Graph Theory

Introduction. Distance in Graphs. Trees

Isabela Drămnesc UVT

Computer Science Department,

West University of Timişoara,
Romania

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 1 / 33

What is Graph Theory?

The study of graphs as mathematical structures G = (V , E ) used to

model pairwise relations (a.k.a. edges) between objects of a
collection V .
The objects are modeled as nodes (or vertices) of a set V
The pairwise relations are modeled as edges, which are
elements of a set E .
Graphs differ mainly by the types of edges between nodes.
Most common types of graphs are:
I Undirected: there is no distinction between the nodes
associated with each edge.
I Directed: edges are arcs from one node to another.
I Weighted: every edge has a weight which is typically a real
number.
I Labeled: every edge has its own label.
...

Graphs are among the most frequently used models in problem

solving.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 2 / 33
History of graph theory

1736: L. Euler publishes ”Seven Bridges of Königsberg” – first paper on graph

theory.

Later: Euler’s formula relating the number of edges, vertices, and faces of
a convex polyhedron ⇒ generalizations by Cauchy and L’Huillier ⇒ study
of topology and special classes of graphs.
1852: De Morgan introduces the“Four Color Map Conjecture”: four is the
minimum number of colors required to color any map where bordering regions
are colored differently.
1969: Heesch publishes a solving method
1976: computer-generated proof of K. Appel and W. Haken.
1878: The term “graph” was first used by Sylvester in a publication in Nature.
1936: D. König publishes first textbook on graph theory.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 3 / 33

Introductory concepts
Vocabulary

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a simple graph or digraph.

The order of G is |V |, the number of its nodes.
The size of G is |E |, the number of its edges.
The neighborhood of v ∈ V is N(v ) = {x ∈ V | (v , x) ∈ E }.
The closed neighborhood of v ∈ V is N[v ] = {v } ∪ N(v ).
The degree of v ∈ V is the number of edges incident with V :
deg(v ) = |{e ∈ E | e = (v , x) or e = (x, v ) for some x ∈ V }|
The maximum degree of G is ∆(G ) = max{deg(v ) | v ∈ V }.
The minimum degree of G is δ(G ) = min{deg(v ) | v ∈ V }.
The degree sequence of G with order n is the n-term sequence
(usually written in descending order) of the vertex degrees of
its nodes.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 4 / 33

Introductory concepts
Example

a b c d

e f g h

G = (V , E ) where V = {a, b, c, d, e, f , g , h}, E = {{a, d}, {a, e},

{b, c}, {b, e}, {b, g }, {c, f }, {d, f }, {d, g }, {g , h}}
N(d) = {a, f , g }, N[d] = {a, d, f , g },
∆(G ) = deg(b) = 3
δ(G ) = deg(h) = 1,
The degree sequence is 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 5 / 33

First Theorem of Graph Theory

Theorem
In a graph G , the sum of the degrees of the vertices is equal to
twice the number of edges. Consequently, the number of vertices
with odd degree is even.

Combinatorial
P proof.
Let S = v ∈V deg(v ). Notice that in counting S, we count each
edge exactly twice. Thus, S = 2|E | (the sum of the degrees is
twice the number of edges). Since
X X
S= deg (v ) + deg (v )
v ∈V v ∈V
deg (v ) even deg (v ) odd

and S is even, the second sum must be even, thus the number of
vertices with odd degree is even.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 6 / 33

Introductory concepts
Perambulation and Connectivity

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a simple graph or digraph.

A walk or path in G is a sequence of (not necessarily distinct)
nodes v1 , v2 , . . . , vk such that (vi , vi+1 ) ∈ E for
i = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1. Such a walk is sometimes called a v1 − vk
walk.
v1 and vk are the end vertices of the walk.
If the vertices in a walk are distinct, then the walk is called a
simple path.
If the edges in a walk are distinct, then the walk is called a
trail.
A cycle is a simple path v1 , . . . , vk (where k ≥ 3) together
with the edge (vk , v1 ).
A circuit or closed trail is a trail that begins and ends at the
same node.
The length of a walk (or simple path, trail, cycle, circuit) is its
number of edges, counting repetitions.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 7 / 33
Introductory concepts
Perambulation and Connectivity

Example
a

c b

d e

f g

a, c, f , c, b, d is a walk of length 5.
b, a, c, b, d is a trail of length 4.
d, g , b, a, c, f , e is a simple path of length 6.
g , d, b, c, a, b, g is a circuit.
e, d, b, a, c, f , e is a cycle.
Note that walks, trails and simple paths can have length 0. The
minimum length of a cycle or circuit is 3.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 8 / 33

Second Theorem of Graph Theory
Theorem
In a graph G with vertices u and v , every u−v walk contains a
u−v simple path.

Proof. Let W be a u−v walk in G . We prove this theorem by

induction on the length of the walk W .
If W has length 1 or 2, then it is easy to see that W must be
a simple path.
For the induction hypothesis, suppose the result is true for all
walks of length < k and suppose W has length k. Say that
W is u = w0 , w1 , . . . , wk−1 , wk = v . If the nodes are distinct,
then W itself is the desired u−v simple path. If not, then let
j be the smallest integer such that wj = wr for some r > j.
Let W1 be the walk u = w0 , . . . , wj , wr +1 . . . , wk = v . This
walk has length strictly less than k, and thus W1 contains a
u−v simple path by induction hypothesis. Thus W contains a
simple u−v path.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 9 / 33
Operations on graphs
Assumptions: G = (V , E ) is a simple graph,
v ∈ V , S ⊆ V , e ∈ E, T ⊆ E
Vertex deletion:
G − v is the graph obtained by removing v and all edges
incident with v from G .
G − S is the graph obtained by removing each node of S and
each edge incident with a node of S from G .
Edge deletion:
G −e is the graph obtained by removing only the edge e from
G (its end nodes stay).
G −T is the graph obtained by removing each edge of T from
G.
G is connected if every pair of nodes can be joined by a path.
Otherwise, G is disconnected.
A component of G is a maximal connected piece of G .
v is a cut vertex if G − v has more components than G .
e is a bridge if G − e has more components than G .
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 10 / 33
Operations on graphs and properties related to connectivity
Example (Deletion operations)
a a a a

b c b c b c b c

d d d
e f e f e f e f
g g g g

G −d G G −(c, d) G − {(e, g ), (f , g )}

d is a cut node in G . (a, b) is a bridge in G .

Example (Connected and disconnected graphs)

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 11 / 33

Graph-related notions
Node cut sets, connectivity, complete graphs

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a graph.
∅=
6 S ( V is a node cut set of G if G − S is disconnected.
G is complete if every node is adjacent to every other node.
We write Kn for the complete graph with n nodes.
The complete graphs Kn have no node cut sets because Kn − S
is connected for all proper subsets S of the set of nodes.
If G is not complete then the connectivity of G , denoted by
κ(G ), is the minimum size of a node cut set of G .
If G is a connected and incomplete graph of order n, then
1 ≤ κ(G ) ≤ n − 2.
If G is disconnected, then κ(G ) = 0.
If G = Kn then we say that κ(G ) = n − 1.
If k > 0, we say that G is k-connected if k ≤ κ(G ).

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 12 / 33

Consequences of the definitions

1 A graph is connected if and only if κ(G ) ≥ 1.

2 κ(G ) ≥ 2 if and only if G is connected and has no cycles.
3 Every 2-connected graph contains at least one cycle.
4 For every graph G , κ(G ) ≤ δ(G ).

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 13 / 33

Exercises (1)

1. If G is a graph of order n, what is the maximum number of

edges in G ?
2. Prove that for any graph G of order at least 2, the degree
sequence has at least one pair of repeated entries.
3. Consider the complete graph K5 shown in the following figure.
b
c

d
e

a. How many different simple paths have c as an end vertex?

b. How many different simple paths avoid vertex c altogether?
c. What is the maximum length of a circuit in this graph? Give
an example of such a circuit.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 14 / 33

Exercises (2)

4. Let G be a graph where δ(G ) ≥ k.

a. Prove that G has a simple path of length at least k.
b. If k ≥ 2, prove that G has a cycle of length at least k + 1.
5. Prove that every closed odd walk in a graph contains an odd
cycle.
6. Let P1 and P2 be two paths of maximum length in a
connected graph G . Prove that P1 and P2 have a common
vertex.
7. Prove that every 2-connected graph contains at least one
cycle.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 15 / 33

Special types of graphs
Complete graphs Kn and empty graphs En

1 The complete graphs Kn . The graph Kn has order n and a

connection between every two nodes. Examples:

2 Empty graphs En . The graph En has order n and no edges.

Example:

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 16 / 33

Special types of graphs
Complements and regular graphs

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a graph.
The complement of G is the graph G whose node set is the
same as that of G and whose
edge set consists of all the edges that are not in E . For example

G is regular if all its nodes have the same degree. G is

r -regular if deg(v ) = r for all nodes v in G .
Kn are (n − 1)-regular graphs; En are 0-regular graphs.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 17 / 33

Special types of graphs
Cycles, paths, and subgraphs

The cycle Cn is simply a cycle on n vertices. Example: The

graph C7 looks as follows:

The graph Pn is a simple path on n vertices. For example, the

graph P6 looks as follows:

Given a graph G = (V , E ) and a subset S ⊆ V , the subgraph

of G induced by S, denoted hSiG , is the subgraph with vertex
set S and with edge set {(u, v )|u, v ∈ S and (u, v ) ∈ E }. So,
hSiG contains all vertices of S and all edges of G whose end
vertices are both in S.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 18 / 33

Special types of graphs

Example: a graph and two of its induced subgraphs

A graph G = (V , E ) is bipartite if V can be partitioned into

two sets X and Y such that every edge of G has one end
vertex in X and the other in Y .
In this case, X and Y are called the partite sets.
A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph with partite
sets X and Y such that its edge set is
E = {(x, y ) | x ∈ X , y ∈ Y }.
Such a graph is complete bipartite graph denoted by K|X |,|Y | .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 19 / 33

Special types of graphs: Examples
Bipartite graphs
The first two graphs in the following figure are bipartite, whereas
the third graph is not bipartite.

Complete bipartite graphs

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 20 / 33

Bipartite graphs
Characterization Theorem

Theorem
A graph with at least 2 nodes is bipartite if and only if it contains
no odd cycles.
Proof.
“⇒:” Let G = (V , E ) be a bipartite graph with partite sets X and Y ,
and let C = v1 , . . . , vk , v1 be a cycle in G . We can assume v1 ∈ X
w.l.o.g. Then vi ∈ X for all even i and vi ∈ Y for all odd i. Since
(vk , v1 ) ∈ E , we must have k even ⇒ we can not have an odd cycle in G .
“⇐:” We can assume w.l.o.g. that G is connected, for otherwise we
could treat each of its components separately.
Let v ∈ V and define
X = {x ∈ V | the shortest path from x to v has even length},
Y = V \ X.
It is easy to verify that G is a bipartite graph with partite sets X and Y .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 21 / 33

Isomorphic graphs
Note that the following graphs are the same:

a b 1 2
c d 8 3

e f 7 4
g h 6 5

This is so because one graph can be redrawn to look like the other.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 22 / 33

Isomorphic graphs
Note that the following graphs are the same:

a b 1 2
c d 8 3

e f 7 4
g h 6 5

This is so because one graph can be redrawn to look like the other.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 22 / 33

Isomorphic graphs
Note that the following graphs are the same:

a b 1 2
c d 8 3

e f 7 4
g h 6 5

This is so because one graph can be redrawn to look like the other.
The idea of isomorphism formalizes this phenomenon.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 22 / 33

Isomorphic graphs
Note that the following graphs are the same:

a b 1 2
c d 8 3

e f 7 4
g h 6 5

This is so because one graph can be redrawn to look like the other.
The idea of isomorphism formalizes this phenomenon.
Isomorphic graphs
Two graphs G = (V1 , E1 ) and H = (V2 , E2 ) are isomorphic if there
is a bijective mapping f : V1 → V2 such that (x, y ) ∈ E1 if and
only if (f (x), f (y )) ∈ E2 .
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 22 / 33
Isomorphic graphs

When two graphs G and H are isomorphic, it is not

uncommon to simply say that “G = H” or that “G is H.”
If G and H are isomorphic then they have the same order and
size. The converse of this statement is not true, as seen in
Figure 1 below.

Figure: Two graphs G and H with same order and size, which are
not isomorphic.

If G and H are isomorphic then their degree sequences

coincide. The converse of this statement is not true.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 23 / 33
Exercises

1. For n ≥ 2 prove that Kn has n(n − 1)/2 edges.

2. Determine whether K4 is a subgraph of K4,4 . If yes, then
exhibit it. If no, then explain why not.
3. The line graph L(G ) of a graph G is defined in the following
way:
I the vertices of L(G ) are the edges of G , V (L(G )) = E (G ), and
I two vertices in L(G ) are adjacent if and only if the
corresponding edges in G share a vertex.
a. Find L(G ) for the graph

b. Find the complement of L(K5 ).

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 24 / 33

Distance in Graphs
Definitions

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a connected graph.

The distance d(u, v ) from node u to node v in G is the
length of the shortest path u−v from u to v in G .
The eccentricity ecc(v ) of v in G is the greatest distance
from v to any other node.

Example

d(b, k) = 4, d(c, m) = 6.
ecc(a) = 5 since the farthest nodes from a are k, m, n, and they are a
distance 5 from a.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 25 / 33

Distance in Graphs
More definitions

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a connected graph.

The radius rad(G ) of G is the value of the smallest eccentricity.
The diameter diam(G ) of G is the value of the greatest eccentricity.
The center of G is the set of nodes v such that ecc(v ) = rad(G ).
The periphery of G is the set of nodes v such that
ecc(v ) = diam(G ).

Example

rad(G ) = 3 and diam(G ) = 6. The center of G is {e, f , g }.

The periphery of G is {c, k, m, n}.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 26 / 33
Distance in graphs
Properties

Theorem 1
For any connected graph G , rad(G ) ≤ diam(G ) ≤ 2 rad(G ).

Proof. By definition, rad(G ) ≤ diam(G ), so we just need to prove the

second inequality. Let u, v be nodes in G such that d(u, v ) = diam(G ).
Let c be a node in the center of G . Then
diam(G ) = d(u, v ) ≤ d(u, c) + d(c, v ) ≤ 2 ecc(c) = 2 rad(G ).
Theorem 2
Every graph G = (V , E ) is isomorphic to the center of some graph.

Proof. We construct a new graph H by adding 4 nodes w , x, y , z to G

along with the following edges:
{(w , x), (y , z)} ∪ {(x, a) | a ∈ V } ∪ {(b, y ) | b ∈ V }.
The newly constructed graph H looks as shown in the figure below.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 27 / 33

Distance in graphs
Properties

Proof of Theorem 2 continued.

I ecc(w ) = ecc(z) = 4, ecc(y ) = ecc(x) = 3, and

I for any node v of G : ecc(v ) = 2.
Therefore G is the center of H.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 28 / 33

Exercises

1. Find the radius, diameter and center of the following graph:

2. Find the radius and diameter of each of the following graphs:

P2k , P2k+1 , C2k , C2k+1 , Kn , and Km,n .
3. Given a connected graph G = (V , E ) and a positive integer k,
the k-th power of G , denoted G k , is the graph whose set of
nodes os V and where vertices u and v are adjacent in Gk if
and only if d(u, v ) ≤ k in G .
a. Draw the 2-nd and 3-rd powers of P8 and C10 .
b. For a graph G of order n, what is G diam(G ) ?

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 29 / 33

Trees
A tree is a connected graph which contains no cycles.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 30 / 33

Trees
A tree is a connected graph which contains no cycles.
Quiz: Which ones are trees?

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 30 / 33

Trees
A tree is a connected graph which contains no cycles.
Quiz: Which ones are trees?

A forest is a graph whose connected components are trees. E.g., the

graph D is a forest.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 30 / 33

Trees
A tree is a connected graph which contains no cycles.
Quiz: Which ones are trees?

A forest is a graph whose connected components are trees. E.g., the

graph D is a forest.
A leaf in a tree is a node with degree 1.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 30 / 33

Trees
A tree is a connected graph which contains no cycles.
Quiz: Which ones are trees?

A forest is a graph whose connected components are trees. E.g., the

graph D is a forest.
A leaf in a tree is a node with degree 1.
Note that K1 and K2 are the only trees of order 1 and 2,
respectively. P3 is the only tree of order 3.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 30 / 33
Trees and forests
Properties

If T is a tree of order n, then T has n − 1 edges.

If F is a forest of order n containing k connected components,
then F contains n − k edges.
A graph of order n is a tree if and only if it is connected and
contains n − 1 edges.
A graph of order n is a tree if and only if it is acyclic and
contains n − 1 edges.
Let T be the tree of order n ≥ 2. Then T has at least two
leaves.
In any tree, the center is either a single vertex or a pair of
adjacent vertices.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 31 / 33

Trees
Exercises

1 Show that every edge in a tree is a bridge.

2 Show that every nonleaf in a tree is a cut vertex.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 8 32 / 33

References

J. M. Harris, J. L. Hirst, M. J. Mossinghoff. Combinatorics and

Graph Theory, Second Edition. Springer 2008.
Chapter 1: Graph Theory. Sections §1.1, §1.2 and §1.4.

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