Session 9: Writing Research Papers Part 1

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this session, you will be able to:
1. Understand what research papers are
2. Steps to write a research paper

What is a Research Paper?

"Research paper." What image comes into mind as you hear those words: working with
stacks of articles and books, hunting the "treasure" of others' thoughts? Whatever image
you create, it's a sure bet that you're envisioning sources of information--articles, books,
people, artworks. Yet a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a
collection of different pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the
literature in a field. A research paper analyzes a perspective or argues a point. Regardless
of the type of research paper you are writing, your finished research paper should present
your own thinking backed up by others' ideas and information.

To draw a parallel, a lawyer researches and reads about many cases and uses them to
support their own case. A scientist reads many case studies to support an idea about a
scientific principle. In the same way, a history student writing about the Vietnam War might
read newspaper articles and books and interview veterans to develop and/or confirm a
viewpoint and support it with evidence.

A research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or

evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally
know and have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon
what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts
know. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best
possible information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if you know
how to approach it. Don't worry--you won't get lost in a sea of sources.

In fact, this session is designed to help you navigate the research voyage, through
developing a research question and thesis, doing the research, writing the paper, and
correctly documenting your sources.

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Steps in Writing a Research Paper
A series of steps, starting with developing a research question and working thesis, will lead
you through writing a research paper. As you move through these steps and actually create
the research paper, you may find that you can't move through all of them in chronological
order, and that's o.k. In fact, you may change the order of the steps depending on the
subject, your knowledge of the subject, and your sources. For example, sometimes you need
to do just a bit of background research and reading before you can develop a research
question. Sometimes you need to go back and find additional sources to corroborate your
viewpoint. The research writing steps that we offer represent a general, ideal, movement
through the research writing process. In reality, writers often repeat or circle back as
needed.

In our opinion, these steps represent the best way to move through the writing process
because they ask you to think and develop a research question before you actually do a lot
of research. The one big mess that you can get into, as a student, comes from doing too
much unfocused research before identifying your own viewpoint, the one that you will
eventually need to support. If you do too much unfocused research first, then the tendency
is to try to include all of it in the paper. The result is a hodgepodge of information that's not
focused, developed fully, or indicative of your own thoughts. It's also not efficient to do too
much research before you really know what you're looking for. Try it our way--develop that
research question first--to cut out a lot of research paper mess.
These steps will lead you through writing a research paper:
1. Know the expectations
2. Choosing A Research Topic
3. Developing a Research Question
4. Developing a Research Thesis
5. Thesis Characteristics
6. Finding Sources
7. Evaluating Sources
8. Taking Notes
9. Working with Quotations
10. Writing Summaries & Paraphrases
11. Building the Essay Draft
12. Documenting Sources
13. Documentation Formats
14. Revising and Proofreading the Draft
1. Know the expectations-Getting Started with Your Paper
Research papers typically begin with an assignment that identifies your lecturer’s
expectations and provides the information you need to know to complete the
assignment/paper.

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What You Should Know before You Start:
■ What is the purpose of the assignment?
■ Is there an assigned topic? Can you choose your own?
■ What kinds of sources should you use?
■ How many sources should you use?
■ Are print and online sources equally acceptable?
■ When is the paper due?
■ How long should it be?
■ How should the paper be formatted?
■ How should bibliographic information be presented?
You cannot produce a perfect paper if you do not know what“perfection” means to your
lecturer or the person who will be reading and evaluating it. More important than the basic
expectations are those that actually tell you what to do. Assignments are often worded very
deliberately to test how well students read, interpret, and respond to the expectations that
are outlined. Your instructor may want to know how well you can summarize new ideas and
complex material, for instance, or whether you can present a logical argument to support an
opinion or advocate an idea. Another assignment might spell out how you should conduct
your research by specifying the types of sources you should consult. Others may use words
like analyze, discuss, or investigate to describe what is expected. Do not take these words
lightly. They have specific meanings. Learn to recognize the learning goals in an assignment.
When you receive an assignment, read it thoroughly and be prepared to ask your instructor
about anything that is unclear to you. Make a list of the stated expectations. True, you
already have these on the assignment sheet but writing them down will emphasize them in
your mind and help you to remember them.
2. Choosing a Research Topic
Topics for some research papers will be assigned to you, along with very specific
requirements that you must follow in completing the paper. Others allow you to choose the
topic you will research.
Many assignments are deliberately open-ended, allowing students to pick their own topics
and pursue their own research. If your assignment is open-ended, you will have lots of
latitude to research a topic that interests you, based on what- ever guidelines or parameters
your instructor specifies. The challenge then becomes finding a topic and devising a thesis
and arguments to support it.

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Below is an example of an open-ended writing assignment from a freshman composition
course. It is designed to determine how effectively students can identify and control a topic,
con- struct their own thesis, find appropriate research to support the
thesis, and use that research to present arguments their audi- ence would find convincing.
Example assignment:
Pick an issue that interests you and find at least three news- paper articles or editorials from
different sources that express differing points of view on the issue. Produce a five-page
paper, including four pages plus a Works Cited page, that analyzes the various points of
view. What appears to be the best course of action, based on the merits of the arguments
that the articles present? Be sure to use arguments from each of your sources as you
explore the issue. Paraphrase, summarize, and quote them accurately and be sure to cite
them according to the prescribed style such as Harvard, APA or MLA style.
Open-ended assignments can be fun. They allow you to pursue your own interests but they
can also be frustrating because they require you to make decisions that specific assignments
make for you. Students often lament,“I don’t know what to write about,” or they spend a
great deal of time gathering research on vague topics that do not address their thesis.
The job becomes much easier if you have a topic, one that is specific and focused and offers
something to say. Coming up with one is the challenge but it is not as difficult as it sounds.
Most of us know more—a lot more—than we think we know about the world around us and
the subjects we study in school. At a minimum, we all hold opinions about what is
happening in our world, and, whether we realize it or not, we formed those opinions based
on information and experience we gathered somewhere in life. If you find yourself stuck for
a topic, ask yourself a few questions to get your creative juices flowing. You will find you
have a lot more to say about topics that you are involved with or that pique your interest
than topics others might suggest.
3. Developing a Research Question
It's absolutely essential to develop a research question that you're interested in or care
about in order to focus your research and your paper (unless, of course, your instructor
gives you a very specific assignment). For example, researching a broad topic such as
"business management" is difficult since there may be hundreds of sources on all aspects of
business management. On the other hand, a focused question such as "What are the pros
and cons of Japanese management style?" is easier to research and can be covered more
fully and in more depth.
How do you develop a usable research question? Choose an appropriate topic or issue for
your research, one that actually can be researched. Then list all of the questions that you'd
like answered yourself. Choose the best question, one that is neither too broad nor too
narrow. Sometimes the number of sources you find will help you discover whether your
research question is too broad, too narrow, or okay?

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If you know a lot about the topic, you can develop a research question based on your own
knowledge. If you feel you don't know much about the topic, think again. For example, if
you're assigned a research topic on an issue confronting the ancient Chinese family,
remember, by virtue of your own family life, you already know a great deal about family
issues. Once you determine what you do know, then you're ready to do some general
reading in a textbook or encyclopaedia in order to develop a usable research question.
Topic/Issue
A topic is what the essay or research paper is about. It provides a focus for the writing. Of
course, the major topic can be broken down into its components or smaller pieces (e.g., the
major topic of nuclear waste disposal may be broken down into medical, economic, and
environmental concerns). But the important thing to remember is that you should stick with
just one major topic per essay or research paper in order to have a coherent piece of
writing.
An issue is a concept upon which you can take a stand. While "nuclear waste" is a topic,
"safe and economic disposal of nuclear waste" is an issue, or a "point of discussion, debate,
or dispute" (American Heritage Dictionary).
Choose a Question that is Neither Too Broad or Too Narrow
For example, if you choose juvenile delinquency (a topic that can be researched), you might
ask the following questions:

 What is the 2017 rate of juvenile delinquency in the U.S.?

 What can we do to reduce juvenile delinquency in the U.S.?
 Does education play a role in reducing juvenile delinquents' return to crime?
Once you complete your list, review your questions in order to choose a usable one that is
neither too broad nor too narrow. In this case, the best research question is "c." Question
"a" is too narrow, since it can be answered with a simple statistic. Question "b" is too broad;
it implies that the researcher will cover many tactics for reducing juvenile delinquency that
could be used throughout the country. Question "c," on the other hand, is focused enough
to research in some depth.
4. Developing a Research Thesis
A research thesis has most of the same thesis characteristics as a thesis for a non-research
essay. The difference lies in the fact that you gather information and evidence from
appropriate, valid sources to support your perspective on a topic or stand on an issue. Yet
although your sources provide information that informs your thesis, the thesis ideas should
be your own, particular to your personal way of thinking about and analyzing a topic.
The thesis focuses your ideas and information for the research paper. Remember that word
"focus." Student writers often make the mistake of forgetting the focus and making the
research thesis far too broad in order to include a lot of research. Yet depth more than
breadth is the hallmark of a sophisticated research paper.

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Create a working thesis for the research paper by specifying and ordering your categories of
information. For example, the following theses offer the writers' main arguments and focus
their research by specifying and ordering the reasons for their stance:

 Competency-based management is practical, logical, and accessible to managers and

workers.
 Workforce training in basic skills is now necessary due to the lower reading and
writing levels of the workforce, the fact that a person now entering the workforce
will change jobs many times, the shift in jobs from the manufacturing to the service
sectors, and the more comprehensive, abstract nature of those service jobs.
As you can see, a research thesis is your proposed answer to your research question, which
you finalize only after completing the research. (It's o.k. to modify and revise the working
thesis as you research more about the topic or issue.)
Developing a good working thesis, just like developing a good research question
(researchable; neither too broad nor too narrow), is an important research skill.
5. Thesis Characteristics
Whenever you are writing to explain something to your reader or to persuade your reader
to agree with your opinion, there should be one complete sentence that expresses the main
idea of your paper. That sentence is often called the thesis, or thesis statement. (Some
other names it goes by are "the main idea" and "the controlling idea.") Based on everything
you've read, and thought, and brainstormed, the thesis is not just your topic, but what
you're saying about your topic. Another way to look at it is, once you've come up with the
central question, or organizing question, of your essay, the thesis is an answer to that
question. Remember, though, while you are still writing your paper, to consider what you
have to be a "working thesis," one that may still be "adjusted." As you continue to write,
read, and think about your topic, see if your working thesis still represents your opinion.
Handy reminders about the thesis:

 Where to put it
 Put it as a statement
 Don't go overboard
 Focus further
 Choose the right shape
Where to Put the Thesis
The thesis usually comes within the introductory paragraph, which prepares the reader to
listen to your ideas, and before the body of the paper, which develops the thesis with
reasons, explanations, and evidence or examples. In fact, if you examine a well-written
thesis, you will find hidden in it the questions your reader will expect you to answer in the
body. For example, if your thesis is "Cannibalism, if practiced tastefully, can be acceptable in

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extreme circumstances," the body of your essay will develop this idea by explaining HOW it
can be practiced tastefully, WHY it would be acceptable, and WHAT you would consider
extreme circumstances.

Put the Thesis as a Statement

Make sure your thesis is in the form of a statement, not a question. "Can we save the
Amazon rain forest?" is an ear-catching question that might be useful in the introduction,
but it doesn't express an opinion or perspective as the following statements do:

 "We can save the Amazon rain forest by limiting tourist presence, boycotting goods
made by companies that deplete the forest's resources, and generally educating
people about the need to preserve the rain forest in order to preserve the earth's
ecological systems."
 "We cannot save the Amazon rain forest since the companies that deplete its
resources in their manufacturing are so widely-spread throughout the world, so
politically powerful in their respective countries, and wealthy enough to fight the
opposition fully."
Don't go Overboard!
Make sure your thesis expresses your true opinion and not an exaggerated version of it.
Don't say "Computers are wonderful" or "Computers are terrible" if what you really believe
is "Computers do more good than harm" or "Computers do more harm than good." Why
commit yourself to an extreme opinion that you don't really believe in, and then look like
you're contradicting yourself later on?
Focus Further
Make sure your thesis covers exactly the topic you want to talk about, no more and no less.
"Drugs should not be legalized" is too large a thesis if all you want to talk about is marijuana.
"Boxing should be outlawed" is too small a thesis if you also want to discuss wrestling and
football. Bite off as much as you can chew thoroughly--then chew it!
Choose the Right Shape
Shape your thesis to fit the question you wish to answer. A thesis can come in many forms,
including the following:

 Simply stating an opinion: "Langston Hughes was a master stylist."

 Indicating categories or reasons: "Langston Hughes was a master stylist because of
his vivid imagery, surprising metaphors, and effective alliteration."
 Showing two aspects of a topic and emphasizing one (in this sample, the 2nd topic in
the sentence is emphasized): "While Langston Hughes was a master stylist, as a critic
he had several blind spots."
6. Finding Sources

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  Gathering Information for Essays which Require Research: Background
 Finding Sources--explanation
 Primary & Secondary Sources
 On-Line(Card) Catalog
 Magazines & Journals
 Indexes & Abstracts
 Newspaper Indexes
 Reference Books
 Library of Congress Subject Heading Index
 Books
 Internet Resources
 Knowledgeable People
 Interlibrary Loan
 Reference Librarian
 Exercise 6: Primary & Secondary Sources
 Exercise 7: Sample Searches
Gathering Information for Essays which Require Research: Background
Gathering sources is much more complex than it used to be. For starters, there are more
resources available. Secondly, information can be gathered in a number of places. Your
primary places for locating sources will be:

 The library
 Other computer sources (CDRoms, etc.)
 The internet/world wide web
This section provides an overview of important concepts and techniques in gathering
information for research essays. You should read this section before going to more specific
information on types of sources, documentation, etc. and before trying the sample
exercises.
The library
If you go to the library, you will find that the old card catalog, which only lists books, has
been replaced by a computer in most libraries. If you are doing research on a fairly new
topic, this will be fine. However, not all libraries have their entire collection on line. So, if
you are looking for information on say, the E Commerce, and think that some older sources
might be useful to you, be sure to ask the librarian if the library still maintains their card
catalog. If they do, you should check there as well as checking the computer.
The computer in the library usually will have instructions attached to it. Most library systems
allow you to search by title, author, or subject headings, and most are cross-referenced. If
you know which books you want, or know a specific author who has written books about
the field that you are researching, then go ahead and use the title or author categories in
the computer. You also may find it very helpful to use the subject heading category, which
will offer you more options for the books that might be useful to you in doing your research.

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The subject heading category allows you to put in key words that might lead to books in
your interest area. Don't limit yourself, though, by putting in words that are too narrow or
too broad. If your search words are too narrow, you will not find many sources; on the other
hand if they are too broad, you will not find the search useful either.

Key words are words that relate to your topic but are not necessarily in your thesis
statement (note that it will be most helpful if you have a clear idea about your topic before
you begin this type of research, although research can also help to narrow your thesis). For
example, if you are searching for information about experts in E Commerce, it would be too
broad to enter just "experts" and "E Commerce." You would find too many sources this way.
It might also be too narrow to enter the name of a specific expert--you probably need more
historical context. Try key phrases such as "experts and E Commerce" or " experts In USA
and E Commerce." You want to find as many books that might be helpful on the subject that
you are searching, without providing yourself with so much information that you lose sight
of your original topic.
You will also discover that there is another great way to find books that might be helpful to
you. As you find books on your topic listed in the computer, you can then track those books
down on the shelf. After a few minutes of searching on the computer, you will start to see
that certain books have call numbers (the number on the book's spine that tells its location
in the library) that are similar. After you finish your work on the computer, ask a reference
librarian, or follow the signs on the walls to locate the call numbers that correspond with
your books. When you get to the section where your book is located, don't just look at that
book. Look around, too. Sometimes you will find great resources that you were unaware of
just by looking on the shelf. Because libraries are generally organized by topic, you can often
find some real "gems" this way. Also check the index in the front or the back of the book
(the one in the back is always more detailed, but not all books have one) to be sure that the
information you are looking for is in the book. A book can have a great title, but no
information. On the other hand, a book that doesn't seem to go along with what you are
doing can turn out to have a lot of usable information.
Books are generally a great resource--they often contain a lot of information gathered into
one place, and they can give you a more thorough investigation of your topic. As you are
reading a book, journal article, or newspaper article, you should keep the following
questions in mind, which will help you understand how useful the book will be to you.

 Is the book or article biased in a particular way? For instance, is the book or article
written by a person who is a member of a particular religious group, or a particular
environmental group, for example, which would "colour" their interpretation?
 Does the author agree or disagree with my thesis?
 Is the information presented accurately, to the best of your knowledge? Is the
author him/herself using valid sources?
Periodicals

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Magazines (including Time or Newsweek) are called periodicals as they are published
periodically (weekly, monthly, etc.). Most libraries only keep the most current issues of
these magazines on the shelf. The rest are bound together in collections, usually by year.
These are usually kept in a separate room (in the basement, to my experience!) where you
can go and look at them. Usually, the location is a place called "the stacks," which is where
you go to look for periodicals that are older than the current issue. Remember that you
can't take these out of the library. If you find articles that you want to take home, you need
to photocopy them. Newspaper articles are sometimes in the bound periodicals, but are
more often found on microfiche or microfilm.
Make sure to distinguish between general interest magazines and professional journals; this
is an important distinction in college-level research.
Microfiche or microfilm is a device which can be extremely frustrating. Don't hesitate to ask
for help from your nearby reference person. Microfiche or microfilm comes in two forms--
small cards of information (fiche), or long film-type strips of information (film). Once you
insert these into the microfiche or microfilm machine (and there are separate machines for
each), you will be able to see the text of the article that you are looking for. Often, you will
have to scan through quite a bit of film to find what you are looking for. Microfiche and
microfilm are kept in boxes, and sometimes you have to request the date that you are
looking for. Don't give up! With persistence, you can find some wonderful resources on
microfiche and microfilm.
Other computer resources (CDROM, specialized databases etc)
Many libraries today, especially if they are larger libraries, have information available on
CDROM or through what are called specialized databases. Be sure to tell a reference
librarian what you are working on, and ask her advice on whether or not there is
information available on CDROM or through a specialized database.
CDROM's often are put out by groups such as History Societies (there is an entire set on the
Civil War, for example). Government documents are currently available on CDROM and
often offer updated information (census data, for example). The reference librarian can tell
you which CDs might be the most helpful and can help you sign them out and use them.
There are many specialized databases. Some examples are ERIC, the educational database,
and Silver Platter, which offers texts of recent articles in particular subjects (yep, the whole
article is available right through the computer, which is often less time-consuming than
looking through the stacks for it) The American Psychological Association has the titles of
articles on specific subjects (psychology, sociology, etc). Sociofile is another example. Ask
your reference librarian to see exactly what is available. One good thing about specialized
databases is that you already know the source and orientation of the article. You also know
that the source is a valid and reputable one. You will need the reference librarian's help
getting into specialized databases--most libraries require that the databases have
passwords. Warning: Bring your own paper if you plan on doing this type of research! Many
libraries allow you to print from the databases, but you must supply your own paper.

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Internet/World Wide Web Research
Internet research is another popular option these days. You can research from home if you
have internet search capabilities, or you usually can research from the library. Most libraries
have internet connections on at least a few computers, although sometimes you need to
sign up for them in advance. Even if there doesn't seem to be much of a crowd around, be
sure to sign up on the sheet so that you don't have someone come along and try to take
your spot.

Internet research can be very rewarding, but it also has its drawbacks. Many libraries have
set their computers on a particular search engine, or a service that will conduct the research
for you. If you don't find what you are looking for by using one search engine, switch to
another (Google, Yahoo, etc... are all good choices).
Internet research can be time consuming. You will need to search much the way you would
on the library database computers--simply type in key words or authors or titles, and see
what the computer comes up with. Then you will have to read through the list of choices
that you are given and see if any of them match what you think you are looking for.
WARNING ABOUT INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB RESEARCH: There are a lot of
resources on the internet that are not going to be valuable to you. Part of your internet
research will include evaluating the resources that you find. Personal web pages are NOT a
good source to go by--they often have incorrect information on them and can be very
misleading. Be sure that your internet information is from a recognized source such as the
government, an agency that you are sure is a credible source (the Greenpeace web page, for
example, or the web page for the National Institute of Health), or a credible news source
(CBS, NBC, and ABC all have web pages). A rule of thumb when doing internet research: if
you aren't sure whether or not the source is credible, DON'T USE IT!! One good source to
help you determine the credibility of online information is available from UCLA: Thinking
Critically about World Wide Web Resources. Check out the Content and Evaluation and
Sources and Data sections.
Taking notes, paraphrasing, and quoting
Taking notes is an important part of doing research. Be sure when you take notes that you
write down the source that they are from! One way of keeping track is to make yourself a
"master list"--a number list of all of the sources that you have. Then, as you are writing
down notes, you can just write down the number of that source. A good place to write notes
down is on note cards. This way you can take the note cards and organize them later
according to the way you want to organize your paper.
While taking notes, also be sure to write down the page number of the information. You will
need this later on when you are writing your paper.

 What do I take notes on? Good question. You should take notes on ideas and
concepts that you think are important to include in your paper. You also can include

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 supporting examples that you think would be helpful to refer to. You should NOT
write the words down exactly as they appear on the page, unless you are putting
them in quotations. Otherwise, you might accidentally write them into your paper
that way, and that would be plagiarism. Be sure to write down the page number that
you are working from in case you want to refer back to it.
 Using quotes, or What if I want the exact words? If you come across a passage in
your reading and it seems to you that the author's language is more accurate, more
touching, or more informative than you could create, then you should write that
sentence down exactly as you see it, with quotation marks around the sentence(s).
You must be very careful to record the page number that this information is from,
because you will need to include it in your paper. Quotes should not be used terribly
often--if your paper is nothing more than a series of quotes strung together (and yes,
we have all written those!) then you need to go back and include more of your own
information. Click here to see an example and to work more with using quotations.
 What about summarizing and paraphrasing? Summarizing and paraphrasing are
similar to quoting in that you are recording the author's ideas. However, when you
are summarize or paraphrase, you record ideas as opposed to exact language; the
language is yours. Once again, be sure to jot down the page number--you will need it
later. Any time you summarize or paraphrase, you MUST acknowledge the source of
your information. Not only is it a professional requirement, it is a way to avoid
plagiarism.
Documentation
Any time that you use information that is not what is considered "common knowledge," you
must acknowledge your source. For example, when you paraphrase or quote, you need to
indicate to your reader that you got the information from somewhere else. This scholarly
practice allows your reader to follow up that source to get more information. You must
create what is called a citation in order to acknowledge someone else's ideas. You use
parentheses () in your text, and inside the parentheses you put the author's name and the
page number (there are several different ways of doing this. You should look at your course
guide carefully to determine which format you should be using). Two standard formats, MLA
and APA, stand for the Modern Language Association, and the American Psychological
Association. Check out more specific information on how to document sources.
Finding Sources--explanation
Using sources to support your ideas is one characteristic of the research paper that sets it
apart from personal and creative writing. Sources come in many forms, such as magazine
and journal articles, books, newspapers, videos, films, computer discussion groups, surveys,
or interviews. The trick is to find and then match appropriate, valid sources to your own
ideas.
But where do you go to obtain these sources? For college research papers, you will need to
use sources available in academic libraries (college or university libraries as opposed to
public libraries). Here you will find journals and other texts that go into more depth in a

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discipline and are therefore more appropriate for college research than those sources
written for the general public.
Some, though not all, of these sources are now in electronic format, and may be accessible
outside of the library using a computer. The SUNY Empire State College web site includes a
useful list of online learning resources.
Primary & Secondary Sources
Primary sources are original, first-hand documents such as creative works, research studies,
diaries and letters, or interviews you conduct.
Secondary sources are comments about primary sources such as analyses of creative work
or original research, or historical interpretations of diaries and letters.
You can use a combination of primary and secondary sources to answer your research
question, depending on the question and the type of sources it requires.
If you're writing a paper on the reasons for a certain personality disorder, you may read an
account written by a person with that personality disorder, a case study by a psychiatrist,
and a textbook that summarizes a number of case studies. The first-hand account and the
psychiatrist's case study are primary sources, written by people who have directly
experienced or observed the situation themselves. The textbook is a secondary source, one
step removed from the original experience or observation.
For example, if you asked what the sea symbolized in Hemingway's story "The Old Man and
the Sea," you'd need to consult the story as a primary source and critics' interpretations of
the story as a secondary source.
On-Line(Card) Catalog
An on-line catalog has replaced card catalogs in many libraries as a means of listing and
indexing what is in the library. You use an on-line catalog the same way you use a card
catalog: look up a source by author, title, or subject. (So don't feel intimidated if you haven't
yet searched on-line; anyway, the directions are right on the screen.) Most of the searches
that you do for a research paper will be subject searches, unless you already know enough
about the field to know some standard sources by author or title.

When using an on-line catalog or a card catalog, make sure to jot down the source's name,
title, place of publication, publication date, and any other relevant bibliographic information
that you will need later on if you choose to use the source in your research paper. Also
remember to record the call number, which is the number you use to find the item in the
library.
Magazines & Journals
Magazines are written for the general public, so they contain articles that do not present a
subject in depth.

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Journals are written by and for professionals in various fields and will provide you with in-
depth, specific information.
Your professors will expect you to use some journals; in fact, the more advanced your
courses are, the more you should be using journal articles in your research (as opposed to
magazine articles).

How do you find articles to answer your research question? It's inefficient to go through
volumes of magazines and journals, even if you could think of appropriate ones. Most
magazine and journal articles are referenced in either an index or an abstract.
Indexes & Abstracts
An index lists magazine or journal articles by subject. Find the correct subject heading or
keyword to search for articles. Write down all the information for each article. Check the
index's abbreviation key if you can't understand the abbreviations in the entry. Make sure to
write down all of the entry's information so you can find the article IF your library carries the
magazine or journal. If not, you can use the information to request the article through
interlibrary loan.
Specific indices (the "correct" plural of index) exist for journals in just about every field of
study (Business Index, Social Science Index, General Science Index, Education Index, and
many more), while there's only one major index to general interest magazines (The Reader's
Guide to Periodical Literature). Many libraries have many of these indices on their on-line
systems; check with the reference librarian if you have a question about indices available
on-line.
An abstract is like an index with a brief description of the article's content added. You'll soon
see that it's great to be researching in a field that has an abstract, since this short
explanation can help you make an early decision about the relevance of the article to your
research question or working thesis.
A bound, printed abstract takes two steps to use. The first step is the same--find the
appropriate subject heading in the index portion and write down all of the information in
the entry. Note that the entry will also include a number or some kind of an identifying
code. Then use the number or code in the "abstracts" portion to find a description of the
type of information that's in the article.
Many libraries have abstracts in CD-ROM form. Because indexes will be accessed in different
ways and because the technology is changing so rapidly, follow the on-screen instructions
and/or ask the reference librarian.
Again, if an article seems appropriate, write down all of the entry information so you can
find the article in your library or through interlibrary loan and so you'll have the information
for your works cited or references list at the end of your paper.
Newspaper Indexes

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The most commonly used index to newspaper articles is the New York Times Index,
organized alphabetically by subject. Find the appropriate subject heading and jot down the
information so you can find the article, which is usually on microfilm, unless you're dealing
with a very recent issue of the Times. Your local newspaper also may publish an index,
which may be useful if you are researching local history or politics.

Reference Books
There are many general reference books that may be useful to your research in a variety of
ways.
1. General Encyclopedias (Britannica, Americana, etc.)
2. Specialized Encyclopedias (e.g., music or medical terms)
3. Facts on File, Statistical Abstracts
4. Other reference books
Encyclopedias provide background information about a subject. Note that you should
confine your use of encyclopedias to background information only, since their information is
too general to function as an appropriate source for a college paper.
Specialized encyclopedias and dictionaries provide background in specific fields (e.g., a
dictionary of music terms, a biographical encyclopedia of American authors, explanations of
legal terms).
Facts on File and Statistical Abstracts provide brief bits of statistical information that can aid
your research. For example, if you're doing on a paper on airline safety since deregulation,
it's a safe bet that you can find statistics on airline safety problems in one of these reference
books.
Other reference books abound (e.g., Book Review Digest, medical and legal dictionaries,
etc.). Take time, at some point, to browse your library's shelves in the reference section to
see how many different types of reference books exist and to consider how you may use
them. It will be time well spent.

Books
The important thing to remember here is that, by the time a book is printed, the
information is at least a couple of years old. So if you're doing research that requires very
recent information, a newspaper, magazine, or journal is your best bet.
If currency is not an issue (and it's not, in many cases), then a book's fuller treatment of a
subject is a good choice.
It's also useful to move from virtual cyberspace into actual, physical space and "real time"
when you search for books. That means that you should get yourself into the library.

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Sometimes a look through the stacks (the shelves on which the books are located) will turn
up additional information that's relevant to your research question or working thesis.
Internet Resources
The Internet provides access to a lot of information. The ESC Library provides access to a
number of useful databases on a wide variety of topics. The Internet provides access to
many on-line catalogs so you can review the types of books available in the field (and
carried by that particular library).
The Internet also provides access to a few full-text electronic journals (which means that
you can read and print the article right from the screen). Government information (e.g.,
policy statements, laws, treaties etc.) are also widely available in full-text format.
The Internet can link you up with individuals who might have expertise on the topic you are
researching. You can find these people by joining electronic discussion groups (newsgroups)
or maillists. These forums are usually categorized by topic (e.g., a maillist on ECOLOGY). By
posting a question to the group or maillist, you can obtain useful information from
knowledgeable people willing to share their expertise.
The one big problem with the Internet is that you sometimes need to sift. . . and sift. . . and
sift through it to find exactly what you want. You also have to be critical of what you find,
since anyone can post and even change anything that's out there in cyberspace, and you
won't necessarily know if someone answering your query is really an expert in the field. But
if you persevere, and even if you just play around with it, the Internet can offer some gems
of information in a quick, easy way.
Knowledgeable People
Don't underestimate the power of interviewing knowledgeable people as part of your
research. For example, if you're researching a topic in local history, consult the town
historian or a local resident who experienced what you're researching. People who have
"been there" and "done that" can add a real richness to your research. (Who better than a
former Olympic athlete to provide information about the emotional effects of athletic
competition?)
You can consult knowledgeable people in print as well. If you find one or two names that
keep popping up in your research (if others consistently refer to these names and list works
by these people in their bibliographies), then you should consult sources by these people,
since it's likely that they are considered experts in the field which you are researching.
7. Evaluating Sources to Answer a Research Question
You will want your research paper to be respected and credible. Therefore, after you
identify sources relevant to your research, you need to determine whether they can help
answer your research question.
There are four questions to ask when evaluating sources:
1. How well does the source answer the research question?

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 2. Is the information provided by an expert?
3. Is the source valid?
4. Is there a variety of sources?
How Well Does the Source Answer the Research Question?
To determine whether printed or online published material provides appropriate
information for you, review its table of contents, indexes, photographs, captions and
diagrams, and read the first sentence of every paragraph, searching for words, names,
concepts or images related to your research.

Is the Information Provided by an Expert?

To support your research's legitimacy, you will want your sources to be experts who have
considerable experience and training in an area and whose informed opinion can
substantiate (or differ with) your point of view. (Just because a person is associated with a
situation or idea does not make him or her an expert; for example, if you are researching
medical waste, any person who works in a hospital is not necessarily an expert.)
Is the Source Valid?
1. Is the information presented objectively and without bias? (Do you accept a claim
from the National Association of Tobacco Growers that nicotine is not an addictive
drug?)
2. Do the authors let you know their sources of information? Be wary when "an
informed source" is quoted without telling the reader who that source is.
3. Do the authors explain their research methods as well as results?
4. Is the research current, if the topic demands it? If you're writing a paper on nuclear
waste disposal, a report written in 1952 is not valid.
Is There a Variety of Sources?
Identify the range of expert perspectives, conclusions, opinions and approaches to your
topic so you don't promote or rely too heavily on one source or point of view.
For example, if you are comparing the leadership styles of Steve Job and Jack Ma, don't cite
five books, or use six sources on Steve Job and only two on Jack Ma.

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