]
=1
Therefore (x +y)‟ = x‟.y‟

(ii) This can also be proved by substituting b with (x.y)‟ and a with x‟ + y‟ in the LHS of the
equation a .b‟ = 0 and a + b‟ = 1.

Q.141 Find the equivalent formula for (P → Q) ∨ R that contains ↑ only. (6)
Ans: The binary connective corresponding to NAND is called the Sheffer stroke, and written
with a vertical bar | or vertical arrow ↑. Since it is complete on its own, all other connectives
can be expressed using only the stroke. For example,:
P → Q ≡ P↑~Q
P V Q ≡ ~P↑~Q
P & Q ≡ ~(P↑Q)
Using the concept, the given formula: (P → Q) ∨ R, can be written using Sheffer stroke ↑, as
(P → Q) ∨ R = (P↑~Q) ∨ R
= ~ (P↑~Q) ↑~ R

Q.142 Find the number of ways in which 5 prizes can be distributed among 5 students such that
(i) Each student may get a prize.
(ii) There is no restriction to the number of prizes a student gets. (8)

Ans :
(i) Number of ways in which 5 prizes can be distributed among 5 students in such a way that
each one may get a prize is 5*4*3*2*1 = 5! ways.
(ii) When no restriction on the number of prizes a student may get, then a student may get
either 0 or 1 or 2 or…upto 5 prizes. It shows that a student have six possible ways in which
5
it may get a prize. Therefore the number of ways in which prizes can be distributed is 6 .

Q.143 What is equivalence relation? Prove that relation „congruence modulo‟ ( ≡ mod m) is an
equivalence relation. (8)

Ans: A relation R defined on a nonempty set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is

Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive on A.
Any integer x is said to „congruence modulo m‟ another integer y, if both x and y yield the
same remainder when divided by m. Let R be the relation „congruence modulo m‟ over set of
integers Z.
 Reflexivity: Let x ∈ Z be any integer, then x ≡m x since both yield the same remainder when
divided by m. Thus, (x, x) ∈ R ∀ x ∈ Z. This proves that R is a reflexive relation.
Symmetry: Let x and y be any two integers and (x, y) ∈ R. This shows that x ≡m y and hence
y ≡m x. Thus, (y, x) ∈ R. Hence R is a symmetric relation also.

Transitivity: Let x, y and z be any three elements of Z such that (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ R. Thus, we
have x ≡3y and y ≡m z. It implies that (x–y) and (y–z) are divisible by m. Therefore, (x – y) +
(y
– z) = (x – z) is also divisible by m i.e. x ≡m z. Hence, (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ R ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R. So R
is a transitive relation.

Therefore, R is an equivalence relation.

Q.144 Show that x n − yn is divisible by (x - y) for all positive integral values of n. (8)
k
k
Ans: For n = 1, the result is obvious. Let it is true for n = k i.e. (x – y ) is divisible by (x – y).
Now for n = k + 1, we have
k+1 k+1 k k-1 k-2 2 k
(x – y ) = (x – y)( (x + x y + y +…+y)
x
k+1 k+1
Since (x – y) is a factor in (x –y ), it is divisible by (x – y).

Q.145 Specify the transition function of the DFA shown below and describe the language.
(8)

Ans: The transition state table for the given DFA is:

State 0 1
S0 S1 S1
S1 S1 S0

The language accepted by this DFA is all strings w in (0, 1)* of the form
* * *
[(0∨1)0 1] (0∨1) 0
Q.146 Simplify the given expression
′
AB + (AC) + AB′C(AB + C) (8)

Ans: The given Boolean expression is AB + (AC)‟ + AB‟C(AB + C). Let us use the algebraic
method to simplify it.
AB + (AC)‟ + AB‟C(AB + C)
= AB + (AC)‟ + AB‟CAB +AB‟C C [Distributive law]
= AB + (AC)‟ + AB‟BC +AB‟C [Associative &Absorption law]
= AB + (AC)‟ + AB‟C [AB‟BC = 0]
= ABC‟ + ABC + (AC)‟ + AB‟C [AB = AB(C‟ + C)]
= ABC‟ + (AC)‟ + AC (B‟ + B) [Distributive law]
= ABC‟ + (AC)‟ + AC
= ABC‟ + 1
=1

Q.147 A fair six sided die is tossed three times and the resulting sequence of numbers is recorded.
What is the probability of the event E that either all three numbers are equal or none of
them is a 4? (8)

Ans: Let us first count the possible number of ways of getting all three number equal or none
of them is four. The ways in which we can get all three numbers equal is
6x1x1 = 6
And the number of ways in which we can get numbers such that none of them is four is
5x5x5 = 125
6 + 125 131
Thus the required probability is = =
3 216
6

Q.148 Define Euler Circuit and Euler Path. Which of the following graphs have an Euler circuit
and Euler path. (8)
 Ans: In a graph G, a path is called an Euler path if it contains every edge of the graph exactly
once. An Euler path that is circuit is called an Euler circuit. In the following, for example, (a)
has an Euler path but no Euler circuit, (b) has both Euler circuit and Euler path whereas (c) has
none.

AB
B D B E
A C E A F H
C F C

D E (a) G F (b) D (c) G

A graph G, having more than two vertices of odd degrees, does not possess an Euler path. Since
the given graph (i) and (ii) both contains more than two nodes of odd degree, neither (i) nor (ii)
has any Euler path or Euler circuit.

n
Q.149 Prove that if a set A contains n elements, then P(A) contains 2 elements. Also find the
number of proper subsets of the set of letters UTTAR PRADESH. (6+2=8)

Ans: Let |A| =n. In an subset of the set A, either an element x is present or absent. Then in any
subset an element can be selected in 2 ways and therefore there can be total of 2 n possible ways
of selecting n element from the set A. Each such selection forms a subset of A. Therefore there
n n
can be 2 possible subsets of A i.e. P(A) has 2 elements.
The set containing letters from UTTARPRADESH is {U, T, A, R, P, D, E, S, H} and it has 9
elements. The number of proper subsets is equal to total number of subsets except the set itself
and NULL set. Thus required number is = 29 – 2 = 510.

Q.150 Prove that Prim‟s algorithm produces a minimum spanning tree of a connected weighted
graph. (8)

Ans:
Let G be a connected, weighted graph. At every iteration of Prim's algorithm, an edge must be
found that connects a vertex in a subgraph to a vertex outside the subgraph. Since G is
connected, there will always be a path to every vertex. The output T of Prim's algorithm is a
tree, because the edge and vertex added to T are connected. Let T1 be a minimum spanning tree
of G.
If T1=T then T is a minimum spanning tree. Otherwise, let e be the first edge added during the
construction of T that is not in T1, and V be the set of vertices connected by the edges added
before e. Then one endpoint of e is in V and the other is not. Since T1 is a spanning tree of G,
there is a path in T1 joining the two endpoints. As one travels along the path, one must
encounter an edge f joining a vertex in V to one that is not in V. Now, at the iteration when e
was added to T, f could also have been added and it would be added instead of e if its weight
was less than e. Since f was not added, we conclude that
w(f) ≥ w(e).
 Let T2 be the graph obtained by removing f and adding e from T1. It is easy to show that T2 is
connected, has the same number of edges as T1, and the total weights of its edges is not larger
than that of T1, therefore it is also a minimum spanning tree of G and it contains e and all the
edges added before it during the construction of V. Repeat the steps above and we will
eventually obtain a minimum spanning tree of G that is identical to T. This shows T is a
minimum spanning tree.

Q.151 Prove that, the complement of every element in a Boolean algebra B is unique. (8)

Ans: Proof: Let I and 0 are the unit and zero elements of B respectively. Let b and c be two
complements of an element a ∈ B. Then from the definition, we have
a∧b=0=a∧c
and a ∨ b = I = a ∨
c
We can write b = b ∨ 0 = b ∨ (a ∧ c )
= (b ∨ a) ∧ (b ∨ c ) [since lattice is distributive ]
= I ∧ (b ∨ c )
= (b ∨ c )
Similarly, c = c ∨ 0 = c ∨ (a ∧ b )
= (c ∨ a) ∧ (c ∨ b) [since lattice is distributive]
= I ∧ (b ∨ c) [since ∨ is a commutative operation]
= (b ∨ c)
The above two results show that b = c.

Q.152 Prove that A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C ) . (8)

Ans: In order to prove this let x be any element of A – (B∩C), then

x ∈ A – (B∩C) ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∉ (B∩C)
⇔ x ∈ A and [x ∉ B or x ∉ C]
⇔ (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∉ C)
⇔ (x ∈ A – B) or (x ∈ A – C)
⇔ x ∈ (A – B) ∪ (A – C)
This implies that
A – (B∩C) ⊆ (A – B) ∪ (A – C) and
(A – B) ∪ (A – C) ⊆ A – (B∩C)

Thus A – (B∩C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)

Q.153 Test the validity of argument:

“If it rains tomorrow, I will carry my umbrella, if its cloth is mended. It will rain
tomorrow and the cloth will not be mended. Therefore I will not carry my umbrella”
(8)
 Ans: Let p : „It will rain tomorrow‟ ; q : „I will carry my umbrella‟; r : „Cloth of umbrella is
mended‟ Now the given statement “If it rain tomorrow, I will carry my umbrella, if its cloth is
mended” can be written as (p ∧ r)→ q. “It will rain tomorrow” is written as p and “ cloth will
not be mended” is written ¬r. Thus, we have

(p ∧ r)→ q
p and
¬r together ⇒ (p ∧ r)→ q , p , ¬r
⇒ [¬(p ∧ r)∨ q ], p , ¬r [(¬p ∨ ¬r) ∨ q), p ⇒ (r → q)]
⇒ (r → q) , ¬r [(r → q), ¬r ⇒ ¬q→¬r, ¬r ⇒ ¬q]
⇒ ¬q
That is “I will not carry my umbrella” is valid.

Q.154 A valid identifier in the programming language FORTAN consists of a string of one to six
alphanumeric characters (the 36 characters A,B,….,Z,0,1,…9) beginning with a letter. How
many valid FORTRAN identifiers are there? (8)

Ans: There are 26 letters and 10 digits a total of 36 characters. It is restricted that an identifier
can be of 1 to 6 character long only, and first character must be a letter. Thus, Total number of
identifiers of length 1 = 26
Total number of identifier of length 2 = 26*36
Total number of identifier of length 3 =
2
26*36 Total number of identifier of length 4 =
3
26*36 Total number of identifier of length 5 =
4
26*36 Total number of identifier of length 6 =
5
26*36 3 4 5
Thus number of valid identifiers = 26*[1 + 36 + 362 + 36 + 36 + 36 ] = 1617038306.

∞
Q.155 Let R be a relation on a set A. Then prove that R is the transitive closure of R. (8)

Ans: Transitive closure of a relation R is the smallest transitive relation S that contains R.
Transitive closure of R is denoted by R ∞. R ∞ is defined as the union of different powers of R
∞
i.e. R = U R i , where are distinct powers of R such that none of them are repeated and W =
{x :
i∈w ∞
x
R is distinct power of R}. It is to prove that the relation R is transitive and contains R.
∞
Furthermore, any transitive relation containing R must also contain R .
∞
Let A be any set of elements. Suppose ∃ S transitive relations such that R ⊆ S and R ⊄ S. So, ∃
∞
(a, b)∉ S and (a, b) ∈ R . It means that particular (a, b) ∉R.
 ∞
Now, by definition of R , we know that ∃ n∈W such that (a, b)∈ Rn.
Then,∀i, i < n ⇒ ei ∈A and, there is a path from a to b like this: aRe1 R...Re(n-1) Rb.
 But, by transitivity of S on R, ∀i∈ W, i < n ⇒ (a, ei) ∈ S, …. (a, e(n-1)) ∈ S and (e(n-1),b) ∈S.
By transitivity of S, we get (a, b) ∈ S. A Contradiction of (a, b) ∉ S.
∞
Therefore,∀(a, b) ∈∞ AxA, (a, b)∈ R ⇒ (a, b) ∈ S. This means that R ∞ ⊆ S, for any transitive S
containing R. So, R is the smallest transitive relation containing R.

n n
Q.156 Show that x − y is divisible by (x - y) for all positive integral values of n.
k k
(8)
Ans: For n = 1, the result is obvious. Let it is true for n = k i.e. (x – y ) is divisible by (x – y).
Now for n = k + 1, we have
k+1 k+1 k k-1 k-2 2 k
(x – y ) = (x – y)( (x + x y + y +…+y)
x
k+1 k+1
Since (x – y) is a factor in (x – y ), it is divisible by (x – y).

Q.157 Build a Fine Automaton that accept all words that have different first and last letters (i.e. if
the word begins with an “a” to be accepted it must end with “b” and vice versa.) (8)

Ans: The Finite state automata for the specified string is as below.
a b

S0 a S1 b S2
a
b
b
S3 a S4

b a
Q.158 How many relations are possible from a set A of „m‟ elements to another set B of „n‟
elements? (8)

Ans: A relation R from a set A to another set B is defined as any subset of A x B. If |A| = m
mn
and |B| = n, then |A x B| =mn and so number of possible subsets of A x B = 2 . Each subset is
mn
a relation from A to B. Thus there are 2 different types of relations from A to B.

Q.159 What is Partially Ordered Set? Let S = {a, b, c} and A = P(S). Draw the Hasse diagram of
the poset A with the partial order ⊆ (set inclusion). (8)
Ans:Let R be a relation defined on a non-empty set A. The mathematical structure (A, R) is set
to be a Partial order set or poset if the relation R is a partial order relation on A.
Any relation R defined on a non-empty set A is said to be a Partial Order Relation, if R is
• Reflexive on A i.e., xRx ∀ x∈ A
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

• Anti-symmetric on A i.e., xRy and yRx ⇒ x = y and

• Transitive on A i.e., xRy and yRz ⇒ xRz for x, y, z ∈ A.
A partial order relation is denoted by the symbol „≤‟. A general notation for a poset is (A, ≤),
where A is any non-empty set and „≤‟ is any partial order relation defined on the set A. The
Hasse diagram for the poset (P(S), ⊆) is as below. The poset has 8 elements – 8 possible
subsets of S. Null set is the minimum element and S itself is the maximal element..

{a,b,c}

{a,b} {b,c}
{a,c
}

{a} {b} {c}

Q.160 Write short note on:

φ

(i) Pigeonhole Principle

(ii) Graph Isomorphism
(iii) Tree Traversal
(iv) Types of Grammar (4 × 4 = 16)
Ans:
(i) “If five men (pigeonholes) are married to six women (pigeons) then at least one men has
more than one wife.”
Or
“If five men (pigeons) are married to four women (pigeonholes) then at least one woman has
more than one husband”
Or
“If we have six pigeons in five pigeonholes then at least one pigeonhole would have more than
one pigeons”
Arguments of this kind are used in solution to many mathematical problems and quite a few
beautiful theorems have been proven with their help. All these arguments share the name
“Pigeonhole Principle”. In general

If n objects (pigeons) are placed in m places (pigeonholes) for m < n, then one of the places
(pigeonholes) must contains at least
n− 1
+1
m

objects (pigeons).This so called „pigeonhole principle’ is very simple. Its application, however,
is very intelligence intensive. It needs skill, to identify the pigeons, pigeonholes and their

76
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
respective numbers. Once you have these figures, you have almost found the solution to the
problem.

77
 (ii) Two graphs G1= (V1, E1) and G2= (V2, E2) are said to be isomorphic graphs iff ∃ functions
f: V1→ V2 and g: E1→ E2 such that both f and g are bijection and the incidences are preserved
i.e. if there is an edge e between nodes u and v of V1 then g(e) should be an edge between f(u)
and f(v) of V2. The following two graphs are isomorphic graphs.
u
a b

v w
d c

Testing of graph isomorphism, in most of the time, is quite simple contrary to the theoretical
difficulties involved. It is practically not possible to check for all possible functions f: V1→ V2.
For example, if there are 20 vertices in a graph then there are 20! such functions. The easiest
way is to look for the fixed parameters like number of nodes, number of edges and degree
spectrum of graphs. A degree spectrum is defined as the list of degrees of all nodes in a graph.
Two graphs cannot be isomorphic if any of these parameters are not matching. However, it
cannot be said that two graphs will always be isomorphic if these parameters are matching.

(iii) Traversal of tree means tree searching for a purpose. The purpose may be for searching or
sorting of the items contained in a tree. A tree may contain an item at its node as a label.
Traversing a tree is a recursive procedure. To implement this, a tree is considered to have
three components: root, left subtree and right subtree. These three components can be arranged
in six different ways: (left, root, right), (root, left, right), (left, right, root), (right, left, root),
(right, root, left) and (root, right, left). The first three are used whereas the last three
combinations are of no use as it alters the positions of a node in a positional tree.
There are other two important types of tree traversal: Breadth First Search (BFS) and Depth
First Search (DFS). These traversal methods we can use for both tree and graph. Consider
the following labeled tree.
A

B C

D EFG H

I J
K L
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

In the BFS traversal a tree is traversed in the order of level of nodes. At a particular level,
nodes are traversed from left to right. First visit the root node. Then go to the first level nodes
and visit all nodes from left to right. Then go to the second level and visit all nodes from left to
right and so on until all nodes have been visited. The algorithm is stated as “visit all successors
of a visited node before visiting any successors of any of those successors. The sequence of
node is A B C D E F G H I J K L. A DFS traversal of a tree is similar to the preorder traversal
of a tree.

(iv) Any language is suitable for communication provided the syntax and semantic of the
language is known to the participating sides. It is made possible by forcing a standard on the
way to make sentences from words of that language. This standard is forced through a set of
rules. This set of rules is called grammar of the language. A grammar G = (N, ∑, P, S) is said
to be of

Type 0: if there is no restriction on the production rules i.e., in α→β, where α, β∈ (N ∪ ∑)*.
This type of grammar is also called an unrestricted grammar.

Type 1: if in every production α→β of P, α, β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)* and |α| ≤ |β|. Here |α| and |β|
represent number of symbols in string α and β respectively. This type of grammar is also called
a context sensitive grammar (or CSG).

Type 2: if in every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-

terminal symbol. This type of grammar is also called a context free grammar (or CFG).

Type 3: if in every production α→β of P, α ∈ N and β ∈ (N ∪ ∑)*. Here α is a single non-

terminal symbol and β may consist of at the most one non-terminal symbol and one or more
terminal symbols. The non-terminal symbol appearing in β must be the extreme right symbol.
This type of grammar is also called a right linear grammar or regular grammar (or RG).

Q.161 Shirts numbered consecutively from 1 to 20 are worn by 20 members of a bowling league.
When any three of these members are chosen to be a team, the league proposes to use the
sum of their shirt numbers as the code number for the team. Show that if any eight of the 20
are selected, then from these eight one may form at least two different teams having the
same code number. (8)

Ans: When a team consisting of three persons is selected and number inscribed on the shirt is
added, the possible minimum number is (1+ 2 + 3 =) 6 and the maximum number is (18 + 19 +
20 =) 57. Thus a team of three can have a code number from the possible range of 52 codes
from 6 to 57 both inclusive. Now after selecting 8 from 20 members, any three out of 8 can be
selected in 8C 3= 56.
Now using the Pigeon Hole principle, let 56 pigeons are placed into 52 holes marked with
codes between 6 and 57, then there are at least two teams will be in the same hole, implying
that these two teams will have the same code number.

78
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Q.162 In a group of athletic teams in a certain institute, 21 are in the basket ball team, 26 in the
hockey team, 29 in the foot ball team. If 14 play hockey and basketball, 12 play foot ball
and basket ball, 15 play hockey and foot ball, 8 play all the three games.
(i) How many players are there in all?
(ii) How many play only foot ball? (4+4)

Ans: Let A, B and C is set of players who play Basket ball, Hockey and Foot ball respectively.
Thus
|A| = 21, |B| =26, |C| = 29,
|A∩B| = 14, |A∩C| = 12, |B∩C| = 15, and
|A∩B∩C| = 8.

Now for part (i), we have to find |A∪B∪C|. This can be computed using the formula

|A∪B∪C| = |A| + |B| + |C| - | A∩B| - |A∩C| - |B∩C| + |A∩B∩C|

= 21 + 26 + 29 – 14 – 12 – 15 + 8 = 84 – 41 = 43.

For part (ii) we have to find number of players playing only football. This is

= |C| - |A∩C| - |B∩C| + |A∩B∩C| = 29 – 12 – 15 + 8 = 10.

Q.163 Let A = {a,b,c,d,e} and R={(a,a), (a,b), (b,c), (c,e), (c,d), (d,e)}
Compute (i) R2 and (ii) R∞ (8)

Ans: The given relation can be represented by 5x5 Boolean matrix as below:

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
2
R= 0 0 0 1 The square of R is given by R 0 0 0
= 1
0
0 0 0 0 11 00 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

∝
(ii) R is called transitive closure of relation R and is obtained by finding the successive
n
powers of R. the process terminates when two consecutive powers of R become equal i.e. R =
n+1
R . Let us find the successive powers of R.
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1
0 1 0
3 0 0 0
R =
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0
 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
01 0
1 00 0
0 0
0
1 0
0 0

0
R

=
0
 1 1 1 1
1
0 0 0 0 0
R =
5 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0
0 0
00 0 0

79
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES
4 5 ∝
Since R = R , The process is stopped and R is obtained by adding all distinct matrices
∝ 2 3 4
obtained so far including R. Thus R = R + R + R + R i.e.
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
R∞ = 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 11
0 0 0 0

When translated into set of ordered pairs, it is

{(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (a, e), (b, c), (b, d), (b, e), (c, d), (c, e), (d, e)}

Q.164 Simplify the Boolean function:

F(w,x,y,z) = ∑ (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14) (8)

Ans:
f(w, x, y, z) = ∑(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

The function is of four Boolean variables. The K-Map for this function is given as in figure
below. Minterms of four variables having decimal equivalent 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13 and 14
produce 1 as output for the function, so squares corresponding to minterms 0000, 0001, 0010,
0011, 01000, 0110, 1000, 1001, 1100, 1101 and 1110 contain an entry 1. The remaining
squares contain 0 as an entry.
80
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

There is five quads: three marked with closed rectangles and one wrapped around w‟ and z‟ and
of four corners. Therefore the given function can be expressed in simplified form as

f(w, x, y, z) = y’z’ + w’x’ + wy’ + w’z’ + xz’

Q.165 Use Kruskal‟s algorithm to find a minimal spanning tree for the following graph. (10)

Ans: Let G = (V, E) be graph and S = (VS, ES) be the spanning tree to be found from G. Let
|V| = n and E = {e1, e2, e3, …, em}. The stepwise Kruskal‟s Algorithm to find minimum
spanning tree is outlined below.
Step 1: Select an edge e1 from E such that e1 has least weight. Replace

E = E − {e1}
and ES = {e1}
Step 2: Select an edge ei from E such that ei has least weight and that it does not form a cycle
with members of ES. Set

E = E − {ei}
and ES = ES
∪{ei}
Step 3: Repeat step2 until |ES| = |V| – 1.

In the given graph there are 7 nodes so 6 minimum weight edges are to be selected so that they
do not form a cycle. There are 2 edges of weight 10, 3 of 12 and one of 14. They do not form
cycle within themselves. Thus, edges in spanning tree are:{(F, E), (B, C), (E, D), (B, G), (A,
G), (F, G)}.

Q.166 How do you find the second minimum spanning tree of a graph? Find the second minimum
spanning tree of the above graph. (6)

81
 Ans: The second minimum spanning tree is obtained by replacing the maximum weight edge in
the first minimum spanning tree with next highest weight edge in the graph. In the given graph,
the second minimum spanning tree is obtained by replacing (F, G) with any one of the edge (C,
F), (B, D), (D, G). Thus one of the second minimum spanning tree is {(F, E), (B, C), (E, D), (B,
G), (A, G), (C, F)}.

Q.167 Prove that for every pair of elements x and y in A (using algebraic
method). (i) (x+y)' = x'.y'
(ii) (x.y)' = x'+y' (10)

Ans:
(i) For any two variables a and b, whenever a .b‟ = 0 and a + b‟ = 1, we say that a and b are
equal. Substituting b with (x + y)‟ and a with x‟.y‟ in the LHS of the equation a .b‟ = 0, we
get,
(x‟.y‟). ((x + y)‟)‟
=(x‟.y‟).(x + y) [Double Negation]
=((x‟.y‟).x) + ((x‟.y‟).y) [Distribution law]
=(x‟.x.y‟) + (x‟.y‟.y) [Associative and commutative law]
=(0.y‟)+(x‟.0) [Complementation]
=0 + 0 = 0

Similarly, substituting b with (x + y)‟ and a with x‟.y‟ in the LHS of the equation a + b‟ = 1,
we get
(x‟.y‟) + ((x + y)‟)‟
=(x‟.y‟) + (x + y) [Double Negation]
=((x‟.y‟) + x) + ((x‟.y‟) + y) [Distribution law]
=((x‟+x).(y‟+ x)) + ((x‟+y).(y‟+ y)) [Distribution law]
=(1.(y‟+ x)) + ((x‟+y).1)) [Complementation]
=(y‟ + y) +(x‟ + x) [Associative and commutative law]
=1 + 1 [Complementation]
=1
Therefore (x +y)‟ = x‟.y‟

(ii) This can also be proved by substituting b with (x.y)‟ and a with x‟ + y‟ in the LHS of the
equation a .b‟ = 0 and a + b‟ = 1.
Q.168 Prove that (p ↔ q) ↔ r = p ↔ (q ↔ r) (6)

Ans: This can also be proved using algebraic method. Here one other way using the truth table
is provided. Since the given expression is a tautology, it is proved that LHS is RHS.

p q r p↔q (p↔q)↔r q↔r p↔(q↔r) (p↔q)↔r = p↔(q↔r)

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Q.169 Find the number of ways in which 5 prizes can be distributed among 5 students such that
(i) Each student may get a prize
(ii) There is no restriction to the number of prizes a student gets. (8)

Ans :
(i) Number of ways in which 5 prizes can be distributed among 5 students in such a way
that each one may get a prize is 5*4*3*2*1 = 5! ways.
(ii) When no restriction on the number of prizes a student may get, then a student may get
either 0 or 1 or 2 or…upto 5 prizes. It shows that a student have six possible ways in
which it may get a prize. Therefore the number of ways in which prizes can be
5
distributed is 6 .

Q.170 For the given graph, find the minimal spanning tree using Prim‟s algorithm. (8)

Ans: Let G = (V, E) be graph and S = (VS, ES,) be the spanning tree to be found from G. The
Prim‟s algorithm is given as below:
Step 1: Select a vertex v1 from V and initialize
 VS = {v1} and
ES = {}
Step 2: Select a nearest neighbor of vi from V that is adjacent to some vj∈VS and that edge (vi,
vj) does not form a cycle with members edge of ES. Set
VS = VS ∪{vi} and
ES = ES ∪{(vi, vj)}
Step 3: Repeat step2 until |ES| = |V| – 1.

Using the algorithm and starting from node A, we get the following edges (A, C), (C, D), (D,
B) for minimum spanning tree.

Q.171 Show that n 3 + 2n is divisible by 3. (8)

3
Ans: Let us prove this using mathematical induction. For n =1, the result is obvious as n + 2n
= 3 and it is divisible by 3.
3
Let us assume that it is true for n = k, i.e. (k + 2k) is divisible by 3. We now show that it is true
3
for n = k + 1 i.e. ((k +1) + 2(k + 1)) is divisible by 3.
3 3 2
(k +1) + 2(k + 1) = (k + 3k + 3k +1) + 2k + 2
3 2
= (k + 2k) +3(k + k +1)
Since both term are individually divisible by 3, sum is also divisible by 3.

Q.172 Find the state table for the NFA with the state diagram given below. Find the language
recognized by it. (8)

Ans: The transition state table for the given NFA is:
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

State 0 1

S0 { S0, S2} { S1}

S1 { S3} { S4}

S2 {} { S4}

S3 { S3, S4} { S4}

S4 {} {}

The language accepted by this NFA is all strings w except „10‟ in (0, 1)* that contains at the
most two 1‟s.

Q.173 Find the number of ways in which we can put n distinct objects into two identical boxes so
that no box remains empty. (8)

Ans: This problem of counting can be solved using generating function concept, Let x and y be
the number of count of objects in two boxes such that

x + y = n where 1 ≤ x ≤ n – 1 & 1 ≤ y ≤ n – 1
Therefore, the number of ways in which n objects can be put into two boxes under the
n
condition, is equal to the coefficient of x in the expression
2 3 n–1 2 3 n–1
(x + x + x + …+ x ) (x + x + x + …+ x )

i.e. in x(1 − xn−1 )

n–2 –2 2 + n – 2 –1
. This is equal to the coefficient of in (1 –x) i.e. C n–2 =n–
1. 1− x
x
Q.174 Let L, be distributive Lattice, for any a,b,c ∈ L, then show that
a ∧ b = a ∧ c and a ∨ b = a ∨ c imply b = c (8)

Ans: In any distributive lattice L, for any three elements a, b, c of L, we can write

b = b∨ (a ∧ b)
= (b∨ a) ∧ (b∨b) [Distributive law]
= (a∨ b) ∧ b [Commutative and Idempotent law]
= (a∨ c) ∧ b [Given that (a∨ b) = (a∨ c)]

85
 = (a ∧ b) ∨ (c ∧ b) [Distributive law]
= (a ∧ c) ∨ (c ∧ b) [Given that (a ∧ b) = (a ∧ c)]
= (c ∧ a) ∨ (c ∧ b) [Commutative law]
= c ∧ (a ∨ b) [Distributive law]
= c ∧ (a ∨ c) [Given that (a∨ b) = (a∨ c)]
=c

Q.175 Which of the following sets are equal?

S1 = {1, 2, 2, 3}, S2 = {x | x2 – 2x + 1 = 0},

S3 = {1, 2, 3}, S4 = {x | x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0}, (8)

Ans: The elements of S2 and S4 is given as below:

S2 = {1, 1} and S4 = {1, 2, 3}
Two sets are said to be equal if both contain same elements and the multiplicity of every
element is same in both the sets. This implies that S 3 and S4 are equal. Though S1 has same
elements as in S3 and S4 , it not equal because multiplicity of 2 in S 1 is 2 whereas that in S3 and
S4 is 1.

Q.176 A graph G has 21 Edges, 3 vertices of degree 4 and other vertices are of degree 3. Find the
number of vertices in G. (8)

Ans: It is given that graph G has 21 edges, thus total degree of graph is 42. it is also given that
three vertices are of degree 4 and other vertices are degree 3. Let number of vertices of degree 3
is y. Then

3y + 4x3 = 42
⇒ y = (42 – 12) / 3 = 10.

Thus total number of vertices in the graph G is 10 + 3 = 13.

Q.177 Write the negation of each of the following in good English sentence.
(i) Jack did not eat fat, but he did eat broccoli.
(ii) The weather is bad and I will not go to work.
(iii) Mary lost her lamb or the wolf ate the lamb.
(iv) I will not win the game or I will not enter the contest. (2 x 4)

Ans: The negation of statement is written using concept of propositional rules. For example the
negation of “p AND q” is “not p OR not q”; the negation of “ p implies q” is “not q implies not
q”.
(i) If Jack did not eat broccoli then he did ate fat.
(ii) The weather is not bad or I will go to work.
(iii) Mary did not loss her lamb and the wolf did not eat the lamb.
(iv) I will win the game and I will enter the contest.
Q.178 Simplify the logical expression X Y + X Z + Y Z + Y Z W . (8)

Ans: The K-Map for the given Boolean expression is given by the following diagram. The
optimized expression then obtained is given below.
x‟y‟ + zw‟ + yz

z’ z

1 1 1 1
x’
1 1
y
1 1 y’
x
1

w
w’

Q.179 How many different sub-committees can be formed each containing three women from an
available set of 20 women and four men from an available set of 30 men? (8)

Ans: The number of subcommittee that can be formed is equal to the number of ways the
members of committee can be selected from the given group of people. The number of ways in
which three women members from 20 women and four men members from 30 men is
20
C3 *30 C4 = 31241700

Q.180 A box contains six red balls and four green balls. Four balls are selected at random from the
box. What is the probability that two of the selected balls will be red and two will be green?
(8)
Ans: Total number of ways in which 4 balls can be selected out of 10 is 10
C4 = 210 . The
number of ways in which 2 red balls out of six and 2 green balls can be selected 90 is 3
6
C * C = 90 Therefore the probability of selecting 2 red and 2 green balls is
4 =
2 2
210 7

Q.181 What is a partition on a set? Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and a relation R defined on A is R={(1,1),
(1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5)}. Obtain the cells of the partition.
(8)

Ans: A partition of a non-empty set A is defined as a collection of subsets Ai„s of A such that
* Union of all such subsets Ai is equal to A i.e. ∪Ai = A
 * All such subsets are mutually disjoint i.e. Ai ∩ Aj = φ.for i ≠ j and
* All subsets Ai„s are non-empty i.e. | Ai | ≠ φ.

A1 A2 A

A3
A4
A5
A6
A7

See the figure shown above. Let A be a non-empty set and A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 and A7 be
subsets of A. It is obvious from the figure that
7
(i) UA =
A i =i 1
(ii) A ∩ A = Φ for i ≠ j
i j
(iii) | A | ≠ 0
i
A partition is represented by P. Each subset of A in P is called block or cell. A partition of a set
is also called quotient Set.

The Cells of partitions are {1, 2}, {3} and {4,5}.

Q.182 What is a lattice? Which of the following graphs are lattice and why? (8)

(a) (b) (c)

Ans: Let (L, ≤) be a poset. If every subset {x, y} containing any two elements of L, has a glb
(Infimum) and a lub (Supremum), then the poset (L, ≤) is called a lattice. A glb ({x, y}) is
represented by x∧y and it is called meet of x and y. Similarly, lub ({x, y}) is represented by
x∨y and it is called join of x and y. Therefore, lattice is a mathematical structure equipped with
two binary operations meet and join.
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

In the given examples, (a) is a lattice because every pair of elements has a meet and join in the
set under the relation represented by the graph. Graph in (b) does not represent a lattice because
bottom two elements have no meet and top two elements have no join.
In the case of (c), the relation represented is not even anti symmetric because two bottoms and
two top level elements are at the same level and represented as related to each other
(symmetric) without being the same element (equal).

Q.183 In a survey of 85 people it is found that 31 like to drink milk 43 like coffee and 39 like tea.
Also 13 like both milk and tea, 15 like milk and coffee, 20 like tea and coffee and 12 like
none of the three drinks. Find the number of people who like all the three drinks. Display
the answer using Venn Diagram. (8)

Ans: Let A, B and C is set of people who like to drink milk, take coffee and take tea
respectively. Thus |A| = 31, |B| = 43, |C| = 39, |A∩B| = 15, |A∩C| = 13, |B∩C| = 20, |A∪B∪C|
= 85 – 12 = 73. Therefore, |A∩B∩C| = 73 + (15 + 13 + 20) – (31 + 43 + 39) = 8.

A 11 B 16
7
8

512

1412
C

Q.184 Obtain the incidence and the adjacency matrix of the graph given below. (8)

89
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Ans: The adjacency matrix MA and incidence matrix MI for the graph is given as shown below.
The adjacency matrix is of order 4 x 4 because there are 4 nodes in the graph. Since the graph
is undirected, we have used numbers to represent number of arc between the node I and node J
at the (I, J) the location in the matrix. For example „0‟ stand for no edge between them, „2‟
stands for two nodes between them and so on..

The incidence matrix is Boolean matrix of order N x E where N is the number of nodes and E is
the number of edges in the graph. An edge joins two nodes. The presence of „1‟in the matrix
represents the nodes for that edge.

0 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
=1 0 1 0 MI =
M 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
A
2 1 0
1
0
2 0 1

Q.185 What are the possible ways to combine two automatons? Explain with an example.
(8)

Ans:
A finite automaton is drawn for a regular language. A regular language is closed under the
operation of Union, Concatenation, Negation, Kleene Star, Reverse, Intersection, Set difference
and Homomorphism. If L1 and L2 are two regular languages having M1 and M2
corresponding automata then M1 and M2 can be combined for the above operations. The
General Approach is outlined below.

• Build automata (dfas or nfas) for each of the languages involved.

• Show how to combine the automata to create a new automaton that recognizes the desired
language.
• Since the language is represented by an nfa or dfa, conclude that the language is regular.

In order to demonstrate the working method, let us take intersection of languages as an

example. Let us construct DFA for L = L1 ∩L2 over alphabet {a, b}.Where
L1 = All strings of even length.
L2 = All strings starting with b.
.

90
.............. Subject: DISCRETE STRUCTURES

DFA M1(top) and M2( bottom) for languages L1 and L2 are shown above. They are
respectively defined as M1 = ({q0, q1, q2} ,{a, b}, δ1, q0 ,{q2}) where δ1 is state transition as per
the diagram. M2 = ({q3, q4, q5}, {a, b}, δ2, q3 ,{q4}) where δ2 is state transition function. So M
= {[q0,q3], [q1,q4],q1,q5],[q2,q4],[q2,q5],}, {a,b}, δ, [q0,q3], {q2,q4]}) where δ is state
transition as shown below.
Transition diagram for M is shown below.

Q.186 Construct the finite automaton for the state transition table given below. (8)

91
 a b

start s0 s0 s2

s1 s0 s1

s2* s2 s1

Ans: The finite automata is shown below. The initial state is marked with arrow sign and the
final state within double circle.

b a
a

a b
S0 S1 S2

Q.187 Prove that if (A, ≤) has a least element, then (A, ≤) has a unique least element. (8)

Ans: Let (A, ≤) be a poset. Suppose the poset A has two least elements x and y. Since x is the
least element, it implies that x ≤ y. Using the same argument, we can say that y ≤ x, since y is
supposed to be another least element of the same poset. ≤ is an anti-symmetric relation, so x ≤
y and y ≤ x ⇒ x = y. Thus, there is at most one least element in any poset.

Q.188 Show that in a Boolean algebra, for any a and b, (a Λ b) V (a Λ b' ) = a. (8)

Ans: This can be proved either using the distributive property of join over meet (or of meet
over join) or using a truth table for the expression. Let us use the truth table.

a b a∧b a∧b‟ (a∧b)∨ (a∧b‟)

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1

From the truth table, it is obvious that entries for the expression and that for „a‟ are the same
and hence the result.
Q.189 What is minimum spanning tree? Determine a railway network of minimal cost for the cities
in the following graph using Kruskal‟s algorithm.
(10)

Ans: A minimum spanning tree in a connected weighted graph is spanning tree that has the
smallest possible sum of weights of its edges.

We collect the edges in sorted order as:

Edge Cost
(B,C ) 3
(D,F ) 4
(A,G) 5
(C,D) 5
(C,E) 5
(A,B) 15
(A,D) 15
(F,H) 15
(G,H) 15
(E,F) 15
(F,G) 18

Choose the edges (B,C),(D,F),(A,G),(C,D),(C,E).

 Then we have option we may choose only one of (A,B) and (A,D), because selection of both
makes a circuit. Suppose we choose (A,B).

Likewise we may choose only one of (G,H) and (F,H).Suppose we choose (F,H).

We have a spanning tree as :

Q.190 Draw a diagraph for each of the following relation

(i) Let A = {a, b, c, d} and let R = {(a, b), (b, d), (a, d), (d, a), (d, b), (b, a), (c, c)}
(ii) Let A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} and Let R y , wherever y is divisible by x.
x

(iii) Determine which of the relations are reflexive, which are transitive, which are
symmetric and which are anti symmetric. (4, 4, 2)

Ans: The diagraphs for the defined relation is shown below:

(i)

(ii) The R={ (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6),(1,7),(1,8),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(2,8),(3,3),

 (3,6),(4,4),(4,8),(5,5),(6,6),(7,7),(8,8) }

(iii)

Relation (ii) is reflexive, (i) is not.

Symmetry: Relation (i) is symmetrc whereas (ii) is not.
Transitivity: Relation (ii) is trasitive whereas (i) is not
Antisymmetry: Relation (ii) is anti-symmetrc whereas (i) is not