Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh

Course Code: CSE 2203

Course Title: Digital Techniques

Presented by,
Md. Zahirul Islam
 Boolean Algebra
• In order to analyze and design digital combinational
logic circuits we need a mathematical system.
• „Binary logic system called Boolean Algebra is used.
• George Boole (1815-1864): “An investigation of the
laws of thought” – a book published in 1854 introducing
the mathematical theory of logic.
• Boolean Algebra deals with binary variables that take 2
discrete values (0 and 1), and with logic operations.
• Binary/logic variables are typically represented as
letters: A,B,C,…,X,Y,Z or a,b,c,…,x,y,z.
• Three basic logic operations:
„ AND, OR, NOT (complementation).
 Boolean Constants and Variables
• Boolean algebra allows only two values—0 and 1.
– Logic 0 can be: false, off, low, no, open switch.
– Logic 1 can be: true, on, high, yes, closed switch.

• The three basic logic operations:

– OR,
OR AND,
AND and NOT.
NOT
 Truth Tables
• A truth table describes the relationship
between the input and output of a logic
circuit.
• The number of entries corresponds to the
number of inputs.
– A 2-input table would have 22 = 4 entries.
– A 3-input table would have 23 = 8 entries.
 Truth Tables
Examples of truth tables with 2, 3, and 4 inputs.
 OR Operation With OR Gates
• The Boolean expression for the OR operation is:
X = A + B — Read as “X equals A OR B”
The + sign does not stand for ordinary
addition—it stands for the OR operation

• The OR operation is similar to addition, but when A =

1 and B = 1, the OR operation produces:

1 + 1 = 1 not 1 + 1 = 2

In the Boolean expression x = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1…

x is true (1) when A is true (1) OR B is true (1) OR C is true (1)
 OR Operation With OR Gates
• An OR gate is a circuit with two or more inputs, whose output is equal to the OR combination
of the inputs.

Truth table/circuit symbol for a two input OR gate.

 OR Operation With OR Gates
• An OR gate is a circuit with two or more inputs, whose output is equal to the OR combination
of the inputs.

Truth table/circuit symbol for a three input OR gate.

 AND Operations with AND gates
• The AND operation is similar to multiplication:
X = A • B • C — Read as “X equals A AND B AND C”
The + sign does not stand for ordinary
multiplication—it stands for the AND operation.
x is true (1) when A AND B AND C are true (1)

Truth table — Gate symbol.

AND Operations with AND gates
Truth table/circuit symbol for a three input AND gate.
 AND / OR
The AND symbol on a logic-
circuit diagram tells you output
will go HIGH only
when all inputs are HIGH.

The OR symbol means the

output will go HIGH when
any input is HIGH.
 NOT Operation
• The Boolean expression for the NOT operation:
X = A — Read as: “X equals NOT A”
The overbar represents “X equals the inverse of A”
the NOT operation.
“X equals the complement of A”

A' = A
Another indicator for
inversion is the
prime symbol (').

NOT Truth Table

 NOT Operation
A NOT circuit—commonly called an INVERTER.

This circuit always has only a single input, and the out-put
logic level is always opposite to the logic level of this input.
 NOT Operation
The INVERTER inverts (complements) the
input signal at all points on the waveform.

Whenever the input = 0, output = 1, and vice versa.

 Boolean Operations
Summarized rules for OR,
OR AND and NOT

These three basic Boolean operations

can describe any logic circuit.
 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically
• If an expression contains both AND and OR gates,
the AND operation will be performed first.

• Unless there is a parenthesis in the expression.

 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically

• Whenever an INVERTER is present, output is

equivalent to input, with a bar over it.
– Input A through an inverter equals A.
 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically

• Further examples…
 Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically

• Further examples…
 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs
• The best way to analyze a circuit made up of multiple logic
gates is to use a truth table.
– It allows you to analyze one gate or logic
combination at a time.
– It allows you to easily double-check your work.
– When you are done, you have a table of tremendous
benefit in troubleshooting the logic circuit.
 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs
• The first step after listing all input combinations
is to create a column in the truth table for each
intermediate signal (node).

Node u has been filled as the complement of A

 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs
• The next step is to fill in the values for column v.

v =AB — Node v should be HIGH

when A (node u) is HIGH AND B is HIGH
 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs
• The third step is to predict the values at node w
which is the logical product of BC.

This column is HIGH whenever B is HIGH AND C is HIGH

 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs
• The final step is to logically combine columns v
and w to predict the output x.

Since x = v + w, the x output will be HIGH when v OR w is HIGH

 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs
• Output logic levels can be determined directly from
a circuit diagram.
– Output of each gate is noted until final output is found.
• Technicians frequently use this method.
 Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs

Table of logic state

at each node of the
circuit shown.
 Implementing Circuits From
Boolean Expressions
• It is important to be able to draw a logic
circuit from a Boolean expression.
– The expression X = A • B • C, could be drawn
as a three input AND gate.
– A circuit defined by X = A + B, would use a two-
input OR gate with an INVERTER on one of
the inputs.
Implementing Circuits From
Boolean Expressions
A circuit with output y = AC + BC + ABC
contains three terms which are ORed
OR together.

…and requires a three-input OR gate.

 Implementing Circuits From
Boolean Expressions
• Each OR gate input is an AND product term,
– An AND gate with appropriate inputs can be
used to generate each of these terms.
 Implementing Circuits From
Boolean Expressions
Circuit diagram to implement x = (A + B) (B + C)
 NOR Gates and NAND Gates
• Combine basic AND,
AND OR,
OR and NOT operations.
– Simplifying the writing of Boolean expressions
• Output of NAND and NOR gates may be found
by determining the output of an AND or OR
gate, and inverting it.
– The truth tables for NOR and NAND gates show the
complement of truth tables for OR and AND gates.
 NOR Gates and NAND Gates
• The NOR gate is an inverted OR gate.
– An inversion “bubble” is placed at the output
of the OR gate, making the Boolean output
expression x = A + B
NOR Gates and NAND Gates
Output waveform of a NOR gate for
the input waveforms shown here.
 NOR Gates and NAND Gates
• The NAND gate is an inverted AND gate.
– An inversion “bubble” is placed at the output
of the AND gate, making the Boolean output
expression x = AB
NOR Gates and NAND Gates
Output waveform of a NAND gate for
the input waveforms shown here.
 NOR Gates and NAND Gates

Logic circuit with the expression x = AB • (C + D)

using only NOR and NAND gates.
 Boolean Theorems

The theorems or laws that follow may represent an

expression containing more than one variable.
 Boolean Theorems
Theorem (1) states that if any variable
is ANDed
AND with 0, the result must be 0.

Theorem (2) is also obvious

by comparison with ordinary
multiplication.

Prove Theorem (3) by trying each case.

If x = 0, then 0 • 0 = 0
If x = 1, then 1 • 1 = 1
Thus, x • x = x

Theorem (4) can be proved

in the same manner.
 Boolean Theorems
Theorem (5) is straightforward,
as 0 added to anything does not affect
value, either in regular addition or in
OR addition.

Theorem (6) states that if any variable

is ORed
OR with 1, the is always 1.
Check values: 0 + 1 = 1 and 1 + 1 = 1.

Theorem (7) can be proved by

checking for both values of x:
0 + 0 = 0 and 1 + 1 = 1.

Theorem (8) can be proved similarly.

 Boolean Theorems
Multivariable Theorems
Commutative laws

Associative laws

Distributive law
 Boolean Theorems
Multivariable Theorems
Theorems (14) and (15) do not have counterparts
in ordinary algebra. Each can be proved by
trying all possible cases for x and y.
Analysis table & factoring
for Theorem (14)
 DeMorgan’s Theorems
• DeMorgan’s theorems are extremely useful in
simplifying expressions in which a product or
sum of variables is inverted.

Theorem (16) says inverting the OR sum of two variables is the same as
inverting each variable individually, then ANDing the inverted variables.

Theorem (17) says inverting the AND product of two variables is the
same as inverting each variable individually and then ORing them.

Each of DeMorgan’s theorems can readily be proven

by checking for all possible combinations of x and y.
 DeMorgan’s Theorems
Equivalent circuits implied by Theorem (16)

The alternative symbol

for the NOR function.
 DeMorgan’s Theorems
Equivalent circuits implied by Theorem (17)

The alternative symbol

for the NAND function.
 Universality of NAND and NOR
Gates
• NAND or NOR gates can be used to create the
three basic logic expressions.
– OR,
OR AND,
AND and INVERT.
• Provides flexibility—very useful in logic circuit design.
Universality of NAND and NOR Gates
How combinations of NANDs
NAND or NORsNOR are
used to create the three logic functions.

It is possible, however, to implement any logic expression using only

NAND gates and no other type of gate, as shown.
Universality of NAND and NOR Gates
How combinations of NANDs
NAND or NORsNOR are
used to create the three logic functions.

NOR gates can be arranged to implement

any of the Boolean operations, as shown.
Universality of NAND and NOR Gates
A logic circuit to generate a signal x, that will go HIGH
whenever conditions A and B exist simultaneously, or
whenever conditions C and D exist simultaneously.

The logic expression will be x = AB + CD.

Each of the TTL ICs shown here will

fulfill the function. Each IC is a quad,
with four identical gates on one chip
Universality of NAND and NOR Gates
Possible Implementations # 1
Universality of NAND and NOR Gates
Possible Implementations #2
 Exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR
Circuits
• The exclusive OR (XOR)
XOR produces a HIGH output
whenever the two inputs are at
opposite levels.
Exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR Circuits
Exclusive OR circuit and truth table.

Output expression: x = AB + AB
This circuit produces a HIGH output whenever
the two inputs are at opposite levels.
Exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR Circuits
Traditional XOR gate symbol.

An XOR gate has only two inputs, combined so that x = AB + AB.

A shorthand way indicate the XOR output expression is: x = A B.
…where the symbol represents the XOR gate operation.
Output is HIGH only when the two inputs are at different levels.

Quad XOR chips containing four XOR gates.

74LS86 Quad XOR (TTL family)
74C86 Quad XOR (CMOS family)
74HC86 Quad XOR (high-speed CMOS)
 Exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR
Circuits
• The exclusive NOR (XOR)
XOR produces a HIGH output
whenever the two inputs are at the
same level.
– XOR and XNOR outputs are opposite.
Exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR Circuits
Exclusive NOR circuit and truth table.

Output expression: x = AB + AB
XNOR produces a HIGH output whenever
the two inputs are at the same levels.
Exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR Circuits
Traditional XNOR gate symbol.

An XNOR gate has only two inputs, combined so that x = AB + AB.

A shorthand way indicate the XOR output expression is: x = A B.
XNOR represents inverse of the XOR operation.
Output is HIGH only when the two inputs are at the same level.

Quad XNOR chips with four XNOR gates.

74LS266 Quad XNOR (TTL family)
74C266 Quad XOR (CMOS)
74HC266 Quad XOR (high-speed CMOS)
 Alternate Logic-Gate Representations
• To convert a standard symbol to an alternate:
– Invert each input and output in standard symbols.
• Add an inversion bubble where there are none.
• Remove bubbles where they exist.
 Alternate Logic-Gate
Representations

• Active-HIGH – an input/output has no inversion

bubble.
• Active-LOW – an input or output has an
inversion bubble.
 Alternate Logic-Gate
Representations
Interpretation of the two NAND gate symbols.
 Alternate Logic-Gate
Representations
Interpretation of the two OR gate symbols.
Which Gate Representation to Use
Proper use of alternate gate symbols in the circuit diagram
can make circuit operation much clearer.

Original circuit using

standard NAND
symbols.

Equivalent representation
where output Z is
active-HIGH.

Equivalent representation
where output Z is
active-LOW.
Which Gate Representation to Use
• When a logic signal is in the active state (HIGH or
LOW) it is said to be asserted.
• When a logic signal is in the inactive state (HIGH
or LOW) it is said to be unasserted.
A bar over a signal Absence of a bar
means asserted
(active) LOW.
RD means asserted
(active) HIGH
RD
Thank You