Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Computers

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 Outlines
 What is Computer mean?

 Characteristics of computer:

 History of development of computer.

 Generations of Computers.

 Types of computer.

 Computer Components.

 Hardware and software of computer.

 Computer Memory.

 Computer Network.

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What is Computer?
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and
processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output.
 It renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can
save the output for future use.
 It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations.
 The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to
calculate.
A computer has four functions:
a. Accept data: input data,
b. Process data: processing.
c. Stores data: Storage,
d. Produces output: output,
Characteristics of computer:
 Speed: three million calculations per second.
 Accuracy: highly accurate than human.
 Reliability: out put generated by the computer is reliable.
 Storage capacity:
 Automation: Automatically can work with out human intervention.
 Diligence: never fail during performing task (not lazy)
 Convenience: Easy to access.
 Flexibility: Can change the software according to our interest.

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History of development of computer
 ABACUS: is made up of a frame in which rods are fitted across the rounds beads sliding
on the rod. The main purpose of ABACUS was Addition and subtraction could be
performed quickly.

 NAPIER’S BONES: It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented

by John Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston. It was also the first machine to use the
decimal point
 PASCAL’S CALCOLATOR: in 1642 blaise pascal, called arithmetic machine or
adding machine.

 LIEBNIZ CALCULATOR: (1646)

 CHARLES BABBAGE ANALYTICAL ENGINE: British pioneer Charles babbage

(1791-1871), first design of modern computer. Charles babbage is named as father of
computer.
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Generations of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology
with time.
 First Generation Computers (1946-1959)
Some of the popular first generation computers are;
 ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
 EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
The first generation computers were: big in size, fast in calculation, limited commercial
use, less storage capacity, uses machine language and expensive
In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and
memory.

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 Second Generation Computers (1959-1965)
 Transistor
 which were cheap, compact(small in size) and consuming less power; it made
transistor computers faster than the first generation computers.
 Used for specific purpose
 Assembly language
 It needs maintenance
Some of the popular second generation computers are;
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604

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 Third Generation Computers
 Used IC(integrated circuit)
 A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a
computer and reduced the cost.
 The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size.
 These generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi
programming as operating system.
 uses high-level programming language such as FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC,
Pascal and C. It is a step above assembly language.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)

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Fourth Generation Computers (1971-1980)
 Used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip containing millions of
transistors and other circuit elements.
 These chips made this generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and
affordable.
 These generation computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating
system.
 The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this
generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11

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Fifth Generation Computers (1980-till date)
 The VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration).
 It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with ten million electronic
components.
 This generation computers used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software.
 The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
 Desktop
 Laptop
 Note Book
 UltraBook

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Types of computer
We can categorize computer by two ways: data handling capabilities and size.
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
1. Analogue Computer:- Are designed to process the analogue data.
 Analogue data is continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have
discrete values such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
 Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without
first converting it into numbers and codes.
 Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.
2. Digital Computer:- Are designed to perform calculations and logical operations at
high speed.
 It accepts the raw data as digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in
its memory to produce output.
 All modern computers like laptops and desktops that we use at home or office are
digital computers.

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3. Hybrid computer: Has features of both analogue and digital computer.
 It is fast like analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital
computers.
 It can process both continuous and discrete data. So it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analogue and digital data is processed.
 For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of
fuel flow into quantity and price.
On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:
1) Supercomputer: Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are
designed to process huge amount of data.
2) Mainframe computer: Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute
different processes simultaneously.

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3) Miniframe computer: It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two
or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one time.
4) Workstation: Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or
scientific applications. It has faster microprocessor, large amount of RAM and high
speed graphic adapters.
5) Microcomputer: Microcomputer is also known as personal computer. It is a general
purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a
central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops
and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.

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Computer Components
There are 5 main computer components that are given below:
 Input Devices
 CPU
 Output Devices
 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

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The operations of computer components are given below:
1) Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into
the computer. It is performed with the help of input devices.
2) Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and
instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also
stores the processed data before displaying it as output.
3) Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This
process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from
storage, processes it and then sends back the processed data to storage.
4) Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output
devices like monitor, printer and speakers.
5) Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The
control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner and
sequence.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Central processing unit carries out all important functions of a computer. It receives
instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces output
accordingly. It is also called processer, central processor and microprocessor. It
stores all important programs like operating system and application software. It also
helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other.
Generally, a CPU has three components:
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Control Unit
 Memory or Storage Unit

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 CONT…..
 Memory: It is called Random access memory (RAM). It temporarily stores data,
programs and intermediate and final results of processing.
 Control Unit: It controls and coordinates the functioning of all parts of computer. It
does not involve in processing and storing data.
 ALU: It performs arithmetic and logical functions. Arithmetic functions include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical functions mainly include
selecting, comparing and merging the data.

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Hardware and software
Hardware: All tangible physical components of computer and the devices connected
to it are hardware. Some of the popular examples of computer hardware are CPU,
motherboard, monitor, mouse and keyboard.
Software: It is a set of programs that enables the hardware to perform a specific task.
All the programs that run the computer are software. Software is of two types;
system software and application software.
1) System Software
System software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the
computer it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning.
The application programs are also controlled by system software. Operating system
is an example of system software.

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 CONT…
2) Application Software
Applications software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does
not control or coordinate the working of computer. A computer can run without
application software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as
required. Microsoft Office, Microsoft word, Adobe Photoshop and any other
software like payroll software or income tax software are application software.
Computer Memory
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and
produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts
known as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size
minus one.
Computer memory is two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The
secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.

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 CONT…
But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:
 Register memory
 Cache memory
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
Register Memory: Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer.
It is located in the CPU in the form of registers. A register temporarily holds
frequently used data, instructions and memory address that can be quickly accessed
by the CPU.
Cache Memory: It is small in size but faster than the main memory. The CPU can
access it more quickly than the primary memory. It holds the data and programs
frequently used by the CPU. So if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in
cache memory it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, it speeds
up the system performance.

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 CONT…
Primary Memory: Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.
 RAM (Volatile Memory): It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or
instructions permanently. When you switch on the computer the data and
instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.
CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the
computer the RAM loses all the data.
 ROM (Non-volatile Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not
lose its data or programs that are written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a
permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions needed to
perform important tasks like the boot process.
Secondary Memory: The storage devices in the computer or connected to the
computer are known as secondary memory of the computer. It is non-volatile in
nature so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off. The
CPU can't directly access the secondary memory. First the secondary memory data
is transferred to primary memory then CPU can access it.
The hard disk, optical disk and pen drive are some of the popular examples of
secondary memory or storage of computer.
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Memory Units
Memory units are used to measure and represent data. Some of the commonly used
memory units are:

1) Bit: The computer memory units start from bit. A bit is the smallest memory unit to
measure data stored in main memory and storage devices. A bit can have only one
binary value out of 0 and 1.

2) Byte: It is the fundamental unit to measure data. It contains 8 bits or is equal to 8

bits. Thus a byte can represent 2*8 or 256 values.

3) Kilobyte: A kilobyte contains 1024 bytes.

4) Megabyte: A megabyte contains 1024 kilobytes.

5) Gigabyte: A gigabyte contains 1024 megabyte.

6) Terabyte: A terabyte contains 1024 gigabytes.

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Computer Network
A network set up by connecting two or more computers through communication
channels is called computer network. It enables computers communicate with each
other and to share commands, data and hardware and software resources.

The popular computer networks are:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Local Area Network (LAN): As the name suggests, the local area network is
confined to small geographical area like within an office, company, school or any
other organization. Ethernet cables are used to set up LAN.

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 CONT…
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Metropolitan area network extends over a
metropolitan area like a city or town. It is set up by connecting the local area
networks of the city or town. It is ideal for the people of a particular region to share
data or information.

Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide area network covers large geographical area. It is
not confined within office, school or a town. It is mainly set up by
telecommunication lines. Big organizations like banks and multinational companies
communicate with their branches and customers through WAN. Internet that we use
is also a WAN.

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Questions??

End!!

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 Lecture 2

Binary Number Representations

on Computers

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USEFUL NUMBER SYSTEMS FOR COMPUTERS

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DECIMAL TO BINARY

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DECIMAL TO BINARY
E.g. Let's express a decimal number 1341 in binary notation.

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DECIMAL TO OCTAL

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DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

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Hexadecimal to Decimal

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Octal to Binary

Hexadecimal to Binary

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Binary to Octal

Binary to Hexadecimal

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Octal to Hexadecimal

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 EXAMPLES
1. Convert the following decimal numbers into binary and hexadecimal numbers:
a 108
b 4848
c 9000
2. Convert the following binary numbers into hexadecimal and decimal numbers:

a 1000011000
b 10000000
c 101010101010
3. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary and decimal numbers
:
a ABCDE
b 1234
c 80F

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1. 1101100B, 1001011110000B, 10001100101000B,
6CH, 12F0H, 2328H.

2. 218H, 80H, AAAH,

536D, 128D, 2730D.

3. 10101011110011011110B, 1001000110100B, 100000001111B,

703710D, 4660D, 2063D.

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 EXAMPLE
Convert 18.6875D to binary
Integral Part = 18D
18/2 => quotient=9 remainder=0
9/2 => quotient=4 remainder=1
4/2 => quotient=2 remainder=0
2/2 => quotient=1 remainder=0
1/2 => quotient=0 remainder=1
(quotient=0 stop)
Hence, 18D = 10010B
Fractional Part = .6875D
.6875*2=1.375 => whole number is 1
.375*2=0.75 => whole number is 0
.75*2=1.5 => whole number is 1
.5*2=1.0 => whole number is 1
Hence .6875D = .1011B
Therefore, 18.6875D = 10010.1011B

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 EXAMPLE

+6 00000110 -6 11111010
+13 00001101 +13 00001101
+19 00010011 +7 00000111

+6 00000110 -6 11111010
-13 11110011 -13 11110011
-7 11111001 -19 11101101

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 EXERCISE
1. Convert the decimal number 3315 to hexadecimal notation. What about the
hexadecimal equivalent of the decimal number 3315.3?
2. (59.125)10=(? )2
3. 4. (0.001)2=(?)10
4. (266)10= (?)8
5. 1111001 + 111111=?
6. 11011 * 111=?

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QUESTIONS??

END!!

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