Course Outcome 3 : Investigate the passband digital

communication (Binary and M-ary ASK, PSK, FSK, QPSK, QAM)

and noise in digital systems.
Information theory
 the theoretical study of the efficient use of
bandwidth to propagate information through digital
communications systems.
 Can be used to determine the information capacity
of a data communications systems.
Information capacity
 Is a measure of how much information can be
propagated through a communications system.
 Is a function of bandwidth & transmission line.
 Represents the number of independent symbols that
can be carried through a system in a given unit of
time.
 Basic digital symbol  bit rate (Rb)
Rb=number of bits transmitted during one second

 Express in bits per second [b/s, bit/s, bps]

Hartley’s Law
 The relationship among bandwidth, transmission
time and information capacity.

 Information capacity is a linear function of BW and

transmission time and directly proportional to both

I  Bt  is a linear function of

bandwidth & transmission
time.
I = information capacity (bps)
 proportional : B and I.
B= Bandwidth (Hz)
T= transmission time (s)
Shannon’s Law
 Shannon relates the information capacity of a communication
channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

  SNR better performance

higher the information capacity

 S  S
I  B log 2 1   or I  3.32 B log 10 1  
 N  N
I = information capacity (bps)
B= Bandwidth (Hz)
S/N= signal to noise power ratio (unitless)
Example 1
For a standard telephone circuit of 30dB and a bandwidth of
2.7kHz, compute the Shannon limit for information capacity.
Solution.
Bandwidth, B=2.7kHz
Signal to noise power ratio, S/N (unitless) = 1000
 S
I  3.32 B log 10 1  
 N
= 3.32 x 2700 x log10(1+1000)
= 26.7 kbps.
• This indicates that 26.7 kbps can be propagated through 2.7kHz
channel.
• BUT, it cannot be done with a binary system.

To achieve an information rate of 26.7 kbps through a

2.7kHz, each symbol transmitted must contains MORE
than 1 bit
Example 2
Determine the channel capacity for tele-printer
channel with 300Hz bandwidth and a signal- to-
noise ratio of 3dB
Solution.
The SNR given in dB needs to be converted. Then, for SNR
of 3dB, 10logSNR = 3dB
SNR(unitless) = log-1(3/10)= 1.995

Channel capacity;  S 
I  3.32 B log 10  1  
 N
 996  log (1  1.995)
10

 474.64 bps
Example 3
Determine the channel capacity for teleprompter channel
with 380 Hz bandwidth and a signal to noise ratio of 40
dBm.
 S 
C  B log 2 1  
Solution :  N 

1. Convert 40dbm->> unitless

2. Apply Shannon's Law
M-ary Encoding
 is a term derived from the word binary.
 M represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions,
levels or combinations possible for a given number of binary
variables.
 To encode at a level higher than binary.
 For example, a digital signal with 4 possible conditions (levels,
frequencies, phases, etc.)  is an M-ary system where M=4.

N  log 2 M 2N  M
For example,
number of bits necessary • 1 bit, 21 = 2 conditions are
possible.
number of conditions,
• 2 bit, 22 = 4 conditions are
level or combinations
possible.
possible with N bits.
• 3 bit, 23 = 8 conditions are
possible.
Baud
 refers to the rate of change of a signal on the
transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.
 Is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate or symbol
rate
 Unit in symbol per second & baud.
 Is transmitted once at a time
 However, a baud may be represent
more than one information bit. 1
 Hence, the baud of a data baud 
ts
communications systems may
be considerably less than the symbol rate
bit rate. (baud per time of one signalling
second) element (seconds)
Baud

 A signalling element (binary)  symbol encoded

changed in the amplitude, frequency or phase 
transmits one bit at a time  form of discrete voltage
levels  presenting logic 1s (high) and 0s (low).
 In binary systems (binary FSK and binary QPSK and 8-
PSK)  bps is always greater than baud.
Bit Rate
 The capacity (C) of a channel is the number of bits
per second that are transmitted.
 Bit rate or data rate – number of bits transmitted (data
element) in 1 second.
 Data Rate – # of data elements (bits) sent in 1 sec –
unit: bps

Capacity, C = N X B (bits/sec)

Bit rate = (bits/Baud)/(Baud/sec)

 Baud Rate
 A unit of transmission rate, modulation rate & symbol rate
 Number of signal elements per second
 Signal Rate – number of signal elements/pulses sent in 1 sec –
unit: baud
 Rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after
encoding & modulation.
 Unit: symbol per symbol @ baud
Bit rate (bps)
1 fb
baud   ( Baud / sec)
ts N

No. of bits per signal

Time of one signaling element
Element (s)
Data Rate vs. Baud Rate
 One goal of data communications is to increase data rate
(speed of transmission) while decreasing signal rate
(bandwidth requirements).
SNR
Data Rate Vs. Baud Rate
Example 4
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal element.
If 1000 signal elements are sent per second, determine the
baud rate and bit rate.
Solution:

Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)

Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

Example
 The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6
bits, what is the baud rate?

Solution:

Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

Nyquist rate
 If a channel has bandwidth BW, then the narrowest
pulse (bit) that can be transmitted over that channel
has width τ = 1/2BW
 Therefore the fastest rate at which pulses can be
transmitted into the channel is given by the Nyquist's
rate ; Cmax = 2 BW bits/second
 This rate is the theoretical maximum rate that is
achievable through a baseband channel, with no
Intersymbol interference (IS).
Nyquist Bandwidth fb  2B
 Nyquist's state that binary digital signal can be propagated through
an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to 2 times the
bandwidth of the medium.
 The minimum theoretical bandwidth to propagate  minimum
Nyquist bandwidth or minimum Nyquist frequency.
 However, if more than 2 levels are used for signaling, more than one
bit may be transmitted at a time and its possible to propagate signal
at a rate higher than 2B.
Nyquist formulation: Multilevel
signaling
f b  f s N  2BN  2B log 2 M
fb = channel capacity (bps)
fs=baud (symbols per second)
B= minimum Nyquist Bandwidth (Hz)
M= number of discrete signal @ voltage levels
N=number of bits encoded into each symbol

 fb  fb
B    
 2 log 2 M  2 N
M-ary Encoding
 M – represent digit that corresponds to the number of
condition/levels for a given number of binary variables
 Number of bits necessary to produce a given number of
condition can be expressed as :

N  log 2 M or 2  M N

N : number of bit encoded / number of bits necessary to produce a given

number of condition
M : number of output conditions/levels for a given number of binary variables
Exercise 1
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate
of 1000 baud. Determine :
a. Data elements are carried by each signal element
b. Numbers of levels
Digital Modulation techniques
 Digital modulation is the process by which a sequence of pulses (message)
of duration T is transformed into a sequence of sinusoidal waveforms, s(t) of
duration T.
 The general form of the modulated signal is:

v (t )  V sin (2  . f t   )
 Digital modulation can then be defined as the process whereby the
amplitude, frequency, phase or a combination of them is varied in
accordance with the information to be transmitted
 A scheme that uses:
 amplitude is called ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
 frequency is called FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
 phase is called PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
Digital Data, Analog Signal
 Mainly use is public telephone system
 has frequencies range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
 use modem (modulator-demodulator)
 MODEM ( short for modulator-demodulator) is an electronic device that
converts a computer’s digital signals into specific frequencies to travel over
telephone or cable television lines.
 At the destination, the receiving modem demodulates the frequencies back
into digital data.
 Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
 Binary information (a sequence of pulses) signal directly modulates the
amplitude of an analog carrier
 Sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM) or on-off keying
(OOK) modulation.
 Mathematically expressed as: v( ask) t   1  vm t  A coswc t 
2 

Vask(t)= ASK wave

Vm(t)= digital information (modulating signals )(volts)
A/2= unmodulated carrier amplitudes (volts)
wc = analog carrier frequency (radians/s)
 If M =2, the amplitude is either 0 or 1. The scheme is called Binary ASK.
Both freq. and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes
Use switch logic where logic 1 (high amplitude)= ON & logic 0 (low
amplitude) = OFF (ON-OFF Keying)
If M > 2, each waveform carry log2(M) bits. This scheme is therefore
more bandwidth efficient. It is called M-ary ASK.

For every change in the

input binary data stream,
There is ONE change in the
ASK waveform

DAM: Digital Amplitude Modulation

 ASK Modulation
 At the transmitter, the modulating signal( binary
data stream) is 0110001011
 The carrier signal is an analog signal with high
frequency carrier sine wave
 ASK Demodulation
 At the Rx, the data stream need to extracted.

ASK modulated waveform

Step 1 – Rectify the input ASK

waveform to contain only positive
signal

Step 2 – Pass through a LPF to

remove the carrier component.

Step 3 – Pass through a voltage comparator to

get a true copy of the original data stream
 ASK properties
 Baud = Bit rate
 Bit rate = Minimum Nyquist bandwidth(B)
fb fb
Baud   Bandwidth and Baud   f b  Bandwidth
N 1

 Digital information is relatively low quality – highly affecting

by noise, fading &interference
 Low-cost digital modulation
 Applications : Seldom used except for very low-speed
telemetry circuits
Exercise 1
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, find the
baud rate and bit rate.
fb
Baud   Bandwidth
N
 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
 Two frequencies are generated, one corresponding to a binary zero (Space
frequency) and the other a binary one (Mark frequency)
 FSK is reliable in the presence of noise since each signal has only two possible
states
 FSK is also used in high-frequency radio systems to transmit teletype information
 FSK can be represented as : v
FSK t   Vc cos 2  fc  vm t  f  t
vFSK(t) = FSK waveform
vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal(+1 or -1 volt)
vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volt)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
Frequency deviation, f = change (shift) in the carrier frequency (Hz)
FSK waveform and truth table
 It can be seen that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as the time the FSK
output is a mark or a space frequency (ts).
 Thus the bit time equals the time of an FSK signaling element and the bit rate
equals the baud.
 The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting
N=1 1 f f
Baud   b  b  f b
ts N 1

‘1’ : HIGH frequency 34

‘0’ : LOW frequency
 Frequency deviation,
FSK properties f m f s
f 
2
where :Δf = frequency deviation;
 Baud =Bit rate fm = mark freq.
fs = space freq.
 Minimum bandwidth is not determined from digital
modulation rule =(Baud = fb/N=Bandwidth)  NO!
 The bandwidth for FSK is given as :
BW   f s  f b    f m  f b 
(since modulus (fs – fm) = 2f)
 f s  fm  2 fb
 2f  f b 
B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)
f = frequency deviation (|fm-fs|)/2 (Hz)
 Multiple FSK (MFSK)
 A signal that is more bandwidth efficient, but also more susceptible to error,
is multiple FSK (MFSK), in which more than two frequencies are used.
 More bandwidth efficient compared to BFSK
 More susceptible to noise compared to BFSK
 MFSK signal :

si (t )  A cos( 2f i t ), 1 i  M
where
f i  f c  ( 2i  1  M ) f d
f c  the carrier frequency
f d  the difference frequency
M  number of different signal elements  2 L
L  number of bits per signal element
 Multiple FSK (MFSK)
 MFSK signal:
si (t )  A cos( 2f i t ), 1 i  M
where
f i  f c  ( 2i  1  M ) f d
M  number of different signal elements  2 L
L  number of bits per signal element
 Period of signal element(Baud)
Ts  LTb , Ts : signal element period Tb :bit period

 Minimum frequency separation

1 / Ts  2 f d  1 /( LTb )  2 f d  1 / Tb  2Lf d (bit rate)

 MFSK signal bandwidth:

Wd  M (2 f d )  2Mf d
 Example – Figure shows an example of MFSK with M = 4.
 An input bit streams of 20 bits is encoded 2 bits at a time, with each of the four
possible 2-bit combinations transmitted as a different frequency.
 The display in the figure shows the frequency transmitted (y-axis) as a function of
time (x-axis).
 Each column represents a time Ts in which a single 2-bit signal element is
transmitted.
 The shaded rectangle in the column indicates the frequency transmitted during that
time unit.

Note: fd = ∆f
 FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK –receiver is
looking for specific frequency changes over a number of
intervals, so voltage (noise) spikes can be ignored.
 Disadvantage – requires higher BW (the actual increase
depends on the 2 frequencies)
 The higher the freq and the more they change from each
other, the wider the BW required.
Exercise 2
Determine the bandwidth and baud for an FSK signal with a
mark frequency of 32kHz, a space frequency of 24kHz
and a bit rate of 4kbs.

f m f s BW   f s  f b    f m  f b 
f 
2  f s  fm  2 fb
fb  2f  f b 
Baud   fb
N
 Binary -Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
or Phase-Shift Keying
 If M =2, the scheme is called Binary PSK and the phase switches between
2 values, 0 and Π(180 degrees)
 Other name of BPSK is phase reversal keying (PRK) and bi-phase
modulation
 With BPSK = 2 phases are possible for the carrier : logic 0 and logic 1
 In PSK, the phase of the carrier is shifted to represent data.
 Uses two phases (0 and 180°) to represent the two binary digits.
 The resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is:
Bandwidth consideration for BPSK
Mathematically BPSK can be expressed as:

BPSK output  sin 2f a t  sin 2f c t 


1
2
 1
2
 
cos 2  f c  f a  t  cos 2  f c  f a  t 
Where:
fa = maximum fundamental freq. of binary input (Hz)
fc = reference carrier freq. (Hz)

fb fb
Baud  
N 1
Baud  fb  Bandwidth
fb
Fundamental frequency of the binary input signal, fa 
2 N
BPSK Frequency Spectrum
Power, Watt

Frequency, Hz
fc-fa fc fc+fa
Exercise 3
Determine the bandwidth and baud for a BPSK modulator
with carrier frequency of 40MHz and input bit rate of 500
kbps. Sketch the output spectrum.

fb fb
Baud  
N 1
Baud  fb  Bandwidth
fb
Fundamental frequency of the binary input signal, fa 
2 N
 Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying
(QPSK)
 QPSK is an angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital
modulation.
 M-ary encoding scheme where N=2 and M=4,
 The term “quadrature” implies that there are 4 possible
phases (4-PSK) which the carrier can have at a given time
produce 4 output phases (+45, +135,-45,-135)
 Requires four input conditions (00,01,10,11), group of 2
bits called dibits.
 With QPSK, it can either double the data rate compared
to a BPSK system while maintaining the bandwidth of the
signal or maintain the data-rate of BPSK but ½ the
bandwidth needed.
QPSK : (a) Truth table; (b) Constellation
diagram; (c) QPSK modulated signal
(b) Constellation diagram
(a)Truth table

(c) QPSK Modulated signal

QPSK Modulator
 The binary data that is conveyed by this waveform is: 11001001
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

 The odd bits, highlighted here, contribute to the Quadrature-phase component:

1010
 The even bits, contribute to the In-phase component: 1001
The odd bits, highlighted here, contribute to the
Quadrature-phase component: 1010
The even bits, contribute to the In-phase
component: 1001
 QPSK Bandwidth Consideration
Mathematically QPSK can be expressed as:
 f 
QPSK output   sin 2 b t sin 2f c t 
 4 
1   f   1   f  
 cos 2  f c  b  t   cos 2  f c  b  t 
2   4   2   4  

fb
BW  Baud 
N
fb
fa
2N
Upper frequency  fc  fa
Lower frequency  fc - fa
QPSK Frequency Spectrum
Power, Watt

Frequency, Hz
fc-fa fc fc+fa
Exercise 4
For a QPSK system, with the following input bit sequence
100010101101, an input bit rate equal to 20Mbps :
1. Draw the QPSK modulated waveform, state assumption
used.
2. Determine the minimum bandwidth required.

3. Sketch the QPSK modulated waveform

fb
BW  Baud 
N
f
fa b
2N
Upper frequency  fc  fa
Lower frequency  fc - fa
100010101101
EVEN-I CHANNEL : 0 0 0 0 1 1
ODD-Q CHANNEL : 1 0 1 1 1 0
DATA (I,Q): 01 00 01 01 11 10
 8-PSK
 N=3, M=8
 3 bits encoded, forming tribits and producing 3 different output phases.
f
fa  b
6
 Minimum Nyquist: BW  Baud  fb
3
 16-PSK
 4 bits (quadbits) input producing 16 different output phases.
fb
fa 
8
fb
BW  Baud 
4

16-PSK: (a) truth table; (b) constellation diagram

 Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
 Similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the
amplitude and phase of the transmitted carrier
 Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.
 Lower susceptible to noise than ASK, higher bit rate than PSK
8-QAM modulator: (a) truth table; (b) phasor
diagram; (c) constellation diagram
16-QAM modulator: (a) truth table; (b) phasor
diagram; (c) constellation diagram
16-QAM

Better susceptible to noise because

-Not all possibilities are used
-Sometimes, amplitude and phase have a relationship
Multi-level (M-ary) Phase and Amplitude
Modulation

16 QAM 16 PSK 16 APSK

 Amplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to transmit several
bits per symbol.
 Often referred to as linear as they require linear amplification.
 More bandwidth-efficient, but more susceptible to noise.
 For M=4, 16QAM has the largest distance between points, but requires
very linear amplification. 16PSK has less stringent linearity
requirements, but has less spacing between constellation points, and is
therefore more affected by noise.
 M-ary schemes are more bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to
noise
 Summary

 ASK
› demodulation: only the presence or absence of a sinusoid
in a given time interval needs to be determined
› advantage: simplicity
› disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise
interference–noise usually (only) affects the amplitude,
therefore ASK is the modulation technique most affected
by noise
› application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber
 Summary
 FSK
› demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine
which of two possible frequencies is present at a given
time
› advantage: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK –
receiver is looking for specific frequency changes over a
number of intervals, so voltage (noise) spikes can be
ignored
› disadvantage: FSK spectrum is 2x ASK spectrum
› application: over voice lines, in high-frequency radio
transmission, etc.
 Summary
 PSK
› demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine the
phase of received sinusoid with respect to some reference
phase
› advantage: (i) PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK,
while it requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK; (ii)
more efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are
possible.
› disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery
process, than in ASK and FSK.
Applications

64
 Bandwidth Efficiency
 Bandwidth efficiency describes the ability of a modulation scheme to
accommodate data within a limited bandwidth.
 Used to compare the modulation performance

Transmissi on Rate(bps)
B 
Minimum Bandwith( Hz )
 Example 1
Determine the bandwidth efficiency for 16-QAM
Modulator. Given fb=20 Mbps
Solution .

Bit rate,fb
Transmissi on Rate(bps)
B 
Minimum Bandwith( Hz )
Bandwidth =
Baud =fb/N
 Probability of error P(e)
 A theoretical expectation of the bit error rate for a given
system(Mathematically)

 A function of carrier to noise power ratio & number of possible

encoding used

 Is a function of average energy per bit to noise power density ratio

and the number of encoding used.

 A system has a P(e) of 10-5(0.00001). Mathematically, you can

expect 1 bit error in every 100,000 bits transmitted
 Bit Error Rate (BER) Indicates the
quality of the link.
 In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of received bits of
a data stream over a communication channel that have been altered due to noise,
interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors.
 If the medium between the transmitter and receiver is good and the signal to
noise ratio is high, then the bit error rate will be very small
 The BER, or quality of the digital link, is calculated from the number of bits
received in error related to the number of bits transmitted.
 BER= (Bits in Error)/(Total bits received)
 unitless (often expressed as a %)
 Usually, a BER of 10-3 is considered acceptable for a voice link, and 10-9 for a
data link.
 Example 2
A FSK modulator has an input bit stream of 11101 11001 and an
input bit rate equal to 38Mbps. Identify the BER when the
received bit sequence is 10110 00110.

Solution.
BER= (Bits in Error)/(Total bits received) x 100%

Input : 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
Received :
Bits in Error : X X X X X X X X
Carrier-to-Noise power ratio
 The bit error rate can be measured and plotted in terms of
Carrier/Noise ( C/N ), or it can be in terms of Eb/No.
Carrier power stated in watts or dBm :
C(watts)
C(dBm)  10 log
0.001
Thermal Noise Power in watts : N  KTB( watts)
KTB
Thermal Noise Power in dBm : N ( dBm)  10 log
0.001
K = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38x10-23 joules/Kelvin)
T = Temperature (0K=-273C)
B= Bandwidth
Carrier to noise power ratio: C ( watts)  C
N KTB

C C
In dB; ( dB )  10 log  C (dBm )  N (dBm )
N N

Energy per bit: Eb  CTb ( J / bit )  J / bit 

C
fb
C
Eb( dBJ )  10 log  10 log C  10 log fb
fb

Eb = Energy of a single bit(J/bit)

Tb= Time of a single bit(sec)
C= Carrier power(watts)
Noise power density, No
The thermal noise power normalized to a 1Hz bandwidth

 KT W / Hz 
N KTB
N0  
B B

N
In dBm; N o ( dBm)  10 log  10 log B
0.001
 N (dbm)  10 log B
Energy per bit – to- noise power
density ratio,Eb/No
•Used to compare 2 or more digital modulation schemes
that use different transmission rates(bit rates), modulation
schemes(FSK,PSK,QAM) or encoding techniques(M-ary)
Eb C / f b CB C B
   
N 0 N / B Nf b N f b

Eb/No (dB) :
Eb C B
(dB)  10 log  10 log or 10 log Eb – 10 log No
No N fb
 Performance Comparisons of various Digital
Modulation Schemes (BER=10-6)
Table 1

Eb/No less = better

 Example 3
Determine the minimum BW required to achieve a P(e) of 10-6
for an 8-PSK system operating at 10Mbps with carrier-to-
noise power ratio of 11 dB.
Solution
Eb C / f b CB C B
   
N 0 N / B Nf b N f b

Value form Table 1

B
10 log (dB) = 14 dB – 11dB = 3dB
fb
= antilog 0.3 = 2

B = 2 x 10 Mbps = 20 MHz
Example 4
For a 8-PSK system and the given parameters as below.
C=10-13 W fb = 30 kbps
N=0.06 x 10-15 W B = 60 kHz
Determine:
a) Carrier power in dBm
b) Noise power in dBm
c) Noise power density in dBm
d) Energy per bit in dBJ
e) Carrier –to-noise power ratio
f) Energy per bit – to- noise power density ratio, Eb/No
 a) Carrier power ,C(dBm) = -100dBm

b)Noise power ,N(dBm) = -132.2dBm

c)Noise power density, No (dBm)= -180dBm

d) Energy per bit, Eo (dBJ)= -174.77dBJ

e) Carrier –to-noise power ratio(C/N) = 32.2dB

f) Eb/No ratio = 35.2dB

Solution.  10
 10 log 
13

CdBm  0.001   100dBm
 
 0.06 x1015 
N dBm  10 log    132.2dBm
 0.001 
N o  W / Hz   N dBm  10 log B  132.2  47.78  180dBm
N
B
C
Eb  10 log    10 log C  10 log fb
 fb 
 10 log( 1013 )  10 log( 30k )
 130  44.77  174.77dBJ
C
 10 log C  10 log N  10 log( 1013 )  10 log( 0.06 x1015 )
N
 130   162.2   32.2dB
Eb C  B
 10 log    10 log   
N0 N   fb 
 60k 
 32.2dB  10 log  
 30k 
 32.2dB  3db  35.2dB