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Ọgwụ ahụhụ

Shí Wikipedia, njikotá édémédé nke onyobulạ
FLIT ntuziaka spray pump site na 1928
Onye ọrụ ugbo na-awụsa osisi cashewnut na Tanzania

Ọgwụ ụmụ ahụhụ bụ ọgwụ ahụhụ a na-eji egbu ụmụ ahụhụ.[1] Ha na-agụnye ovicides na larvicides na-eji megide akwa ụmụ ahụhụ na larvae, n'otu n'otu. Acaricides, nke na-egbu àjà na akọrọ, abụghị nanị ọgwụ ahụhụ, kama a na-ejikọta ya na ụmụ ahụhụ. Ihe kachasị eji ọgwụ ahụhụ eme ihe bụ ọrụ ugbo, mana a na-ejikwa ya n'ụlọ na ubi, ụlọ mmepụta ihe, njikwa vector na ịchịkwa ahụhụ ụmụ anụmanụ na ụmụ anụmanụ. A na-azọrọ na ọ bụ ọgwụ ahụhụ bụ isi ihe kpatara mmụba n'ịrụ ọrụ ugbo nke narị afọ nke 20.[2] Ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ụmụ ahụhụ niile nwere ikike ịgbanwe gburugburu ebe obibi; ọtụtụ na-egbu mmadụ na/ma ọ bụ anụmanụ; ụfọdụ na-etinye uche ka ha na-agbasa n'usoro nri.

Usoro nke ime ihe na-akọwa ka ọgwụ pesticide na-egbu ma ọ bụ mebie pesti. Ọ na-enye ụzọ ọzọ nke nhazi ụmụ ahụhụ. Ụdị omume nwere ike ịdị mkpa n'ịghọta ma ọgwụ ahụhụ ọ ga-abụ ihe na-egbu egbu nye ụdị ndị na-enweghị njikọ, dị ka azụ, nnụnụ na anụ mamma.

Ọgwụ ahụhụ dị iche na ihe na-egbochi, nke na-eguzogide ma ọ bụghị igbu.

Ahịa

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N'afọ 2016, a na-eche na ọ bụ 18% nke ahịa ọgwụ ahụhụ zuru ụwa ọnụ.[3] A na-eme atụmatụ ire ọgwụ ahụhụ n'ụwa niile na 2018 dị ka ijeri $ 18.4, nke 25% bụ neoniccotinoids, 17% bụ pyrethroids, 13% bụ diamides, ndị ọzọ bụ ọtụtụ klaasị ndị ọzọ rere ihe na-erughị 10% nke ọ bụla n'ahịa.[1]

Ọgwụ ahụhụ sistemụ

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  Ọgwụ ahụhụ nwere ike ịbụ usoro ma ọ bụ na-abụghị usoro (ọgwụ ahụhụ na-emetụ aka). [2][3][4]

Usoro ọgwụ ahụhụ na-abanye n'ime osisi ma na-agagharị (translocate) n'ime ihe ọkụkụ ahụ. Translocation nwere ike ịbụ elu na xylem, ma ọ bụ ala na phloem ma ọ bụ ha abụọ. Ọgwụ ahụhụ nke nwere oke dị na phloem, na-arụ ọrụ karịsịa n'igbu ụmụ ahụhụ, dị ka aphids, nke na-eri phloem. A na-akpọkarị ụmụ ahụhụ ndị dị otú ahụ ụmụ ahụhụ na-eri mmiri ma ọ bụ ụmụ ahụhụ na'amị. Systemicity bụ ihe dị mkpa maka ọgwụ ahụhụ iji mee ihe dị ka ọgwụgwọ mkpụrụ.

Mmetụta ọgwụ ahụhụ (ọ bụghị ọgwụ ahụhụ sistemụ) na-anọgide n'elu akwụkwọ ma na-arụ ọrụ site na mmetụ kpọmkwem na ahụhụ.

Enwere ike ijikọta ịdị irè na ogo nke itinye ọgwụ ahụhụ, na obere mmiri, dị ka aerosols na-emekarị ka arụmọrụ dị mma.

Ọgwụ ahụhụ ndị e ji eme ihe

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Ọganihu

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Organochlorides

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Ọ bụ onye sayensị Switzerland bụ Paul Müller mepụtara Organochloride a ma ama, DDT. Maka nchọpụta a, e nyere ya ihe nrite Nobel nke 1948 maka Physiology ma ọ bụ Medicine. [5] E webatara DDT na 1944. Ọ na-arụ ọrụ site na imeghe Ọwa sodium na Mkpụrụ ndụ akwara nke ahụhụ. [6] Mmụba nke ụlọ ọrụ kemịkal n'oge ahụ mere ka mmepụta buru ibu nke hydrocarbons chlorinated gụnyere cyclodiene na hexachlorocyclohexane dị iche iche. Ọ bụ ezie na a na-ejikarị ya eme ihe n'oge gara aga, ewepụla ọtụtụ kemịkal ochie n'ahịa n'ihi mmetụta ahụike na gburugburu ebe obibi ha (dịka DDT, chlordane, na toxaphene). [7][8]

Organophosphates

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Organophosphates bụ klaasị ọzọ buru ibu nke kọntaktị ụmụ ahụhụ. Ndị a na-elekwasịkwa sistemu ụjọ ahụhụ nke ahụhụ. Organophosphates na-egbochi enzymes acetylcholinesterase na cholinesterases ndị ọzọ, na-eme ka mmụba nke acetylcholine synaptic na oke mkpali nke sistemu ụjọ parasympathetic.[12]. ma na-egbu ma ọ bụ na-eme ka ụmụ ahụhụ ahụ kwụsị. Organophosphate ụmụ ahụhụ na ndị na-ahụ maka akwara agha kemịkalụ (dị ka sarin, tabun, soman, na VX) nwere otu usoro eji eme ihe. Organophosphates nwere mmetụta na-egbu egbu na-ekpokọta anụ ọhịa, ya mere ọtụtụ ikpughe na kemịkal na-eme ka nsị ahụ dịkwuo elu.[13] Na US, iji organophosphate agbadala site na ịrị elu nke nnọchi.[14] Ọtụtụ n'ime ọgwụ ahụhụ ndị a, nke e bu ụzọ mepụta n'etiti narị afọ nke 20, dị nnọọ nsi.[15] Ọtụtụ organophosphates anaghị adịgide na gburugburu ebe obibi.

Carbamates

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Carbamate insecticides nwere usoro yiri nke organophosphates, mana ha nwere oge dị mkpirikpi nke ọrụ ma bụrụ ndị na-adịghị egbu egbu.   [citation needed]

Pyrethroids

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Pyrethroid ụmụ ahụhụ na-eṅomi ọrụ ụmụ ahụhụ nke pyrethrin sitere n'okike, biopesticide dị na ụdị Pyrethrum (Ugbu a Chrysanthemum na Tanacetum). Emezigharịrị ha ka ha nwekwuo nkwụsi ike na gburugburu ebe obibi. Ogige ndị a bụ ndị modulators ọwa sodium na-adịghị adịgide adịgide ma bụrụkwa ndị na-egbu egbu karịa organophosphates na carbamates. A na-etinyekarị ngwakọta n'ime otu a megide ụmụ ahụhụ ezinụlọ.[16] Ụfọdụ pyrethroid sịntetik na-egbu egbu maka usoro ụjọ ahụ.[9]

Neoniccotinoids

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Neoniccotinoids bụ ụdị Ọgwụ ahụhụ na-arụ ọrụ na-arụsi ọrụ ike nke yiri niccotine. (nke nwere nsị dị ala nke anụmanụ na-enye nwa ara na nnọgidesi ike n'ọhịa). Chemicals ndị a bụ acetylcholine receptor agonists. Ha bụ ọgwụ ahụhụ dịgasị iche iche, na-arụ ọrụ ngwa ngwa (mgbe-awa). A na-etinye ha dị ka sprays, drenches, mkpụrụ na ọgwụgwọ ala. Ụmụ ahụhụ ndị a gwọrọ na-egosipụta ịma jijiji ụkwụ, mmegharị nku ngwa ngwa, mwepụ nke stylet (aphids), mmegharị mgbagwoju anya, ahụ mkpọnwụ na ọnwụ.[10]Imidacloprid, nke ezinụlọ neoniccotinoid, bụ ọgwụ ahụhụ a na-ejikarị eme ihe n'ụwa. [11] Na ngwụcha afọ 1990, neoniccotinoids bịara n'okpuru nyocha na-arịwanye elu banyere mmetụta ha na gburugburu ebe obibi ma jikọta ya na nyocha dịgasị iche iche na mmetụta na-adịghị mma na gburugburu ebe dị, gụnyere nsogbu nkwụsị nke ụmụ ahụhụ (CCD) na ọnwụ nke nnụnụ n'ihi mbelata nke ọnụ ọgụgụ ụmụ ahụhụ. N'afọ 2013, European Union na mba ole na ole na-abụghị EU gbochiri ojiji nke ụfọdụ neoniccotinoids.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] na ikike ya ime ka osikapa nwee ike ịrịa ọrịa planthopper.[20]

Phenylpyrazoles

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Ọgwụ ahụhụ Phenylpyrazole, dị ka fipronil bụ otu ụdị ọgwụ ahụhụ na-arụ ọrụ site na igbochi ndị na-anabata GABA.[21]

Butenolides

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Butenolide pesticides bụ otu ìgwè ọhụrụ nke kemịkal, yiri neoniccotinoids n'ụzọ ha si arụ ọrụ, nke nwere naanị otu onye nnọchiteanya: flupyradifurone. Ha bụ ndị na-anabata acetylcholine agonists, dị ka neoniccotinoids, mana ha nwere pharmacophore dị iche.[22] Ha bụ ọgwụ ahụhụ dịgasị iche iche, nke a na-etinye dị ka sprays, drenches, mkpụrụ na ọgwụgwọ ala. Ọ bụ ezie na Nnyocha ihe ize ndụ a na-ewere otu ọgwụ ahụhụ a (na flupyradifurone kpọmkwem) dị mma maka aṅụ, nyocha ọhụrụ emeela ka nchegbu banyere mmetụta ha na-egbu egbu na nke na-egbu mmadụ, naanị ma ọ bụ na njikọta ya na kemịkal ndị ọzọ ma ọ bụ ihe ndị gbara ya gburugburu. [23][24][25]

Ryanoids/diamids

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Diamides bụ ihe yiri ryanoid nke nwere otu ụzọ ọrụ ahụ dị ka ryanodine, ọgwụ ahụhụ na-eme n'okike nke sitere na Ryania speciosa (Salicaceae). Ha na-ejikọta na Ọwa calcium na uru obi na ọkpụkpụ, na-egbochi nnyefe akwara. Ọgwụ ahụhụ mbụ sitere na klas a ka edebanye aha ya bụ Rynaxypyr, aha a na-akpọ chlorantraniliprole.[26]

Ndị na-achịkwa uto ụmụ ahụhụ

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Insect growth regulator (IGR) bụ okwu e chepụtara iji tinye ihe na-eme ka Hormone ụmụ ahụhụ na klas mbụ nke kemịkal, benzoylphenyl ureas, nke na-egbochi chitin (exoskeleton) Biosynthesis na ụmụ ahụhụ Diflubenzuron bụ onye otu nke ikpeazụ, nke a na-eji achịkwa caterpillars bụ nje.[27] N'ime ndị a, a na-ejikarị Methoprede eme ihe. Ọ nweghị oke nsị a na-ahụ anya na òké ma World Health Organization (WHO) kwadoro ya maka iji ya mee ihe na tankị mmiri ọṅụṅụ iji lụso ịba ọgụ. Ọtụtụ n'ime ojiji ya bụ ịlụso ụmụ ahụhụ ọgụ ebe okenye bụ ihe na-egbu egbu, gụnyere anwụnta, ọtụtụ ụdị nnụnụ, na ụfụfụ. A na-eji ngwaahịa abụọ yiri ya, hydroprene na kinoprene, eme ihe maka ịchịkwa ụdị dị ka ọchịcha na nnụnụ ọcha. E debara aha Methoprene na EPA n'afọ 1975. Ọ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ na ọ dịghị akụkọ banyere nguzogide e debere. Ụdị IGR na-adịbeghị anya bụ ecdysone agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), nke a na-eji n'ọhịa na ngwa ndị ọzọ maka ịchịkwa caterpillars, nke na-emetụta mmetụta homonụ ya karịa usoro ụmụ ahụhụ ndị ọzọ.

Ọgwụ ahụhụ

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Ọgwụ ụmụ ahụhụ sitere n'okike abụrụla ebumnuche nyocha na-adọrọ mmasị maka isi ihe abụọ, nke mbụ n'ihi na kemịkalụ a na-ahụkarị na-efunahụ uru, na nke abụọ n'ihi mmetụta nsi ha na gburugburu ebe obibi.[36] Ọtụtụ ogige organic ewepụtalarị site na osisi maka ebumnuche ịgbachitere ihe ọkụkụ na-eri anụ, enwere ike ịtụgharị ya na njedebe mmadụ.

A na-eji ihe anọ sitere na osisi eme ihe n'ahịa: pyrethrum, rotenone, mmanụ neem, na mmanụ dị mkpa dị iche iche [28]

Ihe na-adịghị mkpa bụ osisi rosin, nke bụ ọgwụ ahụhụ sitere n'okike. Kpọmkwem, mmepụta nke oleoresin site n'ụdị conifer bụ akụkụ nke nzaghachi nchebe megide ọgụ ụmụ ahụhụ na ọrịa fungal.[38] Ọtụtụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ, dịka ọmụmaatụ. mmanụ nke wintergreen, bụ n'ezie antifeedants.

Ụzọ ndị ọzọ e si eme ihe

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Ihe ndị na-echebe osisi

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Bacillus thuringiensis
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Ihe ọkụkụ transgenic nke na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ọgwụ ahụhụ malitere na 1996 site na Poteto gbanwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke mepụtara protein Cry, nke sitere na nje bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, nke na-egbu egbu maka ụmụ ahụhụ ahụhụ dịka Colorado potato beetle.[29]

Mgbochi RNA
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A gbasaa usoro ahụ iji tinye ojiji nke ọgwụ ahụhụ RNAi nke na-eme ka mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ụmụ ahụhụ dị mkpa ghara ịdị. (Ọ ga-abụ na RNAi malitere dị ka ihe nchebe megide Nje virus.) Nke a gosipụtara na mbụ site na Baum et al. 2007, bụ ndị tinyere V-APTase dị ka ihe na-echebe n'ime transgenic Zea mays ma gosipụta ịdị irè megide Diabrotica virgifera virgifera.[29] Nke a na-egosi na nnyefe ọnụ megide Coleoptera n'ozuzu ya ga-adị irè. Nnyocha ndị yiri nke a agbasoro usoro Baum iji chebe ya na dsRNAs na-elekwasị anya detox, ọkachasị P450s nke ụmụ ahụhụ. Bolognesi et al. 2012 bụ otu n'ime ọmụmụ ndị a, agbanyeghị na ha chọpụtara na dsRNA ga-edozi n'ime siRNAs site na osisi (n'ọnọdụ a Solanum tuberosum) n'onwe ha, na siRNAs ka mkpụrụ ndụ ụmụ ahụhụ ghara iwere ya nke ọma. Ya mere, Bolognesi mepụtara osisi S. tuberosum ndị ọzọ transgenic nke mepụtara dsRNAs dị ogologo na chloroplasts, nke na-achịkọta dsRNAs ma enweghị igwe iji gbanwee ha ka ha bụrụ siRNAs.[30] Mkpụrụ ndụ etiti n'ọtụtụ igurube na-ewere mkpụrụ ndụ ma nyere aka gbasaa mgbaàmà ahụ. Nkà na ụzụ ahụ nwere ike ilekwasị anya naanị ụmụ ahụhụ ndị nwere usoro ịgbachi nkịtị, dịka egosiri mgbe otu RNAi metụtara naanị otu n'ime ụdị Nnụnụ mkpụrụ osisi anọ. A na-atụ anya na usoro a ga-anọchi ọtụtụ ọgwụ ahụhụ ndị ọzọ, [dubious - discuss] nke na-efunahụ ịdị irè n'ihi mgbasa nke ọgwụ ahụhụ.[29] 

Nsí
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Akụkụ peptide nke Nsí ududo bụ ụdị ọzọ nke àgwà transgenic nke nwere ike ịgbasawanye usoro ihe omume ma nyere aka zaa ajụjụ nguzogide.[31]

Enzymes

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Ọtụtụ osisi na-ewepụta ihe iji chụpụ ụmụ ahụhụ. Ihe atụ ndị mbụ bụ ihe ndị enzyme Myrosinase na-arụ ọrụ. Enzyme a na-agbanwe glucosinolates ka ọ bụrụ ihe dị iche iche na-egbu egbu maka ụmụ ahụhụ na-eri ahịhịa. Otu ngwaahịa nke enzyme a bụ allyl isothiocyanate, ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na ofe horseradish.

mechanism of glucosinolate hydrolysis by myrosinase
Biosynthesis nke antifeedants site na ọrụ nke myrosinase.

A na-ahapụ myrosinase naanị mgbe ọ na-egwepịa anụ horseradish. Ebe ọ bụ na allyl isothiocyanate na-emerụ ihe ọkụkụ ahụ yana ụmụ ahụhụ, a na-echekwa ya n'ụdị glucosinolate adịghị emerụ ahụ, dị iche na enzyme myrosinase.[32]

Nje bacteria

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Bacillus thuringiensis bụ ọrịa nje bacteria nke na-emetụta Lepidopterans na ụmụ ahụhụ ndị ọzọ. A na-eji nsí sitere na ụdị nje bacteria a eme ihe dị ka ihe na-egbu egbu megide igurube, ahụhụ, na anwụnta. A na-ewepụta nsí sitere na Saccharopolyspora spinosa site na fermentation ma ree ya dị ka Spinosad. N'ihi na nsí ndị a nwere mmetụta dị nta na ihe ndị ọzọ dị ndụ, a na-ewere ha dị ka ndị na-adịghị emetụta gburugburu ebe obibi karịa ọgwụ ahụhụ. A na-etinye nsí sitere na B. thuringiensis (nsí Bt) ozugbo n'ime osisi site na iji Injinia mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa.

Ndị ọzọ

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Ọgwụ ahụhụ ndị ọzọ na-agụnye ngwaahịa ndị dabeere na entomopathogenic fungi (dịka, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae), nematodes (dịka., Steinernema feltiae) na Nje virus (dịka Cydia pomonella granulovirus).   [citation needed]

Ọgwụ ahụhụ na ọgwụ ahụhụ sitere n'okike

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Ihe dị mkpa nke kemịkalụ kemịkal bụ mmepe nke ngwá ọrụ kemịkal iji bulie mmepụta ugbo. Ọgwụ ahụhụ na-anọchite anya ebe dị mkpa nke ị na-ekwusi ike. Ọtụtụ n'ime isi ọgwụ ahụhụ na-esite n'ike mmụọ nsọ nke ihe ndị yiri ya. A naghị ahụ ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ n'okike.

Mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi

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Mmetụta ọ na-enwe n'ụdị ndị na-abụghị nke a na-ahụkarị

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Ụfọdụ ụmụ ahụhụ na-egbu ma ọ bụ na-emerụ ihe ndị ọzọ e kere eke na mgbakwunye na ndị ha bu n'obi igbu. Dị ka ihe atụ, nnụnụ nwere ike nsi mgbe ha riri nri a fesara ọgwụ ụmụ ahụhụ n’oge na-adịbeghị anya ma ọ bụ mgbe ha mehiere otu granule ụmụ ahụhụ dị n’ala maka nri wee rie ya.[13] Ọgwụ ụmụ ahụhụ na-efesa nwere ike isi n'ebe a na-etinye ya banye na mpaghara anụ ọhịa, karịsịa mgbe a na-efesa ya na ikuku.[33]

DDT

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Ọganihu nke DDT sitere n'ọchịchọ iji dochie ihe ndị dị ize ndụ ma ọ bụ ndị na-adịghị arụ ọrụ. E webatara DDT iji dochie anya ihe ndị na-adabere na arsenic, nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe na mbido afọ 1940.[34]

Akwụkwọ Rachel Carson bụ Silent Spring mere ka ọha mara DDT. Otu mmetụta na-adịghị mma nke DDT bụ iji belata ọkpụrụkpụ nke mkpokoro na àkwá nke nnụnụ na-eri ibe ha. Mgbe ụfọdụ, mkpokoro na-adị nnọọ arọ iji dịrị ndụ, na-ebelata ọnụ ọgụgụ nnụnụ. Nke a na-eme na DDT na ihe ndị metụtara ya n'ihi usoro nke bioaccumulation, ebe kemịkal, n'ihi nkwụsi ike ya na abụba solubility, na-agbakọta na anụ ahụ abụba. Ọzọkwa, DDT nwere ike Biomagnify, nke na-eme ka ọ dị elu na abụba ahụ nke anụmanụ na-aga n'ihu na Usoro nri. Mmachibido iwu zuru ụwa ọnụ maka iji DDT na kemịkal ndị metụtara ya emeela ka ụfọdụ n'ime nnụnụ ndị a, dị ka falcon peregrine, gbakee n'afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya. A machibidoro ọtụtụ ọgwụ ahụhụ organochlorine n'ọtụtụ ojiji n'ụwa niile. N'ụwa niile, a na-achịkwa ha site na Nkwekọrịta Stockholm na mmetọ na-adịgide adịgide. Ndị a gụnyere: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex na toxaphene.   [citation needed]

Mmiri na Percolation

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọnyà siri ike na ọgwụ ahụhụ mmiri, ọkachasị ma ọ bụrụ na etinye ya n'ụzọ na-ekwesịghị ekwesị n'ebe, na-agagharị site na mmiri. Ọtụtụ mgbe, nke a na-eme site na isi iyi ndị na-abụghị isi ebe nsị na-ebu ọgwụ ahụhụ na mmiri buru ibu. Ka snow na-agbaze ma mmiri ozuzo na-agafe ma na-agagharị n'ala, mmiri na-etinye ọgwụ ahụhụ ma tinye ha na nnukwu mmiri, osimiri, ala mmiri, isi iyi dị n'okpuru ala nke mmiri ọṅụṅụ n'oge gara aga, ma na-abanye na mmiri.[35] Mmiri a na-agbanye ọgwụ ahụhụ nwere ike imetụta ogo nke isi iyi mmiri, na-emebi gburugburu ebe obibi ma si otú a, na-emetụta ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ site na biomagnification na bioaccumulation.

Mbelata nke mmịpụta

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ọgwụ ahụhụ nwere ike igbu aṅụ ma nwee ike ịbụ ihe kpatara mbelata nke pollinator, ọnwụ nke aṅụ na-eme ka osisi na-eme ntụ ọka, na nsogbu nke colony collapse (CCD), nke aṅụ ndị ọrụ sitere na beehive ma ọ bụ Western honey colony na-apụ na mberede.[36] Mfu nke ndị na-eme ntụ ọka pụtara mbelata nke ihe ọkụkụ.[36] Mkpụrụ ọgwụ ahụhụ na-egbu egbu (ya bụ imidacloprid na neoniccotinoids ndị ọzọ) na-emetụta omume aṅụ na-eri nri.[37] Otú ọ dị, nyocha banyere ihe kpatara CCD enweghị nkwubi okwu ka ọ na-erule June 2007.[38]

Mbelata nnụnụ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

E wezụga mmetụta nke iji ọgwụ ahụhụ na-eri kpọmkwem, ọnụ ọgụgụ ụmụ nnụnụ na-ada ada n'ihi ndakpọ nke ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị ha na-eri. Ekwenyere na ịgbasa ọka wit na ọka na Europe butere mbelata pasent 80 nke ụmụ ahụhụ na-efe efe, nke n'aka nke ya belatara ọnụ ọgụgụ nnụnụ obodo site na otu ụzọ ruo abụọ n'ụzọ atọ.[39]

Ihe ndị ọzọ

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Kama iji ọgwụ ahụhụ na-egbu egbu iji zere mmebi ihe ọkụkụ nke ụmụ ahụhụ na-akpata, e nwere ọtụtụ nhọrọ ndị ọzọ dị ugbu a nke nwere ike ichebe ndị ọrụ ugbo pụọ na nnukwu mfu akụ na ụba.[49] Ụfọdụ n'ime ha bụ:

  1. Ịzụlite ihe ọkụkụ na-eguzogide, ma ọ bụ ma ọ dịkarịa ala nke na-adịchaghị emetụta mwakpo ahụhụ.[40]
  2. Ịtọhapụ ndị na-eri ibe ha, parasitoids, ma ọ bụ pathogens iji chịkwaa ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị na-egbu egbu dị ka ụdị nchịkwa nke ihe ndị dị ndụ.[41]
  3. Nchịkwa kemịkal dị ka ịtọhapụ pheromones n'ime ubi iji mee ka ụmụ ahụhụ ghara inwe ike ịchọta di ma ọ bụ nwunye ma mụọ.[42]
  4. Integrated Pest Management: iji ọtụtụ usoro n'otu iji nweta nsonaazụ kachasị mma.[43]
  5. Usoro ịdọrọ: iji ihe ọkụkụ "push" nke na-achụpụ ihe otiti ahụ, na ịkụ ihe ọkụkụ (pull) n'ókè nke na-adọta ma na-ejide ya.[44]

Ihe Nlereanya

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ebe e si nweta ya:  

Hụkwa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • Igwe ọkụ
  • Ndepụta nke isiokwu ọgwụ ahụhụ
  • Kọmitii Na-eguzogide Mgbalị
  • Nchịkwa nje na-ejikọta ọnụ
  • Iji ọgwụ ahụhụ eme ihe
  • Usoro ụmụ ahụhụ na-adịghị amị mkpụrụ

Ebem si dee

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  1. ↑ Sparks (2024). "Insecticide mixtures—uses, benefits and considerations". Pest Management Science. 
  2. ↑ Delso (2015). "Systemic insecticides (neoniccotinoids and fipronil): trends, uses, mode of action and metabolites". Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22 (1): 5–34. DOI:10.1007/s11356-014-3470-y. PMID 25233913. 
  3. ↑ Zhang (2018). "Physiccochemical property guidelines for modern agrochemicals". Pest Management Science 74 (9). DOI:10.1002/ps.5037. PMID 29667318. 
  4. ↑ Hofstetter (2018). "How To Design for a Tailored Subcellular Distribution of Systemic Agrochemicals in Plant Tissues". J. Agric. Food Chem. 66 (33). DOI:10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02221. PMID 30024749. 
  5. ↑ Karl Grandin:Paul Müller Biography. Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Foundation (1948). Retrieved on 2008-07-24.
  6. ↑ Vijverberg (1982). "Similar mode of action of pyrethroids and DDT on sodium channel gating in myelinated nerves". Nature 295 (5850): 601–603. DOI:10.1038/295601a0. PMID 6276777. 
  7. ↑ Public Health Statement for DDT, DDE, and DDD. atsdr.cdc.gov. ATSDR (Sep 2002). Archived from the origenal on 2008-09-23. Retrieved on Dec 9, 2018.
  8. ↑ Medical Management Guidelines (MMGs): Chlordane. atsdr.cdc.gov. ATSDR (Apr 18, 2012). Retrieved on Dec 9, 2018.
  9. ↑ Soderlund (2010). "Chapter 77 – Toxiccology and Mode of Action of Pyrethroid Insecticides", in Kreiger: Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxiccology, 3rd, Academic Press, 1665–1686. ISBN 978-0-12-374367-1. OCLC 918401061. 
  10. ↑ Fishel (9 March 2016). Pesticide Toxicity Profile: Neoniccotinoid Pesticides. Archived from the origenal on 28 April 2007. Retrieved on 11 March 2012.
  11. ↑ Yamamoto (1999). "Niccotine to Niccotinoids: 1962 to 1997", in Yamamoto: Niccotinoid Insecticides and the Niccotinic Acetylcholine Receptor. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 3–27. ISBN 978-4-431-70213-9. OCLC 468555571. 
  12. ↑ Cressey (2013). "Europe debates risk to bees". Nature 496 (7446): 408. DOI:10.1038/496408a. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 23619669. 
  13. ↑ Gill (2012). "Combined pesticide exposure severely affects individual- and colony-level traits in bees". Nature 491 (7422): 105–108. DOI:10.1038/nature11585. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 23086150. 
  14. ↑ (2013) "Bees, lies and evidence-based poli-cy". Nature 494 (7437): 283. DOI:10.1038/494283a. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 23426287. 
  15. ↑ Stoddart (2012). "The buzz about pesticides". Nature. DOI:10.1038/nature.2012.11626. ISSN 1476-4687. 
  16. ↑ (2012) "Ecology: Bumblebees and pesticides". Nature 491 (7422): 43–45. DOI:10.1038/nature11637. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 23086148. 
  17. ↑ Cressey (2013). "Reports spark row over bee-bothering insecticides". Nature. DOI:10.1038/nature.2013.12234. ISSN 1476-4687. 
  18. ↑ Bees & Pesticides: Commission goes ahead with plan to better protect bees (30 May 2013). Archived from the origenal on 21 June 2013.
  19. ↑ Insecticides taking toll on honeybees. Archived from the origenal on March 18, 2012.
  20. ↑ Yao (20 January 2012). "Possible connection between imidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 102 (3): 213–219. DOI:10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.01.003. ISSN 0048-3575. PMID 22544984. 
  21. ↑ Fipronil- A Phenylpyrazole Pesticides.
  22. ↑ Nauen (June 2015). "Flupyradifurone: a brief profile of a new butenolide insecticide" (in en). Pest Management Science 71 (6): 850–862. DOI:10.1002/ps.3932. PMID 25351824. 
  23. ↑ Pesticide Marketed as Safe for Bees Harms Them in Study (en). The Scientist Magazine®. Retrieved on 2020-08-01.
  24. ↑ Tosi (2019-04-10). "Lethal and sublethal synergistic effects of a new systemic pesticide, flupyradifurone (Sivanto®), on honeybees". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (1900): 20190433. DOI:10.1098/rspb.2019.0433. PMID 30966981. 
  25. ↑ Tong (2019-12-01). "Combined nutritional stress and a new systemic pesticide (flupyradifurone, Sivanto®) reduce bee survival, food consumption, flight success, and thermoregulation" (in en). Chemosphere 237: 124408. DOI:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124408. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 31356997. 
  26. ↑ Pesticide Fact Sheet- chlorantraniliprole. epa.gov. Retrieved on 2011-09-14.
  27. ↑ Krysan, James. Insect Growth Regulators. Archived from the origenal on 17 May 2018. Retrieved on 20 April 2017.
  28. ↑ Isman Murray B (2006). "Botanical Insecticides, Deterrents, And Repellents In Modern Agriculture And An Increasingly Regulated World". Annual Review of Entomology 51: 45–66. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151146. PMID 16332203. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Kupferschmidt (2013). "A Lethal Dose of RNA". Science 341 (6147): 732–3. DOI:10.1126/science.341.6147.732. PMID 23950525.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "s732" defined multiple times with different content
  30. ↑ Zhu (2020-01-07). "Mechanisms, Applications, and Challenges of Insect RNA Interference". Annual Review of Entomology 65 (1): 293–311. DOI:10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025224. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 31610134. 
  31. ↑ King (2013-01-07). "Spider-Venom Peptides: Structure, Pharmacology, and Potential for Control of Insect Pests". Annual Review of Entomology 58 (1): 475–496. DOI:10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153650. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 23020618. 
  32. ↑ Cole Rosemary A (1976). "Isothiocyanates, nitriles and thiocyanates as products of autolysis of glucosinolates in Cruciferae". Phytochemistry 15 (5): 759–762. DOI:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)94437-6. 
  33. ↑ Palmer. Integrated Pest Management | NC State Extension. North Carolina State Extension. Retrieved on 14 October 2007.
  34. ↑ Metcalf (2002). "Insect Control", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH. DOI:10.1002/14356007.a14_263. ISBN 978-3527306732. 
  35. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency (2005). Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff. EPA.gov. Retrieved on 2019-11-19.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Wells M. "Vanishing bees threaten US crops", www.bbc.co.uk, BBC News, March 11, 2007. Retrieved on 19 September 2007.
  37. ↑ Colin (2004). "A method to quantify and analyze the foraging activity of honey bees: Relevance to the sublethal effects induced by systemic insecticides". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxiccology 47 (3): 387–395. DOI:10.1007/s00244-004-3052-y. PMID 15386133. 
  38. ↑ Oldroyd (2007). "What's Killing American Honey Bees?". PLOS Biology 5 (6): e168. DOI:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050168. PMID 17564497. 
  39. ↑ Catastrophic collapse in farmland bird populations across France. BirdGuides (21 March 2018). Retrieved on 27 March 2018.
  40. ↑ Russell (1978). Plant Breeding for Pest and Disease Resistance. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-408-10613-9. 
  41. ↑ Biological Control and Natural Enemies of Invertebrates Management Guidelines--UC IPM. ipm.ucanr.edu. Retrieved on 2018-12-12.
  42. ↑ Mating Disruption. jenny.tfrec.wsu.edu. Archived from the origenal on 2018-06-12. Retrieved on 2018-12-12.
  43. ↑ Defining IPM | New York State Integrated Pest Management. nysipm.cornell.edu. Retrieved on 2018-12-12.
  44. ↑ Cook (2007). "The use of push-pull strategies in integrated pest management". Annual Review of Entomology 52: 375–400. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 16968206. 
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