The Indian aurochs[b] (Bos primigenius namadicus; Sindhi: انڊين جهنگلي ڏاند) is an extinct subspecies of aurochs that inhabited West Asia and the Indian subcontinent from the Late Pleistocene until its eventual extinction during the South Asian Stone Age.[1] With no remains younger than 3,800 YBP ever recovered, the Indian aurochs was the first of the three aurochs subspecies to become extinct; the Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) and the North African aurochs (B. p. mauritanicus) persevered longer, with the latter being known to the Roman Empire, and the former surviving until the mid-17th century in Central Europe.[1][4][5][2]
| Indian aurochs | |
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| Indian aurochs skull | |
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| Artist's impression[a] | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Artiodactyla |
| Family: | Bovidae |
| Subfamily: | Bovinae |
| Genus: | Bos |
| Species: | |
| Subspecies: | †B. p. namadicus
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| Trinomial name | |
| †Bos primigenius namadicus | |
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| Map of the species' distribution | |
| Synonyms | |
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Bos namadicus[citation needed] | |
Two breeds/subspecies of domestic cattle (Bos taurus), the sanga (B. t. africanus) and the zebu (B. indicus), can trace their genetic heritage directly to the Indian aurochs.[6][7][8][9]
Description
editThe Indian aurochs is known exclusively from fossil and subfossil records, where it shows only minimal morphologic differences to the Eurasian subspecies (B. p. primigenius).[10] The Indian aurochs was probably smaller than its Eurasian counterpart but had proportionally larger horns.[11] Because the range of the aurochs species was continuous from the Atlantic coasts of North Africa and Europe to Bengal, it is uncertain whether there was a distinction or a continuum between the Eurasian, North African and Indian subspecies.[11]
The last common ancestor of Indian aurochs and Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) is estimated to have lived about 150±50 ka BP, based on genetic analyses of living zebus and taurine cattle, the domesticated but heavily interbred descendants of those two aurochs subspecies.[14][failed verification][15] Zebu and many Sanga cattle breeds are phenotypically distinguished from taurine cattle by the presence of a prominent shoulder hump.[16]
Range
editThe author Cis Van Vuure considers the aurochs species to have originated about 2 million years ago in India and spread westwards.[11][failed verification] Most other authors consider an origin in Africa, where the species' oldest ever remains were found, from ancestors in the Pelorovis genus and a subsequent expansion into Eurasia more likely.[17][18][5][19][4]
A grazing ruminant like all members of his species, the Indian aurochs roamed throughout West and South Asia in the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene ages. Most remains are from the Kathiawar Peninsula, along the Ganges and Narmada rivers in what is today India. Some bone remains classified as Indian aurochs were also found further south, such as on the Deccan Plateau and along the Krishna River.[11]
The most recent remains from presesnt-day southern India, which clearly belong to the Indian aurochs are from Banahalli in Karnataka, with an age of about 4,200 YBP. Further north, the most recent remains date from 3,800 YBP and were found at Mahagara in what is now Uttar Pradesh.[4]
The Indian aurochs survived into the South Asian Stone Age, when its natural habitat steadily diminished by human pastoralism and agriculture spreading throughout the region around 5,500–4,000 YBP.[citation needed]
Possible predators preying on Indian aurochs are speculated[by whom?] to have been big cats such as lions, leopards and tigers, as well as other predatory mammals such as dholes and even giant hyenas and machairodonts such as Homotherium and Megantereon during prehistoric times.[citation needed]
Domestication
editThe Indian aurochs was most likely domesticated in the Indus River valley, now the Baluchistan region of Pakistan around 9,000 YBP, with subsequent breeding efforts eventually leading to zebu or indicine cattle.[20] The domestication process seems to have been prompted by the arrival of new crop species from the Near East around 9,000 YBP. Human pastoralism, enabled by domestic cattle, spread throughout the subcontinent around 5,500–4,000 YBP. Secondary domestication events - instances of additional genetic diversity acquired from interbreeding domesticated proto-indicine stock with wild aurochs cows - occurred very frequently in the Ganges basin but less so in southern India.[citation needed]
Domestic zebu are recorded from the Indus region since 6,000 BCE and from south India, the middle Ganges region, and present-day Gujarat since 3,500–2,000 BCE. Discounting gayal and banteng, domestic cattle seem to have been absent in southern China and southeast Asia until 2,000–1,000 BCE, when indicine cattle first appeared there.[4]
Feral zebu rewilding attempts
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A feral zebu herd was initiated at Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.[21] The cattle were set free in the sanctuary to act as an attractant for the critically endangered Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica). To the west, in the state of Gujarat, is the Asiatic lions' true last bastion, where the big cats are known to have a taste for zebu—notably in and around Gir National Park. Furthermore, the presence of the zebu within Kuno can potentially conserve and improve the entire ecosystem and landscape dramatically, as apex predators are vital to a healthy functioning ecosystem, on all levels. By attracting lions—or possibly other rare or vulnerable predators (such as Bengal tigers, dholes, Indian wolves, or Indian leopards)—the zebu will fill the ecological niche of their prehistoric ancestors.[22][23]
Notes
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References
edit- ^ a b c Turvey, Samuel T.; Sathe, Vijay; Crees, Jennifer J.; Jukar, Advait M.; Chakraborty, Prateek; Lister, Adrian M. (January 2021). "Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 252: 106740. Bibcode:2021QSRv..25206740T. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 234265221.
- ^ a b c Tikhonov, A. (2008). "Bos primigenius". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. IUCN: e.T136721A4332142. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T136721A4332142.en.
- ^ Campbell, Douglas Ian; Whittle, Patrick Michael (2017). "Three Case Studies: Aurochs, Mammoths and Passenger Pigeons". Resurrecting Extinct Species. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 29–48. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_2. ISBN 978-3-319-69578-5.
- ^ a b c d Chen et al., 2010: "Zebu cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic." Molecular biology and evolution, 27(1), 1-6. [1] (in Supplementary Data)
- ^ a b Linseele, Veerle (25 October 2004). "Size and Size Change of the African Aurochs During the Pleistocene and Holocene". Journal of African Archaeology. 2 (2): 165–185. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10026. ISSN 1612-1651.
- ^ Grigson, Caroline (1 December 1991). "An African origin for African cattle? — some archaeological evidence". African Archaeological Review. 9 (1): 119–144. doi:10.1007/BF01117218. ISSN 1572-9842. S2CID 162307756.
- ^ Marshall, Fiona (April 1989). "Rethinking the Role of Bos indicus in Sub-Saharan Africa". Current Anthropology. 30 (2): 235–240. doi:10.1086/203737. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 143063029.
- ^ Pitt, Daniel; Sevane, Natalia; Nicolazzi, Ezequiel L.; MacHugh, David E.; Park, Stephen D. E.; Colli, Licia; Martinez, Rodrigo; Bruford, Michael W.; Orozco‐terWengel, Pablo (January 2019). "Domestication of cattle: Two or three events?". Evolutionary Applications. 12 (1): 123–136. doi:10.1111/eva.12674. ISSN 1752-4571. PMC 6304694. PMID 30622640.
- ^ Pérez-Pardal, Lucía; Sánchez-Gracia, Alejandro; Álvarez, Isabel; Traoré, Amadou; Ferraz, J. Bento S.; Fernández, Iván; Costa, Vânia; Chen, Shanyuan; Tapio, Miika; Cantet, Rodolfo J. C.; Patel, Ajita; Meadow, Richard H.; Marshall, Fiona B.; Beja-Pereira, Albano; Goyache, Félix (21 December 2018). "Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 18027. Bibcode:2018NatSR...818027P. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6303292. PMID 30575786.
- ^ Pumpelly, Raphael. Explorations in Turkestan: Expedition of 1904 : vol.2, p. 361.
- ^ a b c d Cis van Vuure: Retracing the Aurochs - History, Morphology and Ecology of an extinct wild Ox. 2005, ISBN 954-642-235-5.
- ^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-193-5.
- ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
- ^ Verkaar, Nijman, Beeke, Hanekamp & Lenstra: Maternal and Paternal Lineages in Cross-breeding bovine species. Has Wisent a Hybrid Origin?. 2004.
- ^ MacHugh et al., 1997: "Microsatellite DNA Variation and the Evolution, Domestication and Phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus)". Genetics, Vol. 146, 1071–1086. Abstract
- ^ Loftus et al., 1994: "Evidence for two independent domestications of cattle." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91.7: 2757-2761. Abstract
- ^ Edwards, Ceiridwen J.; Magee, David A.; Park, Stephen D. E.; McGettigan, Paul A.; Lohan, Amanda J.; Murphy, Alison; Finlay, Emma K.; Shapiro, Beth; Chamberlain, Andrew T.; Richards, Martin B.; Bradley, Daniel G.; Loftus, Brendan J.; MacHugh, David E. (17 February 2010). "A Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence from a Mesolithic Wild Aurochs (Bos primigenius)". PLOS ONE. 5 (2): e9255. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.9255E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009255. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2822870. PMID 20174668.
- ^ Bradley, D G; MacHugh, D E; Cunningham, P; Loftus, R T (14 May 1996). "Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (10): 5131–5135. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.5131B. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 39419. PMID 8643540.
- ^ Ganesh Ghosh: "Evaluating prospects of reintroducing Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary." TIGERPAPER, Vol. 36: No. 2 April–June 2009
- ^ A.J.T. Johnsingh (2004) "Is Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary ready to play second home to Asiatic lions?" Archived 2007-09-27 at archive.today, published in the Newsletter of Wildlife Institute of India (WII). Archived version at [2].
- ^ Preparations for the reintroduction of Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica into Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh, India by A.J.T. Johnsingh, S.P. Goyal, Qamar Qureshi; Cambridge Journals Online; Oryx (2007), 41: 93-96 Cambridge University Press; Copyright 2007 Fauna & Flora International; doi:10.1017/S0030605307001512; Published online by Cambridge University Press 05Mar2007
External links
edit- Image of a Bos primigenius namadicus skull in: Raphael Pumpelly: Explorations in Turkestan : Expedition of 1904 : vol.2, p. 361